Download Ecology (生態學

(7) Chapter 50
An Introduction to Ecology
and the Biosphere
(生態學及生物圈之介紹)
PowerPoint Lectures for
Biology, Seventh Edition
Neil Campbell and Jane Reece
Lectures by Chris Romero
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Key Concepts(基本觀念)
50.1: Ecology is the study of interactions between
organisms and the environment.(生態學是研究生物與
環境間之互動)
50.2: Interactions between organisms and the
environment limit the distribution of species.(生物與環
境間之互動限制物種之分佈)
50.3: Abiotic and biotic factors influence the structure
and dynamics of aquatic biomes.(非生物與生物因子影
響水生生物之結構與動態)
50.4: Climate largely determines the distribution and
structure of terrestrial biomes.(氣候決定陸生生物之結
構與分佈)
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Overview: The Scope of Ecology (生態學的範疇)
• Overview: The Scope of Ecology
• Ecology(生態學)
– Is the scientific study of the interactions(互
動) between organisms and the
environment
• These interactions (互動)
– Determine both the distribution(分佈) of
organisms and their abundance(豐度)
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• Ecology (生態學)
– Is an enormously complex and exciting
area of biology.
– Reveals the richness of the biosphere (生物
圈的豐富度).
Figure 50.1. The richness of
the biosphere evident in one
area of a Panamanian forest.
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• Concept 50.1: Ecology is the study of
interactions between organisms and the
environment
• Ecology (生態學)
– Has a long history as a descriptive
science(描述性科學)
– Is also a rigorous experimental science(實
驗性科學)
– Is an integrative biology(整合性生物學).
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Organisms and the Environment (生物與環境)
• The environment of any organism includes
– Abiotic(非生物性), or nonliving components:
temperature, sunlight, water and nutrient.
– Biotic (生物性), or living components: other
organisms.
– All the organisms living in the environment,
the biota (生物相)
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Ecology and Evolutionary Biology (演化生物學)
• Events that occur in ecological time
– Affect life on the scale of evolutionary time.
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Environmental components(環境成份、組成)
Affect the distribution and abundance of organisms
(影響生物的分佈與豐度).
Kangaroos/km2
Figure 50.2.
Distribution and
abundance of the red
kangaroo in
Australia, based on
aerial survey.
> 20
10–20
5–10
1–5
0.1–1
< 0.1
Limits of
distribution
Southern Australia has
cool, moist winters and
warm, dry summers.
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Climate in northern Australia
is hot and wet, with seasonal
drought.
Red kangaroos
occur in most
semiarid and arid
regions of the
interior, where
precipitation is
relatively low and
variable from
year to year.
Southeastern Australia
has a wet, cool climate.
Tasmania
Ecologists(生態學家)
Scientist or biologist using observations (觀察)
and experiments to test explanations (解釋) for
the distribution (分佈) and abundance (豐度) of
species.
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Four Subfields of Ecology (生態學之四個次領域)
• Organismal ecology (個體生態學)---Studies how
an organism’s structure, physiology, and (for
animals) behavior meet the challenges posed
by the environment.
Figure 50.3a. Organismal ecology (個體生態學). How
do humpback whales select their calving areas?
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Population ecology(族群生態學)
Concentrates mainly on factors (因子) that affect
how many individuals of a particular species live
in an area.
Figure 50.3b.
Population ecology.
What environmental
factors affect the
reproductive rate of
deer mice?
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Community ecology (群聚生態學)
Deals with the whole array of interacting species
in a community.
Figure 50.3c
Community ecology.
What factors influence
the diversity of species
(種的歧異度) that make
up a particular forest?
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Ecosystem ecology (生態系生態學)
Emphasizes energy flow (能量流) and
chemical cycling (化學循環) among the
various biotic and abiotic components (非生物
與生物組成).
Figure 50.3d
Ecosystem ecology.
What factors control
photosynthetic
productivity in a
temperate grassland
ecosystem (草原生態系)?
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Landscape ecology(景觀生態學)
Deals with arrays of ecosystems and how
they are arranged in a geographic region(地理
位置).
Figure 50.3e. Landscape ecology. To what extent do
the trees lining the drainage channels in this
landscape serve as corridors of dispersal for forest
animals?
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The biosphere (生物圈)
-Is the global ecosystem, the sum of all the
planet’s ecosystems.
-The Earth is the Biosphere 1. (地球是生物圈一號)
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生物圈二號(Biosphere 2)
定名為生物圈2號，是因為這是模仿第一個生物圈－地球的生態交流所
建的第二個生物圈 。亦即地球是生物圈1號。
生物圈2號建於亞利桑納州的奧拉克爾，金主是德州富豪巴斯，佔地三
點一英畝，約五層樓高，是以玻璃和鋼筋與外界隔絕的密閉溫室。 裡面經
人工規劃成熱帶雨林、熱帶大草原、沼澤、沙漠以及海洋等五種自然環境，
擁有千餘種昆蟲、鳥類、動物及魚類，以提供8名研究人員不假外界援助而
得獨立生活的自足生活系統，不幸結果卻演變成充滿二氧化碳和氮氣的惡地，
藤蔓叢生，蟑螂、螞蟻和螽斯橫行。
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生物圈2號内各個组成部分及結構参數
區域
面積(m2) 體積(m3) 土壤(m3) 水分(m3) 大氣(m3)
集約農業區
2000
38000
2720
60
35220
居住區
1000
11000
2
1
10997
熱帶雨林
2000
35000
6000
100
28900
熱帶草原/海洋/沼澤
2500
49000
4000
3400
41600
沙漠
1400
22000
4000
400
17600
西肺
1800
15000
0
0
15000
南肺
1800
15750
0
750
15000
註:上述两“肺”的體積僅為止其完全膨漲的50%
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Ecology and Environmental Issues
• Ecology
– Provides the scientific understanding
underlying environmental issues
• Rachel Carson
– Is credited
with starting
the modern
environmental
movement.
Figure 50.4
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Precautionary principle (預警原理/準則)
• Most ecologists follow the precautionary
principle regarding environmental issues.
• The precautionary principle (預警原理/準則)
– Basically states that humans need to be
concerned with how their actions affect the
environment.
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• Concept 50.2: Interactions between
organisms and the environment limit the
distribution of species
• Ecologists
– Have long recognized global and regional
patterns of distribution of organisms within
the biosphere
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• Many naturalists (自然學家)
– Began to identify broad patterns of
distribution by naming biogeographic realms
(生物地理範圍)
舊北極區
Palearctic
新北極區
Nearctic
東方區
Tropic
of Cancer
(23.5N)
Oriental
Ethiopian
衣索比亞區
Equator
(23.5S)
Tropic of
Capricorn
Neotropical
新熱帶區
Figure 50.5
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Australian
澳大利亞區
• Biogeography (生物地理學)
– Provides a good starting point for understanding
what limits the geographic distribution of species
Species
absent
because
Area inaccessible
Yes or insufficient time
Habitat
Yes selection
Dispersal
limits
distribution? No
Behavior
limits
distribution? No
Predation,
Water
parasitism,
Yes competition, ChemicalOxygen
factors Salinity
disease
Biotic factors
pH
(other species)
Abiotic factors
Soil nutrients,
limit
limit
No
distribution?
etc.
distribution?
Figure 50.6
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Physical Temperature
factors Light
Soil structure
Fire
Moisture, etc.
Dispersal and Distribution (散佈與分佈)
• Dispersal (散佈)
– Is the movement of individuals (個體的移動)
away from centers of high population
density or from their area of origin
– Contributes to the global distribution of
organisms
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Natural Range Expansions
Show the influence of dispersal on distribution.
Figure 50.7. Spread of
breeding populations
of the great-tailed
grackle (長尾白頭翁) in
the USA from 1974 to
1996. The grackle
expanded its breeding
range substantially in
just 22 years.
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New areas
occupied
Year
1996
1989
1974
Species Transplants (物種轉移)
• Species transplants
– Include organisms that are intentionally (有
目的地) or accidentally (偶然地) relocated
(再分佈) from their original distribution
– Can often disrupt the communities or
ecosystems to which they have been
introduced
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Behavior and Habitat Selection (行為與棲地選擇)
• Some organisms
– Do not occupy all of their potential range
• Species distribution (種的分佈)
– May be limited by habitat selection
behavior
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Biotic Factors (生物因子)
• Biotic factors that affect the distribution of
organisms may include
– Interactions with other species (種間互動)
– Predation (捕食作用)
– Competition (競爭作用)
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• A specific case of an herbivore limiting distribution
of a food species: Removal and Addition
EXPERIMENT W. J. Fletcher tested the effects of two algae-eating animals, sea urchins and limpets, on seaweed
abundance near Sydney, Australia. In areas adjacent to a control site, either the urchins, the limpets, or both were removed.
RESULTS
Fletcher observed a large difference in seaweed growth between areas with and without sea urchins.
Sea
urchin
海膽
海
草
覆
蓋
度
Figure 50.8
Seaweed cover (%)
100
Both limpets
and urchins
removed
80
Only urchins
removed
60
40
Limpet
帽貝
Only limpets removed
Control (both
urchins and
limpets present)
20
0
August
1982
February
1983
Removing both
limpets and urchins or
removing only urchins
increased seaweed
cover dramatically.
August
1983
Almost no seaweed
grew in areas where
both urchins and
limpets were present,
or where only limpets
were removed.
February
1984
CONCLUSION Removing both limpets and urchins resulted in the greatest increase of seaweed cover, indicating
that bothspecies have some influence on seaweed distribution. But since removing only urchins greatly increased
seaweed growth while removing only limpets had little effect, Fletcher concluded that sea urchins have a much
greater effect than limpets in limiting seaweed distribution.
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Abiotic Factors (非生物因子)
• Abiotic factors that affect the distribution of
organisms may include
– Temperature (溫度)
– Water (水)
– Sunlight (日光)
– Wind (風)
– Rocks and soil (岩石與土壤)
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Temperature
• Environmental temperature
– Is an important factor in the distribution of
organisms because of its effects on
biological processes
Water
• Water availability among habitats
– Is another important factor in species
distribution
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Sunlight
• Light intensity and quality
– Can affect photosynthesis in ecosystems
• Light
– Is also important to the development and
behavior of organisms sensitive to the
photoperiod (光週期)
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Wind (風)
• Wind
– Amplifies the effects of temperature on
organisms by increasing heat loss due to
evaporation (蒸發作用) and convection (對流)
– Can change the morphology of plants
Figure 50.9
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Rocks and Soil
• Many characteristics of soil limit the
distribution of plants and thus the animals
that feed upon them
– Physical structure (物理結構)
– pH (酸鹼度)
– Mineral composition (礦物組成)
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Climate (氣候)
• Four major abiotic components make up
climate
– Temperature, water, sunlight, and wind
• Climate
– Is the prevailing (盛行的/流行的) weather
conditions in a particular area
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Macroclimate and microclimate (巨氣候與微氣候)
• Climate patterns can be described on two scales
– Macroclimate (巨氣候), patterns on the global,
regional, and local level
– Microclimate (微氣候), very fine patterns, such as
those encountered by the community of organisms
underneath a fallen log
Global Climate Patterns (全球氣候型式)
• Earth’s global climate patterns are determined largely
by:
–
the input of solar energy (太陽能的輸入)
– the planet’s movement in space (星球在空間的運動)
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Latitudinal variation in sunlight intensity
• Sunlight intensity (光強度) plays a major part in
determining the Earth’s climate patterns
Low angle of incoming sunlight
低角度的入射日光
North Pole
60N
北極
北迴歸線
30N
Tropic of Cancer
0 (equator) 赤道
Sunlight directly overhead
日光正位於頭頂上方
Tropic of Capricorn
30S
南迴歸線
Low angle of incoming sunlight
低角度的入射日光
60S
South pole
Atmosphere
Figure 50.10. Latitudinal variation and sunlight intensity
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南極
Seasonal variation in sunlight intensity
地球因其軸的傾斜造成溫度與光強度
隨地球環繞太陽而週期性變化
六月夏至
June solstice: Northern
Hemisphere tilts toward
sun; summer begins in
Northern Hemisphere;
winter begins in
Southern Hemisphere.
60N
30N
0 (equator)
三月春分
March equinox: Equator faces sun
directly; neither pole tilts toward sun;
all regions on Earth experience 12
hours of daylight and 12 hours of
darkness.
30S
Constant tilt
of 23.5
十二月冬至
December solstice:
Northern Hemisphere tilts
away from sun; winter
begins in Northern
Hemisphere; summer
begins in Southern
Hemisphere.
九月秋分
September equinox: Equator
faces sun directly; neither pole
tilts toward sun; all regions on
Earth experience 12 hours of
daylight and 12 hours of
darkness.
Figure 50.10
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Global air circulation and precipitation patterns
• Air circulation and wind patterns play major parts
in determining the Earth’s climate patterns
全球氣流循環
60N
30N
上升的溼
靠近赤道的
空氣釋出
空氣循環與降雨 水氣
下降的乾
空氣吸收
水氣
Descending
dry air
absorbs
moisture
0 (equator)
30S
Ascending
moist air
releases
moisture
Descending
dry air
absorbs
moisture
0
60S
因加熱而移動的空氣在赤道兩側產生三
個主要的空氣循環，在每一個循環胞內
，上升的空氣質(藍色)以降雨方式釋出
水氣，而下降的空氣(褐色)則吸收水氣
，產生乾燥的環境。
下降的乾
空氣吸收
水氣
Arid zone
Tropics
Arid zone
乾燥區
熱帶區
乾燥區
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Figure 50.10
Global air circulation and precipitation patterns
GLOBAL WIND PATTERNS 全球風型式
西風帶
Arctic
Circle 北極圈
60N
Westerlies
30N
東北季風
Northeast trades
Doldrums
赤道無風帶
0 (equator)
Southeast trades
東南季風
30S
Westerlies
西風帶
Figure 50.10
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60S
Antarctic
Circle 南極圈
Regional, Local, and Seasonal Effects on Climate
• Various features of the landscape
– Contribute to local variations in climate
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Bodies of Water (水體)
• Oceans and their currents, and large lakes moderate the
climate of nearby terrestrial environments (海洋及其潮流
和大型湖泊調節其鄰近陸地環境的氣候)
2. Air cools at
high elevation.
1. Warm air
over land rises.
3. Cooler
air sinks
over water
4. Cool air over water
moves inland, replacing
rising warm air over land.
Figure 50.11. Moderating effects of large bodies of water on climate.
This figure illustrates what happens on a warm summer day.
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Mountains
• Mountains have a significant effect on
– The amount of sunlight reaching an area
– Local temperature
– Rainfall
1. As moist air moves in off
the Pacific Ocean and
encounters the westernmost
mountains, it flows upward,
cools at higher altitudes, and
drops a large amount of
water. The world’s tallest
trees, the coastal redwoods,
thrive here.
2. Farther inland, precipitation
increases again as the air
moves up and over higher
mountains. Some of the world’s
deepest snow packs occur here.
3. On the eastern side of the
Sierra Nevada, there is little
precipitation. As a result of
this rain shadow, much of
central Nevada is desert.
風向Wind
direction
Pacific
Ocean
East
Sierra
Nevada
Coast
Range
海岸山脈
Figure 50.12. How mountains affect rainfall.
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Seasonality (季節性)
• The angle of the sun (太陽角度)
– Leads to many seasonal changes in local
environments
Microclimate (微氣候)
• Microclimate
– Is determined by fine-scale differences (小
尺度的差異) in abiotic factors
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Seasonal turnover in lakes with winter ice cover
• Lakes are sensitive to seasonal temperature
change and experience seasonal turnover (季
節性翻轉)
2. In spring, as the sun melts the ice, the surface water warms
8
16
O2 concentration
High
Medium
Low
44
4
4
4
4C
20
4
4
4
4C
24
Lake depth (m)
Spring
Winter
Autumn
24
8
16
24
Summer
O2 (mg/L)
0 4 8 12
8
16
O2 (mg/L)
0 4 8 12
4
44
4
4
4C
4. In autumn, as surface water cools rapidly, it sinks
below the underlying layers, remixing the water until
the surface begins to freeze and the winter
temperature profile is reestablished.
Thermocline
22
20
18
8
6
5
4C
Lake depth (m)
Lake depth (m)
O2 (mg/L)
0 4 8 12
Lake depth (m)
to 4°C and sinks below the cooler layers immediately below,
eliminating the thermal stratification. Spring winds mix the
water to great depth, bringing oxygen (O2) to the bottom waters
(see graphs) and nutrients to the surface.
1. In winter, the coldest water in the lake (0°C) lies just
below the surface ice; water is progressively warmer at
deeper levels of the lake, typically 4–5°C at the bottom.
O2 (mg/L)
0 4 8 12
8
16
24
3. In summer, the lake regains a distinctive thermal profile, with
warm surface water separated from cold bottom water by a
narrowvertical zone of rapid temperature change, called a
thermocline.
Figure 50.13. Seasonal turnover in lakes with winter ice cover
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Long-Term Climate Change (長期氣候變遷)
• One way to predict future global climate change.
– Is to look back at the changes that occurred
previously
Figure 50.14.
Current range and
predicted range for
the American
beech under two
scenarios of
climate change.
Current range
Predicted range
Overlap
(a) 4.5C warming over
next century
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(b) 6.5C warming over
next century
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• Concept 50.3: Abiotic and biotic factors
influence the structure and dynamics of
aquatic biomes (水域生物相)
• Varying combinations of both biotic and
abiotic factors
– Determine the nature of Earth’s many
biomes
• Biomes (生物相、生物群落、生物群域)
– Are the major types of ecological
associations that occupy broad geographic
regions of land or water
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The distribution of major aquatic biomes
• The examination of biomes (生物相) will
begin with Earth’s aquatic biomes
30N
Tropic of Cancer
Equator
Continental
shelf
Tropic of Capricorn
30S
Key
Figure 50.15
Lakes
Rivers
Coral reefs
Oceanic
pelagic
zone
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Estuaries
Intertidal zone
Abyssal zone
(below oceanic
pelagic zone)
深海區
• Aquatic biomes (水域生物相)
– Account for the largest part of the
biosphere in terms of area
– Can contain fresh or salt water (淡水或鹹水)
• Oceans
– Cover about 75% of Earth’s surface
– Have an enormous impact on the biosphere
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Stratification of aquatic biomes (水域生物相的分層)
• Many aquatic biomes are stratified into zones or
layers defined by light penetration, temperature,
and depth
潮間帶
海洋的分層
Intertidal
zone
Neritic
zone Oceanic zone
湖泊的分層
Littoral
zone
延岸區
Limnetic
zone
湖沼區
透光區 Photic
Pelagic
zone
zone
遠洋區
Benthic
zone
底棲區 Aphotic
zone
無光區
Photic zone
Pelagic
Continental
zone
shelf大陸棚 Benthic
Aphotic
zone
zone
2,500–6,000 m
深海區Abyssal zone
(deepest regions of ocean floor)
(a) Zonation in a lake. The lake environment is
generally classified on the basis of three physical
criteria: light penetration (photic and aphotic
zones), distance from shore and water depth
(littoral and limnetic zones), and whether it is open
water (pelagic zone) or bottom (benthic zone).
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0
200 m
(b) Marine zonation. Like lakes, the marine
environment is generally classified on the
basis of light penetration (photic and aphotic
zones), distance from shore and water depth
(intertidal, neritic, and oceanic zones), and
whether it is open water (pelagic zone) or
bottom (benthic and abyssal zones).
Figure 50.16a, b
• Lakes (湖泊)
LAKES
Figure 50.17A
An oligotrophic lake (貧養湖)
in Grand Teton, Wyoming
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A eutrophic lake (優養湖)
in Okavango delta,
Botswana
• Wetlands (溼地)
• Estuaries (河口)
Figure 50.17B. Okefenokee
National Wetland Reserve
in Georgia
Figure 50.17C. An estuary in
a low coastal plain of Georgia
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• Streams and rivers (溪流與河川)
A headwater stream in the
Great Smoky Mountains
Figure 50.17D
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The Mississippi River far
form its headwaters
• Intertidal zones (潮間 • Coral reefs (珊瑚礁)
帶)
Figure 50.17E. Rocky
intertidal zone on the
Oregon coast
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Figure 50.17F. A coral reef in the
Red Sea
• Oceanic pelagic biome (大洋區生物相)
Figure 50.17G.
Open ocean off
the island of
Hawaii
• Marine benthic zone (底棲區)
Figure 50.17H.
A deep-sea
hydrothermal vent
community
深海噴泉群落
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• Concept 50.4: Climate largely determines
the distribution and structure of terrestrial
biomes (氣候主要決定陸域生物相的分佈與結
構)
• Climate (氣候)
– Is particularly important in determining why
particular terrestrial biomes are found in
certain areas
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Climate and Terrestrial Biomes (氣候與陸域生物相)
• Climate has a great impact on the distribution
of organisms, as seen on a climograph (氣候圖)
年
平
均
溫
Annual mean temperature (ºC)
Desert
沙膜
30
Temperate
grassland
Tropical forest
熱帶森林
草原
Temperate
溫帶森林 broadleaf
15
forest
Coniferous
針葉林 forest
0
Arctic and
極地與高山苔原 alpine
tundra
15
100
200
300
400
Annual mean precipitation (cm)
年平均雨量
Figure 50.18. A climograph for some major types of biomes in North America.
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• The distribution of major terrestrial biomes
主要陸域生物相的分佈
北迴歸線
30N
Tropic of Cancer
熱帶地區
Tropical
area
Equator
南迴歸線
Tropic of Capricorn
30S
Key
Tropical forest
Savanna 稀樹草原
Desert
Chaparral 夏旱灌叢
Tundra 苔原(北極與高山)
Temperate grassland
High mountains
Temperate broadleaf
Polar ice
forest
Coniferous forest 針葉林
Figure 50.19
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General Features (特徵) of Terrestrial Biomes
• Terrestrial biomes (陸域生物相)
– Are often named for major physical or
climatic factors and for their predominant
vegetation (優勢植被)
• Vertical stratification (垂直分層)
– Is an important feature of terrestrial biomes
– Canopy(林冠), low-tree stratum(矮樹層),
shrub understory(灌叢), ground layer of
herbaceous plant(地面草本植物層), forest
floor(森林地表) (litter layer落葉層), root
layer(根層)
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• Tropical forest (熱帶森林)
Figure 50.20A. A tropical rain
forest in Borneo
• Desert (沙漠)
Figure 50.20B. The Sonoran
Desert in southern Arizona
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• Savanna (稀樹草原)
Figure 50.20C. A typical
savanna in Kenya
• Chaparral (夏旱灌叢)
Figure 50.20D. An area of
chaparral in California
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• Temperate grassland (溫帶草原)
Figure 50.20E. Sheyenne
National Grassland in
North Dakota
• Coniferous forest (針葉林)
Figure 50.20F. Rocky
Mountain National Park
in Colorado
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• Temperate broadleaf forest (溫帶闊葉林)
Figure 50.20G. Great Smoky
Mountains National Park in North
Carolina
• Tundra (苔原)
Figure 50.20H. Denali National
Park, Alaska, in autumn
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