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World History Study Sheet No. 4
Topics: Alexander the Great, the Hellenistic Culture, Ancient Rome, and Early Christianity
Structure: The structure of the study sheet is the vocabulary of each section followed by key concepts to
each section topic.
Topic No. 1—Alexander the Great
Vocabulary:
1. Alexander the Great- the king of Macedonia [son of Philip II] who later created the Macedonian Empire
2. Darius III- the Persian King at the time of Alexander’s reign
3. Demosthenes- an Athenian orator
4. Macedonia- an ancient kingdom north of Greece, whose ruler Philip II conquered Greece in 338 BCE
5. Philip II- the king of Macedonia [father of Alexander]
Key Concepts to Alexander the Great
Philip Builds Macedonia’s Power
I. Introduction
Macedonia had a cold climate and rough mountains which dominated its climate. The cold climate hardened the
people who lived in mountain villages rather than city-states. Most Macedonian nobles thought of themselves as
Greeks. However, the Greeks looked down on the Macedonians and thought of them as uncivilized foreigners
who had no great philosophers, sculptors, or writers. However, the Macedonians did have an important resource
in their fearless and powerful kings.
II. Philip’s Army
In 359 BCE, Philip II becomes king of Macedonia. Even though he was only 23 years old, he proved to be a
brilliant general and a ruthless politician. He began his career by transforming the rugged peasants that he ruled
over into a well-trained professional army. He organized his troops into phalanx formation that were sixteen
men across and sixteen men deep.
- He used this formation (equipped with eighteen foot pikes/spears) to pave the way into enemy forces.
After the phalanx had paved way, he used his fast-moving cavalry to crush his disorganized and panicking
enemies. With this new strategy, Philip II quickly defeated northern invaders who attacked Macedonia. Soon,
he set his eyes on invading Greece.
III. The Invasion of Greece
The Athenian orator of the time, Demosthenes, tried to warn the Greeks of the potential threat the Philip
II posed. The Greeks were able to agree that they had to do something. The problem was, they had no idea what
to do. The separate city-states could not all agree on one policy or strategy to use to defend against the incoming
threat.
Finally, in 338 BCE, two city states, namely Thebes and Athens, joined forces against Philip’s army.
However, by then, it was too late. Philip II quickly defeated the Greeks at the Battle of Chaeronea. Philip’s 18
year old son at that time, led a successful cavalry attack that helped to win the battle. The Greek city-states
retained self-government in local affairs. However, Greece itself remained under control by a succession of
foreign powers—the first of which was Philip’s Macedonia.
Philip planned on invading Persia next. However, at this daughter’s wedding in 336 BCE, a former
guardsman stabbed him to death. With the support of Philip’s army, Alexander immediately proclaimed himself
king of Macedonia.
Alexander Defeats Persia
I. Introduction
Alexander was only 20 years old when he became king in 336 BCE. However, he was nevertheless ready to
lead. Under Aristotle’s teachings, Alexander learned science, geography, and literature. To inspire himself,
Alexander kept a copy of The Iliad by Homer under his pillow.
As a young boy, Alexander learned to ride a horse, use weapons, and command troops. In doing so, he
proved himself to be a strong military leader. Once, he became king, he promptly demonstrated that his military
training had not been wasted. When Thebes rebelled against Macedonian control, Alexander destroyed the city.
In doing so, 6,000 people were killed and the survivors were sold into slavery. Out of fear, the other Greek city
states quickly gave up and idea of rebelling.
II. Invasion of Persia
With Greece now secure, Alexander felt free to carry out his father’s plan of invading Persia
a. In 334 BCE, Alexander led 35,000 troops across the Hellespont into Anatolia. Persian messengers
raced along the Royal Road to spread the alarm about the invasion. Within a short time, a Persian army of about
40,000 men rushed to defend Persia. The two forces met at the Granicus River. Instead of waiting for the
opposition to make a move, Alexander quickly rushed into a destroyed his enemies’ defenses.
The victory at Granicus alarmed Darius III. He raised an army of around fifty thousand to seventy thousand
men to face the Macedonians near Issus. Realizing that he was outnumbered, Alexander surprised his enemies
by charging at a weak point in the enemy lines. Then after breaking through, he commanded them to charge
straight at Darius.
-To avoid capture, the frightened king fled off and his panicked army soon followed. This victory at
Issus gave Alexander control over Anatolia.
III. Alexander’s Ambitions Grow
Shaken by his defeat, Darius tried to make a peace treaty by offering Alexander the western third of his
kingdom. His advisors urged him to accept. However, the falling of the Persian Empire fired is ambition. He
rejected the offer and immediately made plans to conquer the entire Persian Empire.
Alexander marched into Egypt, a Persian territory in 332 BCE. The Egyptians welcomed Alexander as a
liberator. During his stay, Alexander visited the temple of their god Zeus-Ammon and was crowned pharaoh.
He also founded the city of Alexandria at the mouth of the Nile River.
IV. The Conquering of the Persian Empire
After leaving Egypt, Alexander moved east to Mesopotamia to confront Darius yet again, who assembled an
army of 250,000 men. The Persian chariots were also armed with deadly scythes protruding from the wheel
hubs. The two armies collided at Gaugamela. Alexander launched a massive phalanx attack followed by a
cavalry charge. Darius fled yet again. Alexander’s victory at Gaugamela ended Persia’s power.
V. Alexander’s other Conquests
Alexander later found Darius already murdered by one of his provincial governors (satrap). Rather than return
to Babylon, Alexander continued east. During the next three years, his army fought its way across the desert
wastes and mountains of Central Asia. He pushed on, hoping to get to the farthest edge of the continent.
In 327 BCE, Alexander and his army reached and crossed into the Indus Valley. At the Hydaspes River, a
powerful Indian army that included 200 elephants blocked the way. After a fierce battle, Alexander’s soldiers
marched another 200 miles farther, further reducing their morale. After 11 years and marching 11,000+ miles,
they endured grueling battles, scorching deserts, and drenching monsoon rains. It was now that Alexander
agreed to turn back for his men. Unfortunately, Alexander became ill with a fever and died eleven days later.
His empire was divided amongst his strongest generals. Antigonus got Macedonia and Greece, Ptolemy got
Egypt and became pharaoh, and Seleucus took most of the old Persian Empire, now the Seleucid Empire.
Topic No. 2—the Hellenistic Culture
Vocabulary:
1. Hellenistic- relating to the civilization, language, art, science, and literature of the Greek world from the
reign of Alexander the Great to the late second century BCE
2. Alexandria- the foremost center of commerce and Hellenistic culture
3. Euclid- a highly regarded mathematician at the time of the Hellenistic culture
4. Archimedes- an important Hellenistic scientist
5. Colossus of Rhodes- an enormous Hellenistic stature that formerly stood near the harbor of Rhodes
Key Concepts to the Hellenistic Culture
After Alexander’s death, a new culture emerged. It is the Hellenistic culture, since it was a blend of Greek
culture (Hellenic), Egyptian, Persian, and Indian influences. This blending of cultures became known as the
Hellenistic culture, because it was somewhat like the Hellenic culture, but not quite due to the blend.
-The official language of the Hellenistic culture was Koine. The world koine came from the Greek word
for common. The language was a dialect of Greek. This language enabled educated people and traders from
diverse backgrounds to communicate in cities throughout the Hellenistic world.
Trade and Cultural Diversity
Among the many cities of the Hellenistic world the African city of Alexandria became the foremost center of
commerce and Hellenistic civilization. Alexandria occupied a strategic site on the western edge of the Nile delta.
a. Ships from all over the Mediterranean docked in its large harbor.
b. The warehouses of Alexandria builged of wheat and other products from the Nile Valley.
Alexandria’s thriving commerce enabled it to grow and prosper.
Alexandria’s Greatest Attractions
Both residents and visitors admired Alexandria’s great beauty. Broad avenues lined with statues of Greek gods
divided the city into blocks. Rulers built magnificent royal palaces overlooking the harbor. A much visited tomb
contained Alexander’s elaborate glass coffin.
a. Standing more than 400 feet over the harbor of Alexandria stood an enormous lighthouse called the
Pharos. The lighthouse contained a polished bronze mirror that reflected light from a blazing fire.
One of Alexandria’s greatest attractions were its famous museum and library. The museum was a temple
dedicated to the Muses, the Greek goddesses of arts and sciences. It contained art galleries, a zoo, botanical
gardens, and even a dining hall. The museum was an institute of advanced study. Teachers and students were
only a short distance from the nearly Alexandrian Library.
Science and Technology
Astronomy
Alexandria’s museum contained a small observatory in which astronomers could study the planets and stars.
One astronomer, Aristarchus of Samos, reached two significant conclusions. In one conclusion, he estimated
that the sun was at least 300 times larger than earth (actually 1.3 milion times the size of the earth). He, in this,
disproved the common theory at that time that the Sun was smaller than Greece, even though was greatly
underestimated the actual size. In another theory, he stated that the planets, including earth, revolved around the
Sun. Although we know that it is correct today, scientists of his time did not and his theory was quickly
dismissed.
Another accomplishment in astronomy was made by Eratosthenes. Eratosthenes nearly perfectly calculated the
circumference of the earth. His estimate was 24,662 miles while our modern day calculations are 24,860 miles.
This puts his estimate at a nearly 1% deviation from our modern day calculation.
Mathematics and Physics
As for mathematics and physics, both Eratosthenes and Aristarchus used a geometry text compiled by Euclid.
Euclid was a highly regarded mathematician who opened a school of geometry in the city of Alexandria. His
book called The Elements contained 465 carefully presented geometry propositions and proofs. Muslim and
European universities used The Elements until well into the 1900’s.
Another important Hellenistic scientist, Archimedes of Syracuse, also studied at Alexandria. He accurately
estimated the value of pi, the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its radius. He also explained the law of the
lever and invented the compound pulley to life heavy objects.
CLASS ARTICLE:
“Thinker and creative genius, the Greek mathematician Archimedes was famous in the ancient world for his
inventions. He created devices used in peace and weapons used in war. He also did some work that advanced
mathematics. Many colorful legends arose about him—and many of them can be dismissed. Yet they cannot
detract from his numerous accomplishments. Archimedes’ interest in science and mathematics should not be
surprising. His father was an astronomer, which at that time was seen as a branch of mathematics. Archimedes
was born around 287 B.C. in Syracuse, Sicily, a Greek colony. He studied for a while in Alexandria at a school
founded by Euclid, another great mathematician. Archimedes lived the rest of his life in Syracuse. IN
mathematics, Archimedes explored many different ideas. For example, he tried to find the volume or area of a
variety of geometric shapes, such as circles, cones, cylinders, and spheres. In his work, he used ratios to find
the area of these figures…there are several inventions of Archimedes that establish his brilliance. While in
Egypt, he established a device called the Archimedes screw. Because it could lift water to higher levels, the
screw was useful for irrigating farmland. He also discovered the lever and pulley, which out be used to move
heavy objects. This invention prompted his statement that he could move the world. Finally, he designed and
built a planetarium that showed the movement of the Sun, the moon, and the five known planets [of that time].
According to one account, the machine worked so well that it showed the ellipses of the sun and moon. Among
his spectacular inventions were machines used for war. One ancient historian described what happened when
the Romans attacked Syracuse…”
The article goes on to say how a soldier killed Archimedes when he told him to go see the general and
Archimedes wanted to finish a math problem. After killing him, the general made the family of Archimedes rich
because his soldier defied his orders not to harm anyone in the city.
Philosophy and Art
Like earlier Greek philosophers, Hellenistic scholars believed that the universe followed rational principles.
They felt that philosophy offered the best ways to understand these principles. The teachings of Plateo and
Aristotle continued to be very influential in Hellenistic philosophy. In the third century B.C., however, new
schools of philosophy were concerned about how people should live their lives.
Stoicism, founded by a Greek philosopher named Zeno, believed that there was a divine power that ruled the
universe. They proposed that people should live a virtuous life in harmony with natural law. Stoics also
believed that virtues such as desire, power and wealth were dangerous distractions that could be controlled. This
philosophy was significant because it promoted social unity and encouraged its followers to focus on things
they could control. Its ethical doctrine appealed to people of many different races, cultures, and economic
backgrounds.
Epicureanism, founded by Epicurus founded the school of thought called Epicureanism. He taught that the
universe was composed of atoms and ruled by gods who had no interest in humans. Epicurus believed that the
only real objects in the world were of that the five senses could perceive. He taught that the greatest good and
the highest pleasure came from the virtuous conduct and the absence of pain. Epicureanism proposed that the
main goal of humans was to achieve harmony of body and mind.
Realism in Sculpture
Like science, sculpture flourished during the Hellenistic age. Rulers, wealthy merchants, and cities all
purchased statues to honor the gods, commemorate heroes, and portray ordinary people in everyday situations.
The largest known Hellenistic statue was created on the island of Rhodes. It is called, the Colossus of Rhodes.
The bronze statue stood more than 100 feet high. The colossal statue could not have stood with its feel
straddling the harbor entrance, as legend suggests. Unfortunately, the Colossus of Rhodes was toppled in 225
B.C. by an earthquake. Later, the bronze was sold for scrap metal.
The primary achievement of Hellenistic sculpture was the fact that it moved away from the harmonic balance
and idealized forms of the classical age. Sculptors moved on to creating more emotional and realistic works,
rather than marveling at the serene face and perfect body of an idealized man or woman. They felt free to
explore new subjects, carving ordinary people such as an old, wrinkled peasant woman.
However, by 150 B.C., the Hellenistic world was in decline and gave way to a newer core of Western
civilization.
Topic No. 3—The Romans Create a Republic
Vocabulary:
1. republic- a form of government in which power is in the hands of representatives and leaders are elected by
the people
2. patrician- in ancient Rome, a member of the wealthy, privileged upper class
3. plebeian- in ancient Rome, one of the common farmers, artisans, and merchants who made up most of the
population
4. tribune- in ancient Rome, an official elected by the plebeians to protect their rights
5. consul- in the Roman republic, one of the two powerful officials elected each year to command the army and
direct the government
6. senate- in ancient Rome, the supreme governing body, originally made up of only aristocrats
7. dictator- in ancient Rome, a political leader given absolute power to make laws and command the army for a
limited time
8. legion- a military unit of the ancient Roman army, made up of about five thousand foot soldiers and a group
of soldiers on horseback
9. Hannibal- a Carthaginian general
10. Scipio- a daring Roman general who opposed Hannibal
Key Concepts to the Start of the Roman Republic
The Beginnings of Rome
According to Roman legend, the city of Rome was founded in 753 BC by Romulus and Remus, twin sons of the
god Mars and a Latin princess. The twins were abandoned on the Tiber River as infants and raised by a shewolf. They decided to build a city near the spot. In reality, Rome developed because of its strategic location and
its fertile soil. Refer to handout
The earliest settlers on the Italian peninsula arrive in prehistoric times. From about 1000 to 500 BC, three
groups inhabited the region and eventually battled for control. They were the Latins, the Greeks and the
Etruscans. The Latins were farmers and shepherds who wandered into Italy across the Alps around 1000 BC.
They settled on either side of the Tiber River in a region they called Latium. They built the original settlement
at Rome, a cluster of wooden huts atop one of its seven hills, Palatine Hill. These settlers were the first Romans.
Between 750 and 600 BC, Greek settlers established about fifty colonies on the coasts of southern Italy
and Sicily. The cities became prosperous and commercially active. They brought all of Italy, including Rome,
into closer contact with Greek civilizations.
The Etruscans were native to northern Italy. They were skilled metalworkers and engineers. They
strongly influenced by the development of Roman civilization. They had a system of writing, and the Romans
adopted their alphabet. They also influenced Roman architecture (especially with the arch). The Romans also
adopted religious ideas from both the Greeks and the Etruscans. The Romans adopted Etruscan rituals that they
believed helped them to win the favor of the gods. Roman gods even took on the personalities and legends of
the Greek gods. Romans, however, gave their gods difference names. Thus Zeus, the king of the Greek gods,
became Jupiter in Rome, and Hera, the queen of the gods, became Juno.
The Early Republic
Around 600 BC, an Etruscan became king. Rome was not controlled by Etruscan cities, however, and under the
Etruscan kings, Rome grew from a collection of hilltop villages to a city that covered nearly 500 square miles.
-The last official king of Rome was Tarquin the Proud. He was a harsh tyrant and was driven from
power in 509 BC. Roman aristocrats, wealthy landowners who resented the Etruscan kings, overthrew him. The
Romans declared they would never again be ruled by a king. They swore to put death to anyone who plotted to
make himself king.
With the monarch deposed, the Romans established a new government. They called it a republic, from the Latin
phrase res publica, which means public affairs.
*In the Roman republic, there were two groups: the plebeians and the patricians. The patricians were the
wealthier class out of the two. They were the aristocratic landowners who held most of the power. The
plebeians, on the other hand, were the common farmers, merchants, and artisans who made up not the power,
but rather most of the population.
a. The patricians held most of the power and this power was passed down from generation to generation.
They claimed that their ancestry gave them the authority to make laws for Rome and its people. The plebeians
were citizens of Rome with the right to vote. They, however, were barred by law from holding the most
important governmental positions.
…and blah blah blah…
The Twelve Tables
An important victory of the plebeians was to force the creation of a written law code. With laws unwritten,
patrician officials often interpreted the law to suit themselves. In 451 BC, a group of ten officials began writing
down Rome’s laws. The laws were carved on twelve tablets or tables, and hung in the Forum. They became the
basis for Roman law. The Twelve Tables established the idea that all free citizens, patricians, and plebeians had
a right to the protection of the law.
And then there are tribunes, consuls, the senate, dictators, legions, etc.
Rome then conquers the Italian Peninsula, establishes a successful commercial network, has a war with
Carthage, and has Scipio win it for them and Rome ends up controlling the Mediterranean Sea. Happy studying
the rest everyone!! (: