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1. Read and translate the text: PLANT ORGANS The vegetative body of a plant consists of three major organs: the leaf, the stem, and the root: The shoot is an organ system composed of both stem and attached leaves. The leaves attach to the stem at areas of restricted stem elongation called nodes. Together the blade and petiole constitute a leaf. What is shown here is a simple leaf with one blade at the end of the petiole. Other species may have compound leaves, with more than one blade at the end of the petiole or along the side of the petiole. Also attached at the node of the stem is an axillary (lateral) bud. This can differentiate into either a branch shoot or a flower depending upon species and environmental conditions. The most critical function of the leaf is photosynthesis, but also vital is evaporative cooling. The leaf has an upper and lower epidermis, covered with cutin (wax) to reduce water loss. The upper epidermis has window/lens functions to permit light to enter the leaf. The palisade mesophyll is specialized for photosynthesis. The spongy mesophyll can do some photosynthesis but is a major site of evaporative cooling. The lower epidermis includes guard cells that can regulate the size of the stoma between them and thus regulate gas exchange. Between the two layers of mesophyll are veins. Veins have xylem tissue to conduct water and minerals from the soil, up the plant, and into the leaf for photosynthesis and evaporative cooling. Veins have phloem tissue to conduct sugar and amino acids from the leaf to the rest of the plant. The stem is composed of the nodes, where leaves and lateral buds are attached and therefore is an area of restricted stem elongation, and internodes, the portions of the stem between nodes that elongate tremendously in some species and in some seasons. The critical function of the stem is positioning and supporting the leaves in sunlight, but also vital is transporting water and minerals up from the root and water, sugar, and organic solutes down from the leaves to the root, or up to flowers, fruits, and seeds. The stem grows from its tip, the apical bud or apical meristem. Below the soil the plant continues in the form of roots. A central stout primary root may develop in girth to form a taproot as in carrots, or it may send out many lateral roots to form a branching fibrous root system. Many plants compromise and have both. These penetrate the soil by growth just proximal to the root tip or root apex. Anchorange would be a critical function for the root, but uptake of water and minerals from the soil would be vital. Vocabulary: shoot – пагін stem – стебло elongation – подовження node – вузол blade – листкова пластинка petiole – черешок листка epidermis – шкірка (листка), епідерміс axillary (lateral) bud – пазушна (бічна) брунька vital – життєвий evaporative cooling – охолодження випаровуванням mesophyll – мезофіл palisade mesophyll – палісадний мезофіл spongy mesophyll – губчастий мезофіл stoma – продихи vein – жилка xylem – ксилема phloem – флоема internode – міжвузля apical bud – верхівкова брунька apical meristem – апікальна меристема taproot – головний (стрижневий) корінь lateral root – бічний корінь fibrous root system – мичкувата (волокниста) коренева система root apex – верхівка кореня root cap – кореневий чохлик root hairs – кореневі волоски 2. Read and try to remember the vocabulary. 3. Learn the definitions: Axil – the angle between the upper side of the stem and a leaf, branch, or petiole. Axillary bud – a bud that develops in the axil. Bud – undeveloped – Internode Lateral the shoot shoot area (branch) of from the – which stem an leaves between offshoot or flower any two the stem of parts grow. adjacent nodes. of a plant. Leaf – an outgrowth of a plant that grows from a node in the stem. Most leaves are flat and contain chloroplasts; their main function is to convert energy from sunlight into chemical energy (food) through photosynthesis. Node – the part of the stem of a plant from which a leaf, branch, or aerial root grows; each Petiole plant – a leaf has stalk; it attaches many the leaf nodes. to the plant. Root – a plant structure that obtains food and water from the soil, stores energy, and provides support for the plant. Most roots grow underground. Root cap – a structure at the ends (tips) of the roots. It covers and protects the apical meristem Stem – (the (also actively called the growing axis) is the region) main of support the of the root. plant. Tap root – the main root of some plants; the tap root extends straight down under the plant. Terminal bud – a bud located at the apex (tip) of the stem. Terminal buds have special tissue, called apical meristem, consisting of cells that can divide indefinitely. 2. Check yourself: 1. What is a plant composed of? 2. What is the shoot? 3. What are the parts of the leaf? 4. What are the functions of the leaf? 5. What is the stem composed of? 6. What are the functions of the stem? 7. What part of a plant grows below the soil? 8. What are the functions of the root? 3. Fill in the gaps: 1. … attaches the leaf to the plant. 2. … is an organ system composed of both stem and attached leaves. 3. Undeveloped shoot from which leaves or flower parts grow is called … . 4. Between the two layers of mesophyll are … . 5. … is the main support of the plant. 6. Together the blade and petiole constitute … . 7. … is the main root of some plants that extends straight down under the plant. 8. … grows from its tip, the apical bud or apical meristem. 9. A bud that develops in the axil is called … . 10. … is an outgrowth of a plant that grows from a node in the stem. 4. Translate into English: 1. Рослина складається із стебла, кореня і листка. 2. Черешок і листкова пластинка утворюють листок. 3. Стебло – основна підтримка рослини. 4. Корінь рослини росте під землею. 5. Міжвузля – це ділянки стебла між вузлами. GRAMMAR The Future Perfect Tense (Майбутній перфект ний час) Future Perfect утворюється з допоміжного дієслова to have у Future Indefinite та дієприкметника минулого часу (Past Participle) основного дієслова: I shall have done We shall have done He will have done You will have done She will have done They will have done It will have done У питальній формі перше допоміжне дієслово shall/will ставиться перед підметом: Will he have done? У заперечній формі після першого допоміжного дієслова shall/will вживається частка not: He will not have done. В усному мовленні вживаються такі ж скорочення, як і в Future Indefinite: I’ll have done; I shan’t have done; He won’t have done. Future Perfect вживається для вираження майбутньої дії, що закінчиться до певного моменту або до початку іншої дії в майбутньому: You’ll have forgotten me by then. До того часу ви мене забудете. I’ll have read the story by the time Я прочитаю оповідання, поки ти you come back. повернешся. У підрядних реченнях часу та умови замість Future Perfect вживається Present Perfect: Her room shall be ready before she has finished her tea. We’ll get a new flat when they ЇЇ кімната буде готова, перш ніж вона закінчить пити чай. Ми одержимо нову квартиру, коли збудують цей будинок. have built the house. Time expressions used with Future Perfect: Before, by, by then, by the time, until (is used only in negative sentences with this tense). The Future Perfect-in-the-Past Tense (Майбутній перфект ний час з точки зору минулого) Future Perfect-in-the-Past утворюється так само, як і Future Perfect, але замість допоміжних дієслів shall і will вживаються відповідно should і would: I should have done We would have done He would have done You would have done She would have done They would have done It would have done Future Perfect-in-the-Past вживається замість Future Perfect переважно в підрядних додаткових реченнях, якщо дієслово головного речення виражає минулу дію: I thought you would have gone by now. Я думав, що вже не застану вас. У підрядних реченнях часу й умови замість Future Perfect-in-the-Past вживається Past Perfect: He said that he would give me the book when he had read it. Він сказав, що дасть мені цю книжку, коли прочитає її.