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Skyline - The Big Sky Undergraduate Journal
Volume 1 | Issue 1
Article 13
2013
The Role of Women in Athletic Training: A Review
of the Literature
Leslie Martin
Eastern Washington University, [email protected]
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Recommended Citation
Martin, Leslie (2013) "The Role of Women in Athletic Training: A Review of the Literature," Skyline - The Big Sky Undergraduate
Journal: Vol. 1 : Iss. 1 , Article 13.
Available at: http://skyline.bigskyconf.com/journal/vol1/iss1/13
This Literature Review is brought to you for free and open access by Skyline - The Big Sky Undergraduate Journal. It has been accepted for inclusion in
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The Role of Women in Athletic Training: A Review of the Literature
Acknowledgments
Faculty Mentor - Jeffrey Kawaguchi, PT, Ph.D., ATC,
This literature review is available in Skyline - The Big Sky Undergraduate Journal: http://skyline.bigskyconf.com/journal/vol1/iss1/
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Martin: Role of Women in Athletic Training
Context: Since the passage of Title IX in 1972, we have seen an
exponential growth of participation of females in sports at all levels. However,
this growth has not been matched by a similar growth in all areas that support the
endeavors of female athletes. One such area is athletic training, specifically in
leadership positions.
Background: The National Athletic Trainers’ Association was founded in
1950. For many years while the profession was expanding, males dominated both
enrollments in the NATA and the clinical setting, but women have progressed
into becoming almost an equally dominant gender in the profession of Athletic
Training.
Objective: The objective of this literature review will attempt to
synthesize the current research literature in an attempt to understand the past,
present, and future of women in the profession of Athletic Training.
Format: Narrative review of the literature
Conclusions: In spite of equal membership in numbers in the National
Athletic Trainers’ Association, women are not equal to men in higher
administrative positions and some male-dominated sports. Much of the credit for
the continued growth of women in the athletic training profession goes to the
female athletic trainers who have faced gender bias and discrimination and broken
down many of the professional barriers.
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Introduction
Since the passage of Title IX in 1972, we have seen an exponential growth
of participation of females in sports at all levels. According to a report by the
NCAA (2012), the number of female athletes during 1981-1982 was 64,390. By
2011-2012, the participation rate had increased to 195,657. However, this growth
has not been matched by a similar growth in areas that support the endeavors of
female athletes. One such area is athletic training, specifically in leadership
positions.
Today, much of the active population has a general knowledge of athletic
training as a profession, but lack an understanding of the specifics. Athletic
trainers, not to be confused with strength and conditioning coaches or personal
trainers, are certified health-care professionals that are regulated by a standard of
care for practice and standards for education certification. They research and
practice in a variety of settings as governed by the National Athletic Trainers’
Association (nata.org). According to the NATA, athletic training encompasses
“the prevention, diagnosis, and intervention of emergency, acute, and chronic
medical conditions involving impairment, functional limitations, and disabilities”
(nata.org). Athletic Trainers may be employed under various areas of sport and
education, including professional sports, collegiate sports, high schools, clinics
and hospitals, military bases, the Olympics, performing arts, and in occupational
health settings (nata.org; Winterstein, 2009). The mission of the NATA is to
“enhance the quality of health care provided by certified athletic trainers and to
advance the athletic training profession”(nata.org). In order to become a Certified
Athletic Trainer, education from a nationally accredited program is necessary and
subsequent passing of the Board of Certification Exam.
In the beginning years of athletic training, there were no females in the
National Athletic Trainer’s Association (nata.org). However, as years past,
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women began to enter in the field and embarked on a journey that would lead to
breaking down barriers of a male-dominated profession and organization.
History
The National Athletic Trainers’ Association (NATA) was founded in
1950. The first meeting took place in Kansas City, where about 200 athletic
trainers gathered to discuss the future and definition of their profession (nata.org).
From then on, the athletic training profession was governed by the NATA, which
provided members with professional standards for research and practice.
Headquarters for the NATA were originally located in Greenville, North Carolina,
but were later moved to Dallas, Texas (nata.org). The country was then divided
into regions for purposes of voting, holding conferences, and state meetings.
During the first 16 years of its existence, there were no female members of the
NATA. Finally, a woman named Dorothy “Dot” Cohen, a graduate student,
became the first female member of the National Athletic Trainers’ Association in
1966 (Winterstein, 2009).
In 1972 two events occurred that would begin to set the stage for women
to become a part of the NATA and the Athletic Training profession. Title IX, or
the Education Amendments of 1972 stated that “no person in the United States
shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits
of, or be subjected to discrimination under any education program or activity
receiving Federal financial assistance” (dol.gov). With this Amendment, women
became more active members and had increased opportunities in high school and
collegiate athletics. This would also open the door for female athletic trainers to
provide competent care in injury prevention, acute management, and
rehabilitation (Winterstein, 2009). As more women became competitive athletes,
more women became interested in the career of athletic training. The second
significant event that occurred in 1972 was that Sherry Bagagian became the first
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woman to sit for the Board of Certification (NATA) examination (Winterstein,
2009). By 1974, there were 3,444 members of the NATA with only one or two
female members (nata.org). At this time, far less than 1% of the association
members were female.
According to archive records found on the NATA website and as noted in
a text by Winterstein (2009), not long after Bagagian sat for the Board of
Certification (BOC) exam, Gail Weldon also joined the NATA and sat for the
NATA examination test. She became an icon of women in the athletic training
profession with a wide array of accomplishments. She was the first female
athletic trainer hired by the U.S. Olympic Committee in 1976, the first female
head athletic trainer for the 1979 Pan American Games, and the first female chief
athletic trainer for the 1980 U.S. Olympic Team. She was also the director of
athletic training and physical therapy for the 1984 Olympic Games, and was
selected again by the Committee as the Medical Director for the 1991 U.S.
Olympic Festival. In 1980, Weldon left her position as the Head Women’s
Athletic Trainer at UCLA to become the founder and owner of Women’s Training
Room and Conditioning Center. Weldon was the first woman inducted into the
NATA Hall of Fame in 1995, four years after her death. Today, the NATA holds
a Gail Weldon Award of Excellence, which recognizes one athletic trainer each
year who displays a “commitment to mentoring, professional development and
life balancing for women athletic trainers or significant contributions to improve
the health care of females provided by athletic trainers”(nata.org). According to
the NATA Hall of Fame website, Gail Weldon became known as one of the most
influential pioneers in the athletic training profession, making advocacy and
recognition her main goals. She also served as a role model for all women,
paving the road for women to become active members of the NATA and hold a
strong position in the profession.
From this research, it is apparent that there were a few pivotal turning
points in the history of women in Athletic Training following the years after Gail
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Weldon’s first U.S. Olympic Team medical staff selection in 1976. In 1984 Janice
Daniels, District 8 Director, became the first woman elected to the NATA Board.
Then in 1992 Eve Becker-Doyle was hired as the executive director of the NATA
and was the first woman to hold the position. The Women in Athletic Training
Task Force became recognized as an official NATA committee in 1996, following
Gail Weldon’s induction into the NATA Hall of Fame in 1995 (nata.org). The
Women in Athletic Training Committee (WATC) voted and decided on various
programs and money distribution regarding females in the profession, focusing on
leadership, life balancing, mentoring, and women’s health. Some of these projects
have included the creation of the Gail Weldon Visionary Award, the Women
Mentoring Program, and the Unstoppable Woman Project.
As women became more and more involved in the profession, barriers that
were once in existence were broken down. After the election of Gail Weldon in
the NATA Hall of Fame in 1995, a small number of female members were
admitted that had a great impact on the profession. Karen R. Toburen, inducted to
the Hall of Fame in 1999, established the first athletic training curriculum in the
state of Wisconsin. She served as the chair for the NATA Convention Committee
and vice-chair of the Joint Review Committee for Athletic Training education
(nata.org).
According to NATA records and a text by Winterstein (2009), in 2000
Julie Max was elected as the first female president of the NATA. She became
known for promoting the profession and for developing an athletic training
education program at California State University Fullerton, which has received
national acclaim. She was inducted into the NATA Hall of Fame in 2007.
Perhaps one of the most inspiring moments regarding the role of females
in athletic training occurred in the world of professional male sports. Beginning in
May of 1997, Michelle Leget broke the gender barrier in the NBA by becoming
the first assistant athletic trainer for the Houston Rockets. Janet Panek then
became an assistant athletic trainer for the Washington Wizards (Mihoces, 2008).
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In 2002, a woman named Ariko Iso was hired by the Pittsburgh Steelers
organization, making her the first woman to be hired as a permanent full-time
assistant athletic trainer in the National Football League (Mihoces, 2008). News
articles and interviews were written about these three women, making them idols
for other females interested in athletic training.
Majorie J. Albohm is also recognized as a pivotal female figure in the
profession of Athletic Training. She was one of the first women to be certified by
the NATA along with Gail Weldon and Sherry Bagagian (nata.org). In addition,
she was the first female athletic trainer at Indiana University and was also an
original member of the NATA Foundation Board and Foundation President. In
2007, Albohm was elected to be the president of the NATA, the second woman to
hold this position after Julie Max. She greatly helped increase job opportunities
for athletic trainers in clinics and physician extender roles (nata.org).
NATA – By the Numbers
Year-End membership statistics from the NATA website were examined
to understand the changes in gender roles in the athletic training profession as
given from the year 2000 through 2011(members.nata.org). However, it is
important to note that membership in the NATA is not required to maintain
certification, so there could be members of either gender that are not represented.
In addition, there are gender numbers for all members of the NATA which may
include students and non-certified members, and there are different gender
numbers for certified members of the NATA only. Figure 1 displays all members
of the NATA, whether certified or non-certified.
As identified in Figure 1, the NATA has gone from having no female
members from 1950 to 1966, to over half of all members being female in 2011.
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Martin: Role of Women in Athletic Training
Figure 1. All data retrieved from www.members.nata.org
History has shown that women in the NATA have broken down barriers in
order to become integral members of the athletic training profession. From the
first female member Dorothy “Dot” Cohen, and many others like Gail Weldon,
Julie Max, Ariko Iso, and Majorie Albohm, these females have proven that
women hold a strong place in this health-care profession.
Current Status of Women in Athletic Training
As of January of 2012, women made up over 52% of the National Athletic
Trainers’ Association (members.nata.org), and are now a part of the medical team
on the sidelines for almost every sport, according to a NCAA News Archive
(2006). Several factors have contributed to this influx of women into the
profession, along with the pivotal female members of the NATA in history.
According to an interview with Sue Stanly-Green, MS, ATC, LAT; the
implementation of Title IX seems to explain the expansion of women in the field
(NCAA, 2006). As women have become more involved and respected in sports,
female athletic trainers are now able to combine their interest in athletics with a
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profession in health care. Although certain areas of the profession are based
around the quality of care and not by gender of the provider, there are still some
areas of athletic training that remain gender biased.
According to Mazerolle, Borland, and Burton (2012), female athletic
trainers are still underrepresented at the collegiate level in the National Collegiate
Athletic Association (NCAA). The NCAA (2009-10) suggested that at the
Division 1 level, only a quarter of the full-time staff Athletic Trainers (ATs) were
female while merely 16.3% held the head athletic training position during the
2009-2010 school year. This represents a meager 0.8% increase from the 19951996 school year, when the NCAA first collected this sort of demographic
information. According to Acosta and Carpenter (1977-2008), Division III
schools had the highest percentage of women as head athletic trainers at 36.8%.
Furthermore, it should be noted that most frequently the head athletic training
position is often the position that works with football, as football is the greatest
money generator in collegiate sports. Money makes football high profile, and it is
also considered to be one of the most intensive (Mazerolle et.al, 2012; O’Connor
et. al, 2010). One of the prime examples of a head female athletic trainer that also
covers football is Ariko Iso, who transferred to Oregon State University, her alma
mater, as the head AT after working for the Pittsburgh Steelers (Mihoces, 2008).
Another area of athletic training that women have been underrepresented
in is administrative positions in professional male sports. 61 female ATs have
held positions in the world of female professional sports (O’Connor et.al, 2010).
As previously discussed, there were few female athletic trainers in professional
male sports: Michelle Leget with the Houston Rockets, Janet Panek with the
Washington Wizards, and Ariko Iso with the Pittsburgh Steelers respectively.
However, all three of these were assistant positions. There were no female head
athletic trainers in professional male sports until June of 2011(Dilbeck, 2011).
Sue Falsone was hired as the head athletic trainer for the Los Angeles Dodgers
and changed that statistic. According to Dilbeck (2011), she is the first woman to
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hold the head athletic training job in major professional male sports. Throughout
the process she has overcome an obstacle as a health-care professional that many
female athletic trainers have faced when applying for a position in professional
male sports. Accepting this position meant overcoming resistance from many
coaches, managers, and even players. Professional male sports are no longer a
man’s domain, and Falsone, along with the other female ATs in this field, have
created a new frontier for women in the profession.
Barriers for Female Athletic Trainers in Administrative Positions
Even though women today have had a great impact in the field of Athletic
Training, there are still some sports that are male-dominated regardless of Title
IX. Some these sports include football, ice hockey, and rodeo. Female ATs may
face different gender discrimination obstacles when applying for positions in
athletic training that were previously or currently dominated by men.
According to an article by Mazerolle, Borland, and Burton (2012), one of
the main hurdles that many women face today is gender bias and discrimination.
The research states that although Title IX allows for equal participation in
collegiate athletics, legislation does not require equal work environments for male
and female athletic trainers. According to the NCAA (2009-10), males dominated
the positions of athletic directors at the NCAA Division 1 level (90% male),
assistant athletic directors (70% male), and head AT positions (81.3% male). It is
apparent that as males control leadership positions in collegiate sports this has set
the stage for men to “set the agenda regarding hiring and work policies”
(Mazerolle, et.al., 2012). Furthermore, it was stated in the NCAA article (200910) that at the Division 1 level in the NCAA, men coach men’s and women’s
teams, and women do not coach men’s teams such as baseball, men’s basketball,
football, men’s gymnastics, men’s ice hockey, men’s lacrosse, men’s rowing,
men’s volleyball, men’s water polo, or wrestling. This has lead to female athletic
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trainers generally reporting either respectful or antagonistic relationships with
male coaches. When the relationships were harmonious, it was because the
female athletic trainer felt the need to stand up for herself in order to be respected
(Dr. RR Shingles, Personal Communication, February 7, 2013).
Mazerolle et. al., (2012) also stated that gender discrimination was
identified as a problem faced by young, female ATs, especially when working
with a male sport coached by a male. Resistance to females in male locker rooms
and the male athletes’ perceptions of female athletic trainers may also contribute
to the underrepresentation of women in head athletic training positions.
O’Connor et. al.(2010) stated that males have claimed discomfort when female
ATs were providing care for gender-specific injuries and general medical
conditions, but found females to be more nurturing than male ATs and that the
roles of “female” and “football AT” were perceived as incongruent by football
players. The reasons stated for this were because of the stereotypical gender roles
of women being supportive caring, and nurturing, which “indicates incongruity
between the roles of being female and being an AT” (O’Connor et. al., 2010).
According to Drummond, Hostetter, Laguna, Gillentine, and Del Rossi, (2007)
these ideas may be deeply culturally rooted.
Another current obstacle that is often associated with females in athletic
training is the balancing of many roles, which may include mother, caretaker,
wife, and athletic trainer, which may lead to work-family conflicts, kinship
responsibilities, and incongruent role perceptions (Nussbaum & Rogers, 1999;
O’Connor et. al., 2010). According to Nussbaum and Rogers (1999), 86.3% of
certified female ATs experience greater conflict between professional and family
responsibilities when compared to their male counterparts. Because of the unique
responsibilities of athletic trainers, including long work hours, travel, and little
time away from the athletic training room, females may often experience
increased stress and difficulty when they have families of their own. From a
study done in 1999, Division 1 female athletic trainers that were also mothers
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Martin: Role of Women in Athletic Training
worked 52 hours per week, while female athletic trainers without children worked
an average of 62 hours a week (Nussbaum & Rogers, 1999). Due to the extensive
work hours, women are more likely to remain in positions that allow them to
assume all roles including mother, caretaker, spouse, and athletic trainer
(Mazerolle et. al., 2010). Higher administrative positions in professional and
collegiate sports do not give many women the slightly more flexible schedule and
hours that are available in some other positions such as high schools or clinics
(Mazerolle et. al., 2010). This may be another reason as to why women are
underrepresented at the collegiate and professional levels in athletic training.
The Future of Female Athletic Trainers
Undoubtedly, the number of female athletic trainers will continue to grow
as the profession of athletic training continues. As the data suggests, the number
of female members in the National Athletic Trainers’ Association equals the
number of male members. Although women are equal in numbers, they are not
equal to men in higher administrative positions and some male-dominated sports.
Currently, it is becoming more and more likely that women will hold more NCAA
Division 1 head AT positions, professional male sport positions, and other maledominated sport positions such as Division 1 football, ice hockey, and rodeo.
Because of female athletic trainers like Gail Weldon, Ariko Iso, Julie Max, and
Susan Falsone, gender bias and discrimination barriers in athletic training have
been broken down, and women are now aware that they are capable of being
strong forces in the profession.
Conclusion
In spite of equal membership in numbers in the National Athletic Trainers’
Association, women are not equal to men in higher administrative positions and
some male-dominated sports. Much of the credit for the continued growth of
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women in the athletic training profession goes to the female athletic trainers who
have faced gender bias and discrimination and broken down many of the
professional barriers. The future holds promise for women in Athletic Training,
who are asserting themselves into the profession as vital members of Athletic
Training staffs around the country.
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