Download P.E. GCSE A1: Reasons for taking part in physical activity

P.E. GCSE
A1: Reasons for taking part in physical activity
Social benefits:
•Mixing with others
•Friendship
•Cooperation
•Competition
Mental:
•Stress release
•Feel good about
yourself
Physical Health Benefits:
•Promotes general health and
fitness
•Improves cardiovascular
efficiency
•Physical challenges stretch the
body and improve performance
•Maintains a healthy weight
•Toned body – look good. Can
loose weight.
Aesthetic Appreciation: In some
sports, such as gymnastics, participants
learn to present themselves in an
attractive way, which is appealing to an
audience. It means recognising quality
of movement in a performance.
Benefits of Club Membership:
A routine – sessions are held at regular
times every week
Build relationships with coaches who
can help you develop your performance
Establish friendships with other club
members
Use of club facilities
Chances to enter competitive
environment
Discounted prices for using facilities
P.E. GCSE
A2: Health, fitness, exercise & performance
Health: a state
of complete
mental, social
and physical
well being.
Fitness: a person’s ability to meet the
demands of an environment. Sports
professional are fit for their specific sport,
eg. Strength for a weight lifter, stamina for a
marathon runner.
Exercise: a physical activity which
improves the health and fitness of
an individual.
Performance: how
well an individual
can complete a
certain task.
Cardiovascular Fitness (stamina): the ability of the circulatory
and respiratory systems to provide glucose and oxygen to the
body’s muscles during sustained physical activity.
Muscular strength is the amount of force a
muscle can exert against a resistance. It helps
sportspeople to hit, tackle and throw.
Muscular endurance is the ability to use
voluntary muscles many times without
becoming tired. It helps sportspeople to sprint
or repeat quick actions for longer.
Flexibility is the range of movement possible
at a joint. It helps performers to stretch and
reach further.
Body composition is the percentage of body
weight which is fat, muscle or bone. It helps
sportspeople depending on the type of sport
they play, eg heavy rugby players are more
effective in the scrum than lightweight players,
but light long distance runners will always beat
heavier long distance runners.
P.E. GCSE
A3: Skill Related Fitness
Fitness Testing:
The bleep test – used to
test aerobic fitness and
calculate VO2 max. This
means how efficiently
your body can take in
and use oxygen.
Dynamometers can be
used to test strength.
Balance can be tested by
closing eyes and standing
on one leg for as long as
possible. Reaction times
can be measured with
computerised devices.
Speed can be tested by
setting out a specific
distance, timing how long
it takes for the individual
to cover it, and then
divide the distance by the
time to calculate the
speed. Sit and reach
test used for flexibility.
To test for agility, set up
a course of cones which
you must dodge around
and time how long it
takes to complete the
course.
Agility - the ability to change the position
of the body quickly and with control. This
helps team players dodge their opponents,
in rugby for example.
Balance - the ability to retain the centre
of mass above the base of support when
stationary (static balance) or moving
(dynamic balance). This helps gymnasts
maintain their position and prevents
games players like footballers from falling
over at speed.
Co-ordination - the ability to use two or
more body parts together. This helps all
athletes to move smoothly and quickly
especially when also having to control a
ball. Hand eye coordination is needed in
tennis and badminton.
Power - the ability to use strength at
speed. This helps athletes to jump high,
throw far or sprint quickly. Power =
Strength x Speed. A sprinter needs power,
and a long jumper needs power to launch
themselves far into the sandpit.
Reaction time - the time between the
presentation of a stimulus and the onset of
a movement. This helps swimmers to
make a fast start, and a sprinter after the
starting gun.
Speed is the differential rate at which an
individual is able to perform a movement
or cover a distance in a period of time or
how quickly an individual can move. This
helps all games players to move into
position or get away from opponents
quickly for example a sprinter in a 100m
sprint, a rugby payer running to score a
try.
P.E. GCSE
A4: Principles of Training
A personal
exercise plan
can be designed
for individual
needs. The
details will be
specific to the
sport the
individual is
training for.
Specificity – This is making sure that your training is directly
associated with your goal. You must train muscles or areas of
fitness specific to your sport, so that your performance in your
desired sport will improve.
Progression – Start training more gently, and gradually
increase your time and intensity of workout so that your
muscles are built up and your performance improves without a
high risk of injury.
Overload – You must push your body beyond its normal limits
in order to improve. Muscles must be pushed to work hard,
however, if you over train your muscles, and push your body
too far, this can lead to injury.
Reversibility - Any adaptation which the body makes during
training is lost if the fitness levels are not maintained.
Therefore, you must train regularly, or no benefits will be seen.
Tedium – Training can become tedious and boring if you do not
plan to vary your activities. It is therefore important to include a
selection of training types to keep yourself interested and
motivated to complete your programme.
Moderation – important to have rest periods at regular
intervals to allow body to adapt. Overtraining can cause injury.
Frequency – How often you will train during your programme.
This could be increased as the weeks go on, to ensure the
progression in fitness which you have aimed for.
Intensity – How hard each training session will be. You could
use the perceived excursion scale to monitor the intensity of
each training session.
Time – How long each of your training sessions will last. The
duration of the training depends heavily on the intensity; a
harder session should be shorter than a light session.
Type – You should consider what type of training you will use to
achieve your goals. There are many different methods of
training.
P.E. GCSE
A5: Methods of Training
Isometric
Isotonic
Isotonic and isometric are types of
muscle contraction. Isotonic is when
the muscle shortens (concentric) or
lengthens (eccentric) as it contracts. A
sit up is an example of isotonic
contraction of the abdominals.
Isometric contraction is when there is
tension in the muscle, but no
movement is made causing the muscle
to remain the same length. Holding a
weight at arms length is an example of
this.
Heart recovery rate is a
measurement of how long it
takes for the heart to return
to its resting heart rate after
exercise. The fitter a person
is, the shorter their recovery
time.
In an Exercise
session…
Warm up: whole body
exercise which raises
heart rate and body
temperature. This
prepares muscles,
ligaments and joints by
stretching them and
prevents injury.
Main activity: fitness
training or technique
work, skill development,
team practice, game
scenarios. This develops
skill and technique in the
specific sport being
trained for.
Cool down: Gentle
exercise to remove carbon
dioxide, lactic acid and
other waste products from
muscles and stretching.
These prevent stiffness or
muscle ache after
exercising.
P.E. GCSE
A5: Methods of Training
Aerobic Training – when the body is being worked at a level at which it is
capable of supplying the oxygen and fuel demanded. This means that the
body will be respiring
aerobically; glucose + oxygen give the products of carbon dioxide and
water, excreted as perspiration and exhalation. Aerobic training methods
include rowing, cycling and continuous running. The aerobic training zone is
between 60-85% of your maximum heart rate. Anything below 60% is
considered as being in the “recovery zone”.
•Anaerobic training – when the body is being worked at 85-90% of the
maximum heart rate. Anaerobic means without oxygen; the body is being
worked beyond its capability to provide enough oxygen to the muscles
which require it; therefore the body goes into a state known as “oxygen
debt”, and lactic acid is produced and released into the muscles. This
generally results in the ceasing of exercise until the oxygen debt has been
repaid and the lactic acid has been removed. An example of anaerobic
training would be sprinting. The body would be performing anaerobic
respiration; the equation for which is glucose gives the products of lactic
acid and energy.
•Interval training is when you train with short bursts of intense work with
periods of light rest in between. This rest period is the interval, in which the
body can recover from the oxygen debt in which it has been put. This
stimulates the heart and lungs to payback the oxygen debt to break down
the lactates in the muscles. This will lead to improved performance of the
cardiovascular system.
•Continuous training develops aerobic fitness. It is training of a lower
intensity performed for a longer duration. An example of this would be
cycling slowly for thirty minutes. This will increase muscle stamina and
athlete’s endurance.
•Circuit training – several stations in a circuit which individuals move
around completing different activities. They can be designed to develop
muscular endurance, strength and speed.
•Cross Training – involves using another sport to improve fitness for a
specific activity.
•Weight training - uses weights to provide resistance to the muscles. It
improves muscular strength (high weight, low reps), muscular endurance
(low weight, high reps, many sets) and power (medium weight and reps
performed quickly).
•FARTLEK training – known as ‘speed play’. This is when you vary the
speed and terrain over which you run, cycle or ski. It improves both
anaerobic and aerobic fitness.
P.E. GCSE
A6: Diet, Health and Hygiene
Athlete’s Foot: This is a
fungal infection. It is usually
cracked skin and itchiness
between the toes which can
be treated by washing and
drying well, then coating
with fungicidal cream or
powder.
Overfat is when
you weigh too
much in ratio to
your height, and
the excess
weight is fat on
the body. Being
overweight is
being too heavy
in ratio to your
size, but the
excess is not
necessarily fat; it
could be denser
muscle tissue. So
an athletes could
be overweight,
but very healthy.
Obesity is being
very overfat, and
this carries
serious health
risks.
Verrucae: This is a fungal infection. It
is usually cracked skin and itchiness
between the toes which can be treated
by washing and drying well, then
coating with fungicidal cream or
powder. Verrucae can be caught in
warm, moist environments like
swimming pools.
Diet must comprise of:
•Carbohydrate – provides quick energy. Athletes
need carbs to build up energy stores before events.
Find it in pasta, bread, cereals.
•Fat – unsaturated fats provide slow release energy
and insulation. Can be used when doing low impact
exercise. Find it in oil, dairy product, nuts.
•Protein – for growth and repair of cells in the body.
Used when training hard and in recovery from injury.
Power athletes will eat more protein to build larger
muscles.
•Minerals – such as calcium (strengthen bones)
iodine (for energy production) and iron (prevents
fatigue) help all round health. They are eaten when
training and competing and are found in fruit,
vegetables and fish.
•Vitamins – A for vision, B for energy production and
stress reduction, C for healthy kin and immune
system, D for absorption of calcium for bones and
teeth. Found in fruit and vegetables.
•Fibre – cannot be digested. Fills you up and keeps
digestive system running smoothly. This is important
in sport as well as helping with weight control. Found
in fruit, veg and wholegrain cereals.
•Water – maintains fluid levels and prevents
dehydration. Replaces water lost in perspiration.
More exercise means you need more water.
P.E. GCSE
A6: Diet, Health and Hygiene
Endomorph: characterized by large bones,
solid torso, higher fat levels, wide shoulders
with a narrow waist. These are your heavier
athletes who naturally carry more body fat and
do best in sports requiring power, and body
weight force.
Mesomorph: characterized by increased fat
storage, a wide waist and a large bone
structure. These are your naturally muscular
athletes, who have low body fat and excel in
sports requiring strength and power.
Ectomorph: characterized by long and thin muscles/limbs and low fat
storage; These are you lean, lightweight athletes who perform best at
distance sports requiring muscle endurance.
<Performance
enhancing
drugs. Social
drugs include
nicotine and
alcohol.
Nicotine
reduces lung
capacity (bad
for stamina
events).
Alcohol
reduces
concentration
and
coordination.
P.E. GCSE
Effects of exercise on the body
Sweating –
loss of water
and salt
Increased
tidal volume
and stroke
volume
(amount of
blood pumped
in each beat)
Faster heart
rate, Rapid
breathing
Short term
effects
Rise in muscle
temperature,
muscle
contraction,
increased
blood flow to
muscles
Blood diverted
from other
systems to
muscles
Blood moves
to surface to
cool – red
cheeks
P.E. GCSE
Effects of exercise on the body
Muscular
endurance
develops.
Muscles,
ligaments and
tendons get
stronger
Greater
number of
alveoli.
Increased vital
capacity
(maximum
exhaled air)
Bone width
and density
increases.
Joints become
more stable
and flexibility
increases.
Respiratory
and circulatory
systems work
more
efficiently –
more efficient
gaseous
exchange
Long term
effects
Hypertrophy –
muscles
increase in
size
Lower resting
heart rate and
shorter
recovery rates
Larger heart,
increased
cardiac output
– more blood
pumped in out
into the body
Increased
volume of
blood and
higher number
of blood
capillaries in
muscles
P.E. GCSE
B1&B2: Prevention of Injury in Sport
Risk Responsibility:
The authorities are responsible for:
•the rules - to reduce dangerous play
•referees - to check the environment and insist on fair play
•insisting on protective equipment and removal of jewellery
•balancing competition - by age, weight, gender, skill level
Each player is responsible for:
•Players must make sure they are wearing the right protective clothing
•being fit enough
•using correct technique
•wearing the right clothing and equipment, eg making sure shoes fit correctly
•checking that the environment is safe
•warming up and cooling down
•etiquette - playing fair and respecting their opponents
Injury can be caused by
INTERNAL or EXTERNAL forces.
Internal is when a very sudden
powerful movement inside your
body causes a strain or tears in a
muscle, ligament or tendon.
External force could be IMPACT
(with somebody or something)
which causes soft tissue injury
(bruises, sprains - when ligaments
are overstretched or torn around a
joint, eg twisted or sprained ankle,
strains - when a muscle or tendon
is overstretched or torn, eg pulled
muscle) skin damage (cuts,
grazes, blisters) and injury to
bones and joints (fractures,
dislocations). The external
environment can also cause
injury; extreme heat causes
dehydration, extreme cold causes
hypothermia.
Joint injuries can occur
from overuse. These
include tennis elbow
(muscle damage from
overuse of the lower arm
muscles and the elbow
joint to perform a
backhand shot) and golf
elbow (an injury to
muscles and tendons
which bend the wrist).
Chronic injuries occur
when injuries are not
given time to heal or
treated. This can lead to
arthritis.
Concussion is
caused by impact
to the head, often
knocking the
person
unconscious.
P.E. GCSE
B1& B2: Prevention of Injury in Sport
Name
Description
Simple
closed
Bone is broken but skin is not
lacerated.
Compound
Skin has been broken by the
fracture, and some of the
bone may be visible.
Transverse
Fracture across the bone, at
a right angle to the long
axis.
Greenstick
Fracture on one side of the
bone causing the other side
to bend.
Comminuted
A fracture resorting in three
or more broken fragments.
Image
Signs of fractures or
dislocations are swelling,
unusual shape or
deformity, signs of shock
(pale clammy skin, cold),
Symptoms are
tenderness at the site,
nausea and pain.
Treatment for fractions is
often external treatment
(plaster and fibreglass
casts, braces and
splints). Internal
treatment methods
include holding the bone
in place whilst it heals,
with pins, metal plates
or screws.
If somebody has a soft tissue injury (sprains, strains and bruises): RICE –
Rest to prevent further injury; Ice, cool to reduce blood flow, pain and
swelling; Compression, wrap a tight bandage around area to reduce
internal bleeding and swelling; Elevation, raise injury above heart level to
reduce throbbing and swelling.
D.R.A.B.C. is used when you have an
unconscious casualty. Danger, Response,
Airways, Breathing, Circulation.
The recovery position is used if the casualty
is unconscious but breathing.
Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (CPR) is
used for a casualty who has stopped
breathing. 30 chest compressions:2 rescue
breaths at a rate of 100 compressions per
minute.
P.E. GCSE
C1: Circulatory System
Heart rate is the number of beats the heart performs in one
minute. Stroke volume is the volume of blood pumped from the
heart in each beat. By multiplying these two together, you
calculate the cardiac output, the total volume of blood the heart
pumps in one minute.
Bicuspid valve
P.E. GCSE
C1: Circulatory System
We have a Double Circulatory System.
The blood goes from the heart to the
lungs and back to the heart (the
pulmonary circuit) and then from the
heart to the rest of the body (the
systemic circuit).
Arteries are the largest blood vessel.
They have thick muscular walls and so
can carry blood at high pressure. The
main artery is the Aorta. They have small
internal lumen (the passage in which the
blood travels). Blood away from the heart
Veins are next in size. They take blood to
the heart under a lower pressure. They
have valves to stop blood flowing
backwards. They have larger internal
lumen. Their walls are thin. Main vain is
the Vena Cava.
Blood has four parts; The red blood cells, the
white blood cells, the platelets and the plasma.
Red blood cells contain oxygen on their
haemoglobin and are made in the red bone
marrow. White blood cells protect body by
fighting disease and are made in marrow of
long bones. Platelets clump together forming
fibrin clots to stop bleeding and plasma is the
fluid on the blood and it carries CO2, hormones
and waste. When exercising blood does the
following things:
Transports nutrients and waste;
Delivers oxygen to the working muscles;
Removes heat (temperature regulation);
Dilutes/carries away lactic acid (acidic
balance)
Capillaries are the
smallest vessels. They
are found in muscles and
lungs. They are
microscopic in size and
only one cell thick. Blood
is at very low pressure,
and because their
membrane is so thin,
gaseous exchange can
take place.
P.E. GCSE
C2: Respiratory System
Air is warmed, moistened and
filtered as it travels through the
mouth and nasal passages.
It then passes through the
trachea and one of the two
bronchi into one of the lungs.
After passing into the many
bronchioles, it finally arrives into
some of the millions of tiny sacs
called alveoli.
This is where gas exchange takes
place - oxygen passes out of the
air into the blood, and carbon
dioxide passes out of the blood
into the air in the alveoli.
When you inhale:
The intercostal muscles contract, expanding the
ribcage. The diaphragm contracts, pulling
downwards to increase the volume of the chest.
Pressure inside the chest is lowered and air is
sucked into the lungs.
When you exhale:
The intercostal muscles relax, the ribcage drops
inwards and downwards, the diaphragm relaxes,
moving back upwards, decreasing the volume of the
chest. Pressure inside the chest increases and air is
forced out.
Vital Capacity: Volume of air breathe out when
breathing as hard as you can.
Tidal Volume: volume of air breathed in and out at
rest.
P.E. GCSE
C2: Respiratory System
Gas
% in inhaled air
% in exhaled air
Oxygen
21
16
Carbon dioxide
0.04
4
Nitrogen
79
79
Inhaled air contains more oxygen used to create energy and
less carbon dioxide than exhaled air which contains more
carbon dioxide produced as a waste product of respiration
energy production and
less oxygen as it has been used in respiration.
Gas exchange takes place by diffusion in the alveoli within the
lungs. As a result the composition of inhaled and exhaled air is
different.
When resting or gently exercising, the heart can keep up with
the demand of oxygen from muscles. It is working aerobically :
Glucose + oxygen → energy + water + carbon dioxide
When exercising very hard, like sprinting, the heart cannot
cope with the demand of oxygen from the muscles. The body
therefore enters a state called oxygen debt, when instead of
releasing energy with oxygen, it does it without to produce
lactic acid and carbon dioxide. The lactic acid builds up in
muscles, and the oxygen debt must be made up during rest.
This is anaerobic respiration:
Glucose → energy + lactic acid
P.E. GCSE
C3: Bones
There
are 206
bones
in the
adult
human
body.
In the vertebral column,
there are 5 sections;
Cute Teddies Loves
Small Cuddles! The top
vertebrae C1, Atlas,
allows head to nod. C2,
Axis, allows head to
rotate. Ribs are attached
to the thoracic vertebrae
giving protection and a
bit of movement.
Lumbar vertebrae give
wide range of
movement. Bones of
sacral vertebrae are
fused together helping to
transmit force from legs
to upper body.
P.E. GCSE - C3: Bones
Diet and exercise help to maintain bone strength.
If bones become demineralised, they lose density
and become brittle, and prone to fractures. This is
called OSTEOPEROSIS. Taking calcium,
phosphorous and vitamin D supplements help to
minimise the risk in elderly people.
The function of bones:
1.
Give the body shape
2.
Support the body
3.
Protect vital organs
4.
Allow the body to move
5.
Blood production in the
marrows of long bones
Human skeletons start off as
cartilage. Over time calcium
and phosphorous replace the
cartilage, forming bone.
This process is called
OSSIFICATION.
Humans are left with some
cartilage art the end of long
bones, nose and ears. Hoe
much cartilage is left
indicates how much a person
has left to grow.
Structure of a long bone
Hyaline cartilage - covers the ends of the bones,
stops them rubbing together and absorbs shock.
Epiphysis - the ‘head’ of the bone.
Cancellous bone - spongy bone that stores the
red bone marrow; where blood cells are made.
Epiphyseal plate – the area where bones grow in
length.
Diaphysis - the shaft.
Compact bone – hard, dense bone. It gives
strength to the hollow part of the bone.
Periosteum – a protective layer where there is no
hyaline cartilage. Ligaments and tendons attach
to the periosteum.
Medullary cavity/marrow cavity - contains the
yellow bone marrow; where white blood cells are
made.
Type of bone
Example
Function in sport
Long
Femur, humorous
Movement - to generate
strength and speed
Short
Carpals, tarsal
Shock absorption spreading load
Flat (Plate)
Ribs, cranium
Protection of vital organs,
attachment of muscles to
help movement
Irregular
Vertebrae, face
Provide shape, protection
P.E. GCSE
C4: Joints, tendons, ligaments
A joint is where two or more bones meet.
A tendon joins a muscle to a bone enabling movement
A ligament joins a bone to a bone.
Cartilage reduces friction and acts as a shock absorber in a joint.
Movement
Description
Abduction
Movement away from
the mid-line of the body
Adduction
Movement towards the
mid-line of the body
Extension
Straightening limbs at a
joint
Flexion
Bending the limbs at a
joint.
Rotation
A circular movement
around a fixed point
Type
of
joint
Example in
the body
Types of
movement
possible
Hinge
Elbow, knee
Flexion,
extension
Ball
and
Socket
Shoulder, hip
Flexion,
extension,
abduction,
adduction,
rotation
Pivot
Between the
atlas and axis
in the neck
Rotation
Fixed joint
(fibrous): held
together by tough
fibres, eg. Bones in
the skull
Slightly movable joint
(cartilaginous): each bone
rests on a cushion of
cartilage but ligaments stop
them moving too far, eg.
Vertebrae.
Freely movable joint
(synovial): shown
right, eg. elbow
A synovial joint, such as the hip.
P.E. GCSE
C5: Muscle and Muscle action
Involuntary Muscles
are those which
control our organs.
We cannot change
their actions.
Voluntary muscles
are those attached
to the skeleton
which we can
move. The heart is
made of cardiac
muscle, which is
found only in the
heart. It never
tires.
External
obliques
Voluntary Muscle
Exercise
Sporting action
Deltoid
Dumbbell raises
Bowling a cricket ball
Bicep
Bicep curl
Drawing a bow in archery
Triceps
Tricep push down
Throwing a javelin
Quadricep
Quad. extensions
Jumping on a trampoline
Latissumusdorsi
Lat. Pull downs
Butterfly in swimming
Pectoral
Bench press
Forehand drive in tennis
Gastrocnemius
Calf raises
Running
Abdominals
Sit ups
Pull body down in hurdling
Hamstrings
Hamstring curls
Bending knee before kicking ball
Gluteals
Squats & lunges
Pulling back leg before kicking ball
Trapezius
Upright row
Holding head up in rugby scrum
External Obliques
Side bends
Backstroke swimming
P.E. GCSE
C5: Muscle and Muscle action
Antagonistic pairs of muscles
create movement when one (the
prime mover) contracts and the
other (the antagonist) relaxes.
Examples of antagonistic pairs
working are:
the quadriceps and hamstrings
in the leg
the biceps and triceps in the
arm.
Voluntary muscles have muscle fibres which are either fast twitch or
slow twitch. Fast twitch contract quickly, but use oxygen an aerobically
in inefficiently, and so tire quickly. Slow twitch muscle fibres contract
slowly, but use oxygen aerobically and effectively, and so have a longer
muscle endurance. A sprinter will generally have more fast twitch fibres
than a marathon runner.
Muscle tone can be seen when the muscle
is in a state of slight tension. When
muscles are exercised regularly, they
hypertrophy, or get bigger. This makes
every day tasks less challenging, and
muscles have a greater endurance. Muscle
tone help a person to have good posture,
and this reduces strain on muscles tendons
and ligaments. Good posture is often
crucial in sporting performances; in golf for
example, when a position must be
maintained through the swing. Having
good posture is also a sign of self
confidence.