Download 1 CHAPTER II THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 2.1. Character

CHAPTER II
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
2.1. Character
According to Kennedy (2010, p.77) human personality can be familiar in story
especially if the story looks as the real life. It can be seen when the characters have
reasons and manner like real persons. The characters are also given motivation in their
action. Meanwhile, DiYanni (2001, p.55) stated the characters of a story can be alive. As
the readers follow the story, they begin to see what happens with the character and
actually curious to follow it until the end of the story.
DiYanni (2001, p.55) classified characters as major and minor character. Major
character has an important role, it is the center attention in the story. And minor
character is a character to accompany the major character to support the story. In some
stories, either major character or minor character can be balanced in having role.
2.2. Characterization
Characterization or personality is defined by what the characters are doing, what
they say, with whom they are saying about opinion and where they move. It is also the
way in which a character is created by the author. (Barnet, Burto and Cain, 2005, p.338).
According to Gill (2006, p.135) characterization process will be taken up by what the
characters do. It will be seen in a variety of ways in which the characters appear.
6
7
Characterization is the way the author presents the character. Character in the
story can be exposed by using the narrative with or without judgment by the author.
There are some methods of characterization. For a narrative description the author may
use the implied judgment or explicit judgment. The character described by images that
represent meanings or something has an implied judgment. In contrast, explicit judgment
describes the physic of character with direct facts and interpretive comments. The
physical appearance of characters is another method to expose them, like how they
dress, which help the readers to interpret their image. Other techniques to present the
character are through the character’s action, what they say and how they say it
(character’s speech) and what they think and feel (character consciousness). (DiYanni,
2001, p.57)
Arp and Johnson stated that human has rich and complex character, so that the
characterization is quite complicated. A good fiction should produce an interesting
character. A character should make the reader wonder about human nature, to convince
the reader to bring as close as real character brought to life. (2006, p.104)
2.3. Plot
Arp and Johnson describes the plot as a way to manage how the story ends(
2006, p.45).While DiYanni states that plot is a stage event that creates a story (2001,
p.44). According to Arp and Johnson, plot consists of the conflict, which is an important
element in fiction. The conflict is a fight of characters in a story in the form of actions,
thoughts or desires. Characters can face conflict against another person or group of
people. There are also conflicts with the natural environment, society and the fate or
8
external power. Conflict with some elements in the nature of character against oneself
may also occur. The character’s conflicts which can occur are the physical, mental,
emotional or moral conflicts. (2006, p.46)
Usually the plot begins with exposition that explains the background of the story.
This is the opening section that introduces the main characters and the events that occur
before the conflict is told. The exposition describes any information needed to
understand the story such as setting, so readers are interested to know the next story.
(Kennedy, 2010, p.14).
Plot also has the suspense. According to Kennedy, suspense arises the curiosity
of what will happen after the event, so it will make the readers curious to follow the
story. This increases enthusiasm to follow the fate of the characters. In the movie series,
the suspense is placed in the end of each episode until the audiences wonder what will
happen in the next episode. (2010, p.14)
The plot is then developed into complications, where new conflicts are
introduced. This is a series of conflicts or "intensifications of conflicts" (p.45). This
series of complications enter into a moment of high tension. Then a crisis may be getting
larger strain, known as climax. This leads to a climax as the outcome of what should be
done. In the end, complications develop and take results, or resolution, to the end of the
story. ( DiYanni, 2001, p.45)
9
2.4. Memory
Humans use memory to remember anything that happens in their life. Memory is
the important part of life. There are some stages which explain about memory according
to some theories. One theory by Atkinson and Shiffrin, is used in the definition of
memory. The processes of memory are encoding, a storage, and retrieval process. The
process of accepting sensor and transforming it into a form or a code which can be
stored is called encoding. Storage is the process of actually putting coded information
into memory. Retrieval is when the information is needed. (2007, p.235)
To describe the process of this memory, imagine an outdoor activity, such as a
car crashed by a bus. Here human encodes it with usual impression of the accident and
records it in memory. Afterwards, when humans talk to psychiatrist, they cannot
normally recall what has been stored. It explains why memory of an accident may be
inaccurate. The encoding may fail. It is probably because of the emotion and distress
about experience at the time of the accident. Important encoded information may be
either fixed in the memory or can be distorted by the scene after the accident occurred,
or it may be distorted by events occurred after crash. Retrieval of information stored in
memory may be biased and all memory processes may be loose
The information which humans need is stored in three stages of memory. First,
memory that stores sort of information is known as the sensory register. Second, shortterm memory is the memory that stores only 30 seconds unless it is “renewed”. And the
third, the long-term memory stores more permanent information. (2007, p.235)
10
2.4.1. Sensory Register
According to Cowan, the first stage of memory holds a persistent image of each
sensory experience until it can be processed. A copy of any sensory experience in a
sensory register is long enough to save a little relevant information and then transfer it to
the next stage of memory. The “snapshot” of visual information usually fades very
rapidly and lasts about one quarter of a second. On the other hand, the auditory
information retains what humans hear for about the same length of time, one quarter of a
second. Meanwhile, Tarpy and Mayer argue that a weaker “echo” is restrained for four
second. (2007, p.235)
2.4.2. Short-Term Memory
Generally, some information is selected for further processing and then
transferred from the sensory register to short-term memory. Short-term memory (STM)
is limited, not only in time but also in the capacity of remembering the information.
(Myers, 2007, p.362)
The information stored in short-term memory (STM) contains different types of
kinds memories, such as smell of a perfume, the taste of a fruit, or a list of names. But
humans have a preference for transforming information into sounds which is possibly
stored in short-term memory. Using acoustic codes in STM may be easier to rehearse
than using of sight, smell and movements. Nonetheless, STM can store any form of
information that can enter the brain through the senses. (Lahey, 2007,p.237)
11
2.4.2.1. Rehearsal In Short-Term Memory: Overcoming STM’s Limited Life Span
As its name, short-term memory (STM) is only for temporary storage of
information. Generally, information is missing from STM in less than half a minute
unless it is “renewed”, and often lost in just a few seconds. Fortunately, the information
can be updated in STM by mental repetition, or rehearsal of the information.
It is supported with Lloyd and Peterson experiment about limited life span of
information in STM. The participants demonstrated combination of three consonants
(such as L, R, P) and was asked to remember it then counted backwards to keep them
still remember the letter workout. Each individual is then counted backwards for a short
interval (0 to 18 seconds) and then asked to recall the letters. The result is the
participants were able to recall three consonants less than 20 percents of the time after
just 12 seconds had passed. This study clarifies that the memories are not lifelong in
STM unless they are kept alive by rehearsal. (Ellis and Hunt, 2007, p.236-7)
2.4.2.2. Chunking In Short-Term Memory: Overcoming STM’s Limited Capacity
A psychologist, George Miller, has mentioned that the most important thing to
know about short-term memory (STM) is that its storage capacity is quite limited. STM
capacity survey is obtained by asking research participants to memorize a long list of
different simple of examples (of randomly ordered numbers, letters, and unrelated
words). Miller stated, the participants recalled half the time and considered to represent
the capacity of STM. Humans are rarely capable of holding at least more than 5-9 of
information in STM, regardless of the nature of the information. According to Alvarez
12
and Cavanaugh, indeed, this is very limited capacity, but more recent studies show that
the capacity can be smaller for some types of information. (Lahey, 2007, p.237-8)
2.4.3. Long-Term Memory
Long-Term Memory (LTM) is the third stage of memory involving the storage of
information that is kept for a long period of time. But, the LTM is not the only version
that is more durable than STM.
The long-term memory (LTM) is different from short-term memory(STM) in
four main ways, such as recalling the way of information, storing the form of
information in memory, reasoning the cause of forgetting and locating the physical
function in the brain.
These are four differences between long-term memory (LTM) and short-term
memory (STM). First, the amount of information stored in LTM is so large, so humans
cannot scan the entire content of LTM when looking for a bit of information as done by
STM. Humans retrieve the information using cues, like using a call number to find a
book in the library. This retrieval can be an intentional act or an unintentional act, such
as when hearing a particular song that can bring back memories of a lost love. In that
case, only information relevant to the cue is retrieved, rather than entire contents of
LTM. Second, LTM differs from STM in the kind of information that is the most easily
stored. According to Cowan, recalled information is usually stored in STM in terms of
the physical qualities of the experience (what people see, do, taste, touch or hear).
Although sensory memories are stored in LTM, information is stored in LTM primarily
in terms of its meaning, or semantic codes. Third, LTM also differs from STM in the
13
process of forgetting. Unlike STM where the information would not be rehearsal or
processed out of the system, the information stored in LTM is not only durable but it
seems to be permanent. Bachrick tested it in a demonstration of LTM. Bachrik’s
participants retained much of their knowledge of Spanish, even after a period of 50
years. Not all psychologists agree that memories in LTM are permanent, but there are a
great deal of evidences supporting this view. Baddeley says, if memories in LTM is
permanent, this means “forgetting” in LTM occurs not because the memory is erased but
because of not being able to take it for some reasons. Fourth, each stage of memory is
handled by a different part of brain. According to Buckner and Barch STM is the main
function of the frontal lobes of celebral cortex. While, according to Nadel and Jacobs
information stored in the first LTM is integrated in the hippocampus and then transferred
to the celebral cortex involved in language and perception for permanent storage. (2007,
p.239)
2.4.3.1. Types of Long-Term Memory
The existence of three kinds of long-term memory storage has been proposed by
Tulving (2007, p.240). The three types of LTM are procedural, semantic and episodic
memory. Both of them will be explained below
2.4.3.1.1. Procedural Memory
This is memory used for skill and other procedures. These are memories of how
to ride a bicycle, to cook, or to kiss. This knowledge can be memorized for long time.
14
2.4.3.1.2. Semantic and Episodic Memory
Semantic memory is a part of LTM which concerns with ideas, meaning, and
concepts which are related to personal experiences. Meanwhile, episodic memory is a
kind of LTM that stores information about experiences that take place at specific time
and in specific place.
2.5. Forgetting and Why It Occurs
After explaining about three stages of memory, the next is the issue of causes of
forgetting. There are some theories that will be discussed in detail. Psychologists
generally use term “forgetting” to refer to the loss of information which is encoded and
stored in long-term memory. Humans can forget about anything but they still have the
memories.
Some information because of the lack of attention may not have achieved shortterm memory of the sensory register. Information may not have been transferred from
short-term to long-term memory. (Lahey, 2007, p. 248)
Meanwhile Bock has found the relationship between emotion and memory.
When individuals are given a list of words and asked to recall them later, they tend more
to recall words with positive emotional impact (such as kiss and prize) than words with
negative emotional impact such as disease and loss. (2007, p.254)
Freud in The Psychopathology of Everyday Life, clearly stated the principle key
of motivated forgetting. Freud is hinting at a key concept of psychoanalysis-repression.
Repression refers to the tendency for people to have trouble taking anxiety-provoking or
15
threatening information and any related information, from long-term memory. This may
help explaining why most people more often remember the pleasant than unpleasant.
Emotional factor is also one of the causes of motivated forgetting, one of which is
depression, a tendency of human to collect the information that can provoke anxiety and
threaten the information related to LTM. (Morgan, King, Weisz and Schopler, 2003,
p.207)
2.6. Amnesia
Every day, humans recognize “amnesia” which means “loss of memory”. This
means that amnesia is sort of forgotten and some forms of memory disorder or inability
to retrieve stored information. In general, amnesia is called “disease of memory”. Some
amnesias have a biological basis. The machine of memory, the brain, is disturbed in
some ways. The other case may be called as psychological amnesias. Amnesia is the
result from major disturbances in the process of information encoding, storage and
retrieval. The difference between two kinds of biological and psychological amnesia is
often blurred. On the other hand, encoding, storage and retrieval processes are disturbed
in biological amnesia and some psychological amnesia may turn out to have a biological
basis. (Morgan, King, Weisz and Schoplar, 2003, p.208)
When humans encode memories, they distribute outspread aspects of them to
different parts of the brain. Among the weakest parts of a memory is the source. The
humans can recognize someone, but cannot remember where they met the person.
16
There are two kinds of important amnesia, beside psychological amnesia and
biological amnesia. Retrograde Amnesia and Anterograde Amnesia. These kinds of
amnesia are important, because they show the biological basis of human memory.
(Lahey, 2007, p.258)
2.6.1. Psychological Amnesia
Psychological amnesia is amnesia that occurs without damage in the brain. When
talking and thinking about amnesia, in mind, human forgets almost everything including
his or her identity. And everyone is a victim of amnesia.
2.6.2. Biological Amnesia
Biological amnesia is the memory machine in the brain. It can be damaged in
some ways, for example a crash that causes disorder in the brain. The major biological
factor that causes amnesia is the damage to the brain because of being hit in the head,
temporary disorder in the brain and certain drugs. (Morgan, King, Weisz, and Schoplar,
2003, p.210)
2.6.3. Retrograde Amnesia
Retrograde amnesia is the characteristic of memory disorder from disability to
retrieve the old long-term memories for a specific period of time starting from the
beginning of the disorder. In retrograde amnesia, the characteristic has no interference of
STM and the individual can rebuild long-term memories during the process after the
17
amnesia. Usually, the term of memory loss does not happen for all lifetime, but extends
back in time of period in minutes or days. (Lahey, 2007, p.258-9)
Retrograde amnesia can be caused by many things, such as a blow to the head, or
severe stress. Researchers assure that retrograde amnesia occurs because of stressful
event. Riccio, Millin and Verier in Lahey (2007, p.259) believe that the event produces
the intense form of retroactive interference that blocks retrieval.
2.6.4. Anterograde Amnesia
Disorder of memory is characterized by disability to store and to retrieve new
information in long-term memory. Anterograde amnesia usually does not affect the
ability to have procedural memories but interfere the ability to form new long-term
episodic memories. Therefore, the distress of experienced by the anterograde amnesia
patient in using LTM for healing is very selective and affected by various long-term
memories. (Lahey, 2007, p.259)