Download Portfolio and Reflective Argument Sample #3

Reflective Argument and Portfolio
English 3010
Charles Buckland
000340301
22 April 2013
Bradley Stabler
Contents:
Reflective Argument…………………………………………………………….pg. 3
Discourse Community Analysis………………………………………………...pg. 10
Research Inquiry………………………………………………………………...pg. 18
Research Inquiry Rough Draft Sample………………………………………….pg. 28
Research Proposal……………………………………………………………….pg. 30
Rhetorical Analysis……………………………………………………………...pg. 40
Writing Response 2……………………………………………………………...pg. 45
Deep Thoughts by Charles Buckland
Most students go through their academic career without exploring their future profession
or the contrasting difference between academic writing and professional writing. They complete
the writing guidelines and convey information they think the professor wants to hear. We are all
guilty of it at some point because writing about a boring subject is not fun. How many times
have you stared at your computer thinking of what to say next? I’m actually doing it right now.
English 3010 has given me the opportunity to explore pharmacy careers in depth. I learned a lot
about community pharmacists through the group project and the role of clinical pharmacist from
the discourse community analysis. The research inquiry and proposal provided the chance to
delve into the world of pharmaceutical sciences. I learned the genres and lexis associated with
pharmacy. This course has improved my research skills and put them to the test in a flexible
writing assignment. I generated ideas from the research I conducted and composed an essay in
the style of my future discourse community. This reflective argument will show that the learning
outcomes presented in the beginning of the semester has helped me grow as a writer.
Part of the first learning outcome is to produce writing that demonstrates the ability to
identify and describe various genres in your profession. I demonstrate this in the Discourse
Community Analysis assignment. I describe scholarly articles about the pharmacy profession
including the language, format, and comprehension tools that are used in the compositions. Two
of the articles I used in the essay are arranged like a lab report, which is a widely used technique
in pharmacy literature. I gave a good description of the way they are composed and why they are
that way. I gave examples of jargon but I mistakenly indicated visual aids as genres in the paper.
I used sources from journals and professional websites associated with the pharmacy discourse
because both are important tools to exchange information. The audiences for the pieces ranged
from anyone interested in pharmacy jobs to researchers and scholars in the field.
Writing response 2 is class assignment where we had to rhetorically analyze a blog
related to our future profession. This is a small writing assignment but it demonstrates my ability
to describe an article in my discipline from a rhetorical perspective, which is another part of the
first learning outcome. I chose a blog about using engineering tools such as CAD programs to
assemble DNA molecules that link to drugs and act as a delivery system. I described the author’s
credentials and how the he shows his authority on the subject. I identified his intended audience
and how he appealed and interacted with them. I thought this article was very interesting and it
contributed to decision to choose drug delivery as my semester long research topic.
I accomplished the second learning outcome through the research inquiry project. The
second learning outcome of the course is to produce an extended writing project that uses
research methods and genres to explore a question applicable to the course and draws
substantively from primary and/or secondary sources. I did an extensive amount of research on
secondary sources for the literature review on the topic of drug delivery methods. I had a
difficult time deciding on which articles to use. I read about 20-30 pieces of literature. Every
document was long and written in a scientific scholarly manner. I did not determine which pieces
to use until I redrafted my paper. Finding primary sources for the project was also a challenge.
Most scientific research is a continuation of past investigations. The experiments are new but the
laboratory methods and the knowledge to carry them out are usually the same. I found an article
about siRNA interference for the paper that is a primary source but I elected to use it in the
research proposal assignment. Two of the articles I include in the paper are secondary sources
because the authors did not perform any of the research. The first describes the drug delivery
methods studied in the 1990s and the second explains the use nanoparticles for drug delivery
systems. I chose sources that gave an overview of delivery systems twenty years ago and showed
the evolution of the topic to the most recent research.
During the assignment I employed a couple of new research methods. The first is
gathering research through an interview. When the project began I was thinking, “How in the
world am I going to find someone to interview about drug delivery systems using
nanotechnology?” I did not waste any time trying to find someone because I thought it would be
difficult. As it turns out, the search was very easy. The Wayne State Pharmacy School has a
researcher who specializes in nanotechnology. I e-mailed Dr. Olivia Merkel from the
pharmaceutical science department and she agreed to an interview. Dr. Merkel is a major in her
field and has won many awards for her research. She is from Germany and has worked with
colleagues from around the world. I probably could not find anyone more qualified to interview.
The interview lasted almost two hours and we discussed more things than I could include in the
paper. I focused on how she conducts research for my essay. The second new research method I
used was Google Scholar on the Wayne State library website. I used resources on the university
website before such as JSTOR and Academic One File before but I would have difficulties
accessing articles. I would often see prompts that said I need a subscription to view the file.
Using Google Scholar through the website actually allowed me to view almost every publication
listed on the search engine.
The most flexible writing assignment was the research proposal project. This paper
shows my use of learning outcome number three. I generated ideas for the proposal by using by
combing the information in the literature review with knowledge I learned from school. I read
about studies using nanoparticles for drug delivery and gene interference from siRNA. I could
not find research that uses siRNA delivery for lymphatic cancer, although that does not mean is
not currently under study. From what I know about cancer and the lymphatic system I thought
this would be a good proposal. I used my interview with Dr. Merkel on how she conducts her
research as model for my own. I discussed common laboratory procedures that I am familiar with
from my experience. I have performed DNA cloning using PCR techniques and the ligation of
vectors in biology labs. I have enrolled in synthesis labs in chemistry and I am familiar some
procedures for making molecules.
I did encounter a couple of problems while drafting the research proposal. The first was
writing for an audience. The primary audience I wrote for was a grant committee with limited
biological background. I also wrote for the scientific community as a secondary audience. The
paper contains a lot of biology and I had to decide which terms or procedures to explain. I briefly
discussed what reverse transcription is and how to insert genes into a cloning vector. I did not
define terms like cytosol and endocytosis because I thought the reader could determine their
meanings from the text. The second problem is the drafting process moved slowly because I was
trying not to write in the passive voice. It seemed as if I had to think of ways to avoid saying
“will be done” every other sentence. The bright side of the slow methodical pace is that the paper
did not need substantial revision or editing.
I did however have a major revision of the research inquiry. I completely redrafted the
assignment the Friday before it was due. As I mentioned previously I decided to eliminate two
articles I originally included in the literature review. One article I removed explained older
methods of drug delivery from the 1960s and 70s. Some of the methods described were also in
the piece by Robert Langer I included. At first I found it difficult to have the texts in
conversation with each other. In the original draft I did not divide the articles into separate
paragraphs. I tried to blend the sources together and keep things in chronological order. After
finally deciding on which articles to use I discussed them individually. I still wrote about the
information chronologically, which was a mistake. I wrote about a new way to integrate data to
increase to efficiency of drug development for pharmacy research after the section with the
interview because it is the latest information in regards to time. I should have included it in the
literature review. I am not pleased with the final draft of my research inquiry. The complete
revision left me short on time and I did poor job editing. The paper contained the use of passive
voice, spelling errors, and I missed a citation.
The first assignment in the class was a rhetorical analysis of a class reading. This essay
allowed me to accomplish part 1 of learning outcome number four, which is to produce writing
that rhetorically analyzes new genres. I identified the audiences the authors are writing to and
their purpose for publishing the article. I identified the use of logos and mentioned the author’s
credentials as the backbone of their ethos. I did not find the use of pathos because I often
overlook emotional appeals. This is a part of my writing I need to improve on. I am a science
guy so I just stick to the facts and establish authority on the subject through knowledge. I also
pinpointed two valid criticisms of the piece. This assignment was a good exercise for the rest of
the semester. It was the building block for part 2 of learning outcome number 4. Those skills
allowed me to appropriately analyze texts during my research and select articles that supported
my argument. I will apply this learning objective in future writing assignments by performing
background checks of the authors of sources and choosing essays with solid arguments with few
criticisms.
Throughout the semester I used the same writing process. I started by jotting down notes
of ideas and supporting facts. I assembled an outline with a working thesis and began writing.
During the paper or after the draft was complete I refined the thesis as needed to match my
argument. Following the completion of the rough draft I edited sentences that strayed from my
argument to stay focused on my topic. Then I proofread the essay aloud-fixing grammar and
forms of “be”. I participated in a rough draft peer review in class and at home. They did not help
much. I made corrections from my peer’s advice and Professor Stabler commented on these
changes as organization errors. Although the reviews were a bust, I will continue to use them in
the future along with the writing process I just explained.
A helpful writing tool I learned this semester is the evaluation method of annotated
bibliographies. This is great way to list the purpose and main points of the articles I researched.
It provides an opportunity to see the common themes between sources and how they related to
each other. I will continue to use this for further research assignments and for any writing
intensive courses I may have to take. Writing the research proposal was also a good experience
for future writing situations. I plan to do some research as a pharmacist and the project allowed
my to see all the planning involved and how to select the proper literature to support my
hypothesis.
Before enrolling into this course I did not have a good understanding of my writing skills.
Even though I received good grades on my papers I did not obtain proper feedback. Comments
such as “good content” and “excellent” are not something to build from. The learning outcomes
in English 3010 have taught me new research methods and new ways to analyze material for
future writing projects. Even though I grew as a writer this semester I have also identified areas I
need to improve. I know I have to streamline my writing and work on my conclusions to support
my argument. The most valuable part of the class was learning how to write in my discourse
community.
Discourse Community Analysis
A Glimpse into Pharmacy and Research Topics
Pharmacy is an important aspect of health and medicine. Pharmacists work in many
settings. Practitioners of the field dispense medicine, give health advice, and create treatments
for patients battling diseases. Careers in pharmacy are growing at a 25% increase rate. Demand
for pharmacists are growing because of the rise in numbers of the elderly and because health care
problems are becoming more complex. Continual research in pharmacology is trying to solve
medical dilemmas. Drug delivery is an issue that interests me because it is pushing treatments
into new territory. Pharmacists are highly educated professionals who work to increase the
quality of life for everyone.
Pharmacists provide health care focusing on drug therapy for patients in many hospital
and community settings ranging from large medical institutions to local drugstores. There are
many occupational positions for pharmacists in these settings. Clinical pharmacists communicate
with doctors and assist them in formulating therapies to ensure the optimal success for a patient’s
treatment to diseases like cancer. They advise physicians on drug usage, possible effects, and
drug dosage. Other responsibilities involve coordinating pharmacy technician’s duties, labeling,
and delivery of medications, and recording these medication deliveries within the local, state,
and federal law (pharmacyjobsonly.com). Pharmacists participate in ambulatory care. These
pharmacists assist discharged patients with medication adherence. They have a complete
summary of what medication the patient is taking and why. They reduce readmissions by staying
connected to the patient by performing follow-ups through phone calls, e-mails, and texts.
Ambulatory pharmacists decrease the chances of the patient having to go to the emergency room
because of a drug mishap or missed medication (DeBennette). Local drugstore pharmacists work
close with the community by dispensing drugs and filling prescriptions. They also have good
knowledge of a customer’s medication and why it is prescribed. They help people deal with
insurance agencies and look for prescription errors that could be harmful or fatal to the patient.
Regardless of what specific role pharmacists take on, they must receive extensive training and
education.
After the completion of undergraduate work, pharmacists receive a comprehensive fouryear education on drugs and therapeutics to achieve a PharmD degree. Studies include
pharmacology, pharmaceutics, medicinal chemistry, and patient care communications. Graduates
have to complete at least one year of postdoctoral residency training and many will do a second
year in a specialty area of practice (Donald et al). Pharmacists have to pass the North American
Pharmacist Licensure Examination, or NAPLEX, to become licensed. A pharmacist’s education
is not limited to the classroom and extends beyond graduation.
Research is an extremely important part of the pharmacy domain. The main goal is to
treat disease and increase a patient’s well being so pharmacists need post PharmD education and
workshops to stay on top of new developments. Some critical areas of research deal with drug
delivery, pharmaceutical cell biology, and multi-drug resistance in cancer cells. Pharmaceutical
research traditionally uses clinical trials to gather data but this method takes months or years to
complete. Current trends use adoptive trial design methodology. It allows researchers to confirm
unsuccessful treatments sooner and bring new drugs to the market faster. This method improves
patient safety, saves valuable time, and cuts down the cost of research (Cirulli et al). Most
research is a collaborative effort. Pharmacists implement treatment ideas. Chemists and
biologists research the reactions to drugs that take place in the body and how the body responds.
They also work together to develop new drugs.
This research is published in medical journals such as The New England Journal of
Medicine, the American Journal of Health-System Pharmacy, and the American Association for
Cancer Research Journal. EBSCOhost is a database that serves thousands of libraries and other
institutions with research in pharmacy. A professional website that posts research articles is the
American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy. Other forms of communication in the discourse
community of pharmacy include books and conferences at hospitals.
Ongoing research for the last 30 years involves multi-drug resistance in cancer cells. In
the article “Mulitdrug Resistance in Cancer: Role of ATP-Dependant Transporters,” from the
Nature Reviews Cancer Journal, the authors describe the cellular mechanism of drug resistance.
Research shows cancer cells increase the activity of efflux pumps, such as the ATP dependent
PGP transporters, to drive drugs out of the cell. The cells can also activate cytochrome P450
detoxifying proteins and mechanisms that repair DNA damage resulting from pharmaceuticals.
They list the investigations researchers conduct to reverse drug resistance. PGP inhibition and
reducing the dosage of anti-cancer drugs are methods under study but there is no clear definitive
answer yet (Gottesman et al.) The article is formally written with many citations. The language
contains both pharmaceutical and biological jargon. For example they list vinca alkaloids and
anthracyclines as classes of anti-cancer drugs that cells are resistant to. Biological terms include
flippase and canalicular membrane. The authors include different genres within their piece.
There are diagrams of the inner workings of cells and structures of membrane transporters. A
table of tissue localization and possible functions of transporters is shown. Another genre is a
graph of a surrogate assay for PGP inhibition. These are important in science because they
visually show the data and the results of research. The authors conclude the article with future
prospects. They claim “Detailed knowledge about the causes of drug resistance might make it
possible, in the future, to predict the response of a human cancer to chemotherapy’’(Gottesman
et al. 56). This means the research may identify how each cancer cell expresses defense to
pharmaceuticals allowing for the design of treatments for specific types of cancer. The authors
also bring up the significance of adequate drug delivery for optimal treatment.
In the article “ Oral Drug Delivery Systems Comprising Altered Geometric
Configurations for Controlled Drug Delivery,” from the International Journal of Molecular
Science, the authors explain the research that shows the advantages of controlled drug delivery
over conventional methods. The authors state that adequate plasma drug levels reduce side
effects and improve patient compliance. They explain some of the development of the various
drug release patterns. The systems include multilayered tablets that use constant surface area for
release and geometrically altered devises that utilize specific polymers that act as barriers to
control drug release (Moodley et al). The style of the article follows a scientific lab report. It
begins with an abstract. An introduction with background information follows. The authors
include the devises used in the research and end with a conclusion of final thoughts on the
investigation. This research is important because prolonged delivery of drugs allows plasma
levels to be maintained minimizing drug toxicity that can occur at high concentrations.
Another article that contains research on drug delivery is “Enhanced targeting with
heterobivalent ligands,” from the American Association for Cancer Research Journal. The
authors publish their actual lab report in the journal. The report shows the results of experimental
use of ligands consisting of pharmacophores tethered together by chemical linkers to target
cancer cells (Xu et al.). Along with an introduction, the authors include the materials used and
methods so the experiment can be repeated. The report contains the results with graphs and
diagrams. The discussion section explains what they did, the challenges of the experiment,
observations, and a summary of what the results mean. This article is an example of the
language, genres, and structure used for all research reports in the pharmaceutical research field.
There is a saying that chemistry is biology and biology is chemistry. The topic I want to
research over the semester is methods of drug delivery because it is a combination of both. Drug
delivery is also a major area of pharmaceutical research. It is an area I will have to know well as
a clinical pharmacist. A major goal of cancer therapy is to kill or inhibit cancer cells while
reducing the effects of drugs on normal cells. Other goals of treatments are to minimize side
effects and toxicity to the patient. There is a large amount of research on the subject in many
journals so I should be able to find material from credible sources. Biological agents and
chemical agents are potential sources for controlled drug delivery. Computer programmers are
developing CAD programs to assist new research dealing with DNA scaffolding for multi-drug
delivery to a specific target.
Many individuals work together to perform research with the goal to improve
pharmaceutical practices and the lives of everyone. They convey the information through
medical journals comprising articles that are formally written with many citations. The language
encompasses pharmacological and biological jargon. The texts often contain charts, tables, and
graphs. There are different styles of writings like lab reports and regular essays. The target
audiences are researchers and pharmacists. I will be researching the methods of drug delivery.
The question I want to answer is what agents, biological or chemical, are going to dominate the
future of drug delivery. This research is worth the undertaking because I plan to practice clinical
pharmacy for my future career. The prospect of manipulating DNA present in the human body to
cure or treat diseases seems worth the consideration.
Works Cited
“Clinical Pharmacist Job Description.” Pharmacyjobsonly.com. Web. 3 Feb 2013.
Cirulli, J, WD McMillian, M Saba, D Stenehjem. “Adaptive trial design: its growing role in
clinical research and implications for pharmacists.” American Journal of Health-System
Pharmacy (2011). Web. 3 Feb 2013. http://www.ajhp.org/content/68/9/807.long
DeBenedette, Valerie. “Ambulatort pharmacies help improve adherence, quality of car.”
Drugtopics.modernmedicine.com. 15 Feb 2012. Web. 3 Feb 2013.
Donald, E Letendre, et al. “Pharmacist Interdependent Prescribing: A New Model For
Optimizing Patient Outcomes.” American Journal of Health-System Pharmacy 69.22
(2012): 1976-1981. CINAHL Plus with Full Text. Web. 3 Feb. 2013.
http://ehis.ebscohost.com/eds/detail?vid=3&sid=346b70a7-f9f3-4cc9-92370024e4aa682c%40sessionmgr15&hid=3&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWRzLWxpdmUmc2NvcG
U9c2l0ZQ%3d%3d#db=rzh&AN=2011739806
Gottesman, Michael, Tito Fojo, and Susan Bates. “Mulitidrug resistance in Cancer: Role of ATPDependant Transporters.” Nature Reviews Cancer Journal (2002): 48-58. Web. 3 Feb
2013. http://www.stanford.edu/class/cbio101/coursework/gottesman2002.pdf
Moodley, Kovanya, Viness Pillay *, Yahya E Choonara, Lisa C du Toit,
Valence M. K Ndesendo, Pradeep Kumar , Shivaan Cooppan and Priya Bawa. “Oral
Drug Delivery Systems Comprising Altered Geometric Configurations for Controlled
Drug Delivery.” Internaltional Journal of Molecular Sciences 13 (2011): 18-43. Web. 3
Feb 2013. www.mdpi.com/journal/ijms
Xu, Liping, Josef Vagner, Hatinder Josan, Ronald M. Lynch, David L. Morse, Brenda Baggett,
Haiyong Han, Eugene A. Mash, Victor J. Hruby, and Robert Gillies. “Enhanced targeting
with heterobivalent ligands.” American Association for Cancer Research Journal 2356
(2009). Web. 3 Feb 2013. http://mct.aacrjournals.org/content/8/8/2356.full
Research Inquiry
Med Ex
Imagine a time when cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy will not loose their hair
or become so nauseous they cannot eat. Conventional cancer treatments cause toxicity to healthy
cells killing them along with the cancerous cells. Controlled drug delivery is a subject that has
been studied for many years and has gone through a remarkable evolution. It is an important
research topic in the pharmaceutical community because it investigates therapeutic agents and
delivery systems to target only the cells infected with disease. The research opens the doors for
new therapies and new therapeutics that interact with the cause of the disease not just the
symptoms of the disease (Merkel). The research also works to minimize side effects from drugs
and to make existing pharmaceutics more effective for better patient outcomes. This research
inquiry will investigate which methods of drug delivery are studied and how the research is
conducted. This will be done through a literature review and an interview with a respected
researcher in the field.
In 1990 Robert Langer discusses the boom in drug delivery research and the methods
currently researched in his article “New Methods of Drug Delivery.” Langer says there has been
an explosion in research aimed at creating new delivery systems for several reasons. The existing
research showed that old pharmaceuticals could be delivered more safely and efficacy was
improved so it cost less than creating a new pharmaceutical. Other reasons include the awareness
that drug release patterns affect therapeutic responses and drugs became more complex and
required more complicated delivery systems. He writes about controlled release systems such as
pressure driven pumps that can release the drug directly into the bloodstream precisely at a target
organ sparing the rest of the body. The major disadvantage is the pumps are costly and surgery is
required to implant the syringe. Langer explains research on chemically modified drugs. They
are modified by changing various properties like where the drug gets distributed in the body,
including the targeting of drugs for a particular site or type of cell in the body. Drugs have also
been attached to macromolecules such as proteins and polysaccharides. Research has shown
these complexes reduce tumor size. Methods are being studied to create liposomes to release
drugs in response to stimuli such as heat, enzymes, and pH. Liposomes are macroparticulates
used as drug carriers composed of lipids. However, liposomes have poor stability during storage
and use. He also explains a new approach for targeting specific cells by linking a bioactive agent
to antibodies. This research involves genetic engineering of mouse antibodies to be more similar
to humans. He concludes by saying advancements in biotechnology will have a major effect on
drug delivery and developments in genetic engineering will allow the creation of new molecular
constructs (Langer).
The next article was published 12 years later and shows a shift in research towards
nanoparticles. They are particles of less than 1 μm in diameter that encapsulate drugs and are
prepared by natural or synthetic polymers depending on the nature of the drug used and duration
of release time desired. The authors of “Biodegradable Nanoparticles for drug delivery and
targeting” say nanoparticles offer more versatility because of their size and the wide range of
properties they possess. They can deliver hydrophilic drugs, hydrophobic drugs, proteins,
vaccines, and biological macromolecules to various areas of the body over a prolonged period of
time. They are better suited for intravenous delivery and can be can be formulated for targeted
delivery to the lymphatic system, brain, arterial walls, lungs, liver, spleen, or made for long-term
systemic circulation. A large amount of attention has been given to lymphatic targeting because
of the absorption of the drug via the GULT (gut associated lymphatic tissue) bypassing the liver.
Peyer’s patches are cells that overlie lymphoid tissue and are responsible for endocytosis and
transport to the adjacent lymphoid tissue. The optimum size for uptake of the Peyer’s patches is
less than 1 μm. Research has shown microparticles remain in Peyer’s patches but nanoparticles
are small enough for cellular internalization. This could be beneficial for anticancer treatment,
mucosal immunity, and viral infections (Hans and Lowman).
In the article “Pulmonary Gene Delivery Using Polymeric Nonviral Vectors,” the authors
discuss the administration of therapeutic genes to pulmonary epithelia. It offers new approaches
to treating cystic fibrosis, asthma, emphysema, and lung cancer. Special attention is given to the
barriers in the lung that have to be overcome for successful delivery. The therapeutic nucleic
acids have to be formulated into nanosize carrier systems to allow the lung to uptake the
molecules. This leads to rapid local and systemic affects. Another barrier is the difference
between rodent and human airways. This does not allow the researchers to easily measure the
patient’s compliance through animal models. The effect of mucus, surfactant, macrophages, and
other biological barriers have on the delivery of the drugs must be studied in great detail. The
authors also discuss nonviral gene delivery agents. Aerosol technology is developed well for
small drug delivery and optimized for gene delivery to the lung. Dry powder inhalation aerosol
delivery technique is the most advantageous because of its portability, ease of handling, and
improved stability of pDNA. Several polymeric delivery agents are mentioned that showed some
degree of success. The poly (ethylene imine) carrier is the most studied and has shown very
effective protection and release of the DNA with successive transgene expression. The addition
of targeting ligands to multifunctional nanoparticles may further the specificity of gene transfer
in the lung if an internalizing receptor is selected. In vitro testing uses air-interface cell culture
models of human primary small airway epithelial cells on fibrillar collagen/fibronectin cells.
Monocytes seeded on top of the culture differentiate into macrophages. The cell cultures are used
for investigating cell type specific transfection and gene delivery uptake. Ex vivo models used
include an isolated perfused lung and sheep trachea tissue. In vivo models study gene delivery in
small animals such as mice and rats with a few reports of swine and sheep. Microspray devises
have been developed to administer the gene expression vectors and a luciferase from Gaussia
princeps (Gluc) is used as a reporter gene. The authors believe that DNA nanocarriers composed
of multifunctional polymers can be successful in clinical trials and hopefully in the future more
emphasis will be placed on biodegradable and targeted nonviral vectors (Merkel et al).
For information on how drug delivery research is conducted I interviewed Dr. Olivia
Merkel from the Wayne State College of Pharmacy. Dr. Merkel is a professor for the
pharmaceutical science department and oversees a research lab focusing on gene expression
through pulmonary delivery. She received her PhD from the Department of Pharmaceutics and
Biopharmacy, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Germany. She has published numerous writings
and received many honors including a New Talent for the Future of Nanomedicine Award
(cphs.wayne.edu). Dr. Merkel gave me a tour of her lab where I was able to meet the three
postdoctoral researchers she works with. I observed the lab equipment used in their research like
the reverse transcriptase machine and a stir plate on which the nanoparticles precipitate. One of
her post-docs was synthesizing polymers which I thought was very interesting. She even allowed
my to view some cell samples under the microscope. Some of the questions I asked her were:
“How is your research conducted”, “What ethical issues are there when using animal models or
clinical trials on humans”, “What complications does she run into”, and “How has research
changed in the last ten years?” She replied that most of the research is cell culture based. They
have run tests to characterize the particle size. After repeating the same successful results many
times over they can move forward to testing animal models with mice. The mice they use have to
be bought from a company that breeds mice for laboratory testing. They have to convince a
board to allow testing and follow the three Rs of animal experimentation. The first R is
reduction. They must reduce the number of animals through good data collection and analysis.
The second is replacement. They have to replace the animals with more cell cultures if
applicable. The last R is refinement. It means a change in the experiment so that there is a
reduction or replacement of animals or a reduction in pain or stress that may be felt by the
animal. Successful treatments with mice can lead to testing on primates and eventually clinical
trials with humans. She says there is a clinical monitoring board they have to convince to allow
clinical trials and follow similar procedures to animal models. It usually takes about five years to
get to the point of clinical trials. The time can be decreased if someone else doing the same
research and obtaining the same results. Dr. Merkel also discussed the complications she has
faced during research. She says only about 50% of experiments are successful. They do a lot of
trouble shooting to discover out what went wrong. Sometimes unhealthy animals are provided
and drugs may be unavailable. If they are working with radioactive material it can decay by the
time they receive the drug. Someone may forget to add a reagent so human error is something
that causes experiments to fail. She believes the biggest difference in research in the last ten
years is how information is accessed and shared. Currently people can download literature on
phones and e-mail alerts signal when new information has been published. This allows the
research to take place at a faster pace (Merkel). Dr. Merkel sent me the previous article which
explained how they conducted their research in more detail. She also let me borrow one of her
magazines that had an article on quantitative translational medicine.
In the article “The Benefits of Quantitative Translational Medicine,” published by the
American Association of Pharmaceutical Scientists Magazine, Mark Craword writes about a
webinar held by the magazine. Joga Goburu, a professor at the University of Maryland School of
Pharmacy argues that if the pharmaceutical industry adopted quantitative translational medicine
it would improve late clinical trials to a 100% success rate. Quantitative translational medicine is
an emerging discipline that integrates data from pre-clinical, clinical, post-market, financial, and
therapeutic stages to increase the efficiency of drug development. It depends on each department
sharing its data and conclusions through all stages of development. Currently individual
departments operate using different criteria that should be shared. Goburu claims that if the
information is shared and archived then the pharmaceutical industry will double productivity in
the initial stages of research. It will reduce redundant practices and eliminate unnecessary
testing.
The four articles reviewed cover a period of 23 years. They show the evolution of drug
delivery systems during a time when technology itself was on the rise. The advances made in
biotechnology shifted the focus of the research to using biodegradable drug carriers and even
genetic engineering. Technology has increased the pace of research because of the way
information is shared and promises to increase the efficiency of testing from the initial stages to
late clinical trials. The articles showed that all the methods researched have many obstacles to
overcome and the process is long and complicated. Drug delivery using gene expression is still in
its infancy and more testing is needed to bring it to clinical trials. Research on Controlled drug
delivery will continue to evolve and develop new therapies for various diseases. The application
of nanotechnology to drug delivery is sure to change the landscape of pharmaceutical industry
for the foreseeable future.
Work Cited
Crawford, Mark. “The Benefits of Quantitative Translational Medicine.” American Association
of Pharmaceutical Scientists Magazine. Dec 2012: 60-61. Print
Hans, M.L., A.M. Lowman. “Biodegradable Nanoparticles for drug delivery and
targeting”Science Direct Journal 6.4 (August 2002): p.319-317. Web. 10
Langer, Robert. “New Methods of Drug Delivery.” American Association for the Advancement
of Science. (1990): p.1527. Web. 10 Mar. 2013
Merkel, Dr. Olivia. Personal Interview. 21 Feb. 2013
Merkel, Olivia M., Mengyao Zheng, Heiko Debus, and Thomas Kissel. “Pulmonary Gene
Delivery Using Polymeric Nonviral Vectors,” Bioconjugate Chemisty Journal (2012)
p.3-20. Web. 10 Mar. 2013
“Faculty Biography” cphs.wayne.edu. Web. 10 Mar. 2013
Annotated Bibliography
Crawford, Mark. “The Benefits of Quantitative Translational Medicine. American
Association of Pharmaceutical Scientists Magazine. Dec 2012: 60-61. Print
The author writes about a recent webinar held by the magazine where Joga
Goburu, a professor at the school of Pharmacy and Medicine at the University of Maryland,
suggests a way to improve late-phase clinical trial success. Goburu claims the pharmaceutical
industry would increase effectiveness and efficiency of trials from 50 percent to 100 percent by
using quantitative translational medicine. This approach collects knowledge from all levels of
drug development and converts it into useful information to be shared throughout the
pharmaceutical industry. Goburu supports this approach by contrasting typical HIV drug
development with a transitional model that utilized existing databases for mechanisms. He also
shows how much time that could be saved by using the model through the development of a
gonadotropin-releasing hormone blocker. This article ties into the information Dr. Merkel told
me about how research has changed in the last ten years. She said the biggest difference is how
information is accessed and recommended this article to me. The article is relevant because it
shows a way research results can be improved.
Fire, Andrew, SiQun Xu, Mary K. Montgomery, Steven A. Kostas, Samuel E. Driver, Craig C.
Mello, “Potent and specific genetic interference by double-stranded RNA
in Caenorhabditis elegans.” Nature Journal. 806-811. (1998).
Web. 10 Mar.
2013
They authors described the experiments they conducted using RNA injected into
biological systems to interfere with the function of an endogenous gene. They found that
double stranded RNA was effective at producing interference and caused specific
interference. They concluded that genetic interference by dsRNA could be used for
physiological gene silencing. Fire and Mello would be awarded the Noble Prize in
Physiology for their discovery. The article is relevant because their work would be used
to identify a multi-protein complex which incorporates the RNA to ultimately lead to the
down regulation of the target gene expression. RNA interference has been routinely used
in drug development since its discovery.
Langer, Robert. “New Methods of Drug Delivery.” American Association for the Advancement
of Science. (1990): p.1527. Web. 10 Mar. 2013
Langer writes about novel approaches being researched for drug delivery in the 1990s.
These approaches include chemical modification of drugs, encapsulating drugs in small
vesicles injected into the bloodstream, and drug entrapment within pumps and polymeric
materials that are placed in desired bodily compartments. The benefits and drawbacks of
each system are discussed. He writes about the challenges ahead for the research and
applications of the technology outside of medicine. This article is relevant to the research
inquiry because it shows what drug delivery methods were being studied twenty years
ago and allows the evolution of the topic to be shown.
Merkel, Olivia M., Mengyao Zheng, Heiko Debus, and Thomas Kissel. “Pulmonary Gene
Delivery Using Polymeric Nonviral Vectors,” Bioconjugate Chemisty Journal (2012)
p.3-20. Web. 10 Mar. 2013
The authors discuss pulmonary drug delivery as an administration route to deliver
therapeutic genes. They list the diseases that could be treated using this method. They
also discuss the anatomical, physical, immunologic, and metabolic barriers in the lungs.
The gene carriers that have been studied are listed. The materials they are derived from
and the effects they achieved are archived. In addition other polymeric, dendritic, and
targeted materials are described. Sophisticated models for in vivo, ex vitro, and in vivo
testing are illustrated. Differences between the animal models and humans are mentioned.
This article is relevant to the research inquiry because it details how the research on drug
delivery systems is carried out. The problems that arise during the research and the
methods taken to overcome them are presented. This research is also new and it reflects
the future of drug delivery systems.
Research Inquiry Rough Draft Sample:
In the 1960s lipid vesicles, called liposomes, were among the first nanotechnology used
in drug delivery systems. In 1976 the first controlled release polymer system was described.
Research in the 1980s included more complex drug delivery systems capable of responding to
changes in pH to trigger drug release and the first cell-specific targeting of liposomes
(Farokhzad). An explosion in the research soon followed for several reasons. The existing
research showed that old pharmaceuticals could be delivered more safely and efficacy was
improved so it cost less than creating a new pharmaceutical. Another reason was because drugs
became more complex and they required more complicated delivery systems. In 1990 Robert
Langer discusses the methods being studied in his article “New Methods of Drug Delivery.” He
writes about controlled release systems such as pressure driven pumps that can release the drug
directly into the bloodstream precisely at a target organ sparing the rest of the body. The major
disadvantage is the pumps are costly and surgery is required to implant the syringe. Drugs can be
chemically modified, changing various properties such as where the drug gets distributed in the
body, including the targeting of drugs for a particular site or type of cell in the body. He also
explains a new approach for targeting specific cells by linking bioactive agent to antibodies. This
research involves genetic engineering of mouse antibodies to be more similar to humans. He
concludes by saying advancements in biotechnology will allow the creation of new molecular
constructs (Langer).
In the late 1998 Andrew Fire and Craig Mello published “Potent and specific genetic
interference by double-stranded RNA in Caenorhabditis elegans.” They described the
experiments they conducted using RNA injected into biological systems to with the function of
an endogenous gene. They found that double stranded RNA was more effective at producing
interference and caused specific interference. They concluded that genetic interference by
dsRNA could be used for physiological gene silencing (Fire and Mello). Fire and Mello would
be awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for their discovery. Their work would be used to
identify a multi-protein complex, which incorporates the RNA to ultimately lead to the down
regulation of the target gene expression. RNA interference has been routinely used in drug
development since its discovery.
Research Proposal:
Targeted siRNA Delivery for Lymphatic Cancer Using the Transferrin Ligand
Introduction
Traditional anti-cancer treatments employ chemotherapeutic drugs to kill tumor cells.
Chemotherapy sometimes fails to eliminate the tumor and even when the treatment is successful
it causes systemic toxicity and unfavorable side effects. Cancer patients often experience pain,
nausea, vomiting, and a loss of hair from conventional chemotherapy. Research on controlled
drug delivery focuses on targeting infected cells while minimizing these side effects and
reducing toxicity to normal cells. The research opens many doors for new therapeutics and
therapies to treat the cause of disease. Short interface RNA (siRNA) delivery is currently under
study for therapeutic effects through gene silencing for prostate and pulmonary cancer.
Lymphatic cancer can develop in two ways. Lymphoma is cancer in the lymphatic tissue.
This type of cancer forms when white blood cells called lymphocytes become abnormal and turn
into cancer cells. The cells grow and spread throughout the lymphatic system. Cancer can also
spread to the lymphatic system from a primary site by breaking away from a tumor and traveling
through the bloodstream or lymph system. Cancer in the lymph nodes indicates an aggressive
cancer that is likely to spread to other parts of the body. Removal of the tumor through surgery
often leads to lymphedema because the body cannot drain excess fluid in the area where the
lymph node is extracted. I propose a research study using siRNA to induce gene silencing in
lymphatic cancer to kill infected cells and stop the metastasis of the disease. I plan to
accomplish this by using target ligands on the surface of cancer cells to bring the siRNA inside
the cells. The research will begin with cell models and finish with clinical trials on humans.
Literature Review
Craig Mello and Andrew Fire discuss the experiments they conducted using RNA
injected into biological systems to interfere with the function of an endogenous gene. They
synthesized RNA from phagemid clones using T3 and T7 polymerase. Templates were removed
by two sequential DNase treatments and purified with electrophoresis. The purified RNA was
injected into Caenorhabditis elegans, which is a species of nematodes. Progeny of the injected
nematodes exhibited a loss of function mutation. Mello and Fire found that double stranded RNA
was effective at producing potent and specific interference. They concluded that genetic
interference by dsRNA could be used for physiological gene silencing (Fire and Mello). Fire and
Mello would be awarded the Noble Prize in Physiology for their discovery. Their work led to the
identification of a multi-protein complex that incorporates the RNA that leads to the down
regulation of the target gene expression. Drug development has employed RNA interference
since its discovery.
Hans and Lowman discuss the advantages of using nanoparticles for drug delivery.
Nanoparticles offer versatility because of their size and the wide range of properties they
possess, and they can encapsulate drug molecules. They can deliver hydrophilic drugs,
hydrophobic drugs, proteins, vaccines, and biological macromolecules to various areas of the
body over a prolonged period of time. They are appropriate for intravenous delivery and can be
formulated for targeted delivery to the lymphatic system and made for long-term systemic
circulation. Hans and Lowman also discuss the attention given to lymphatic targeting because of
the absorption of the drug through gut associated lymphatic tissue bypassing the liver. Cells that
overlie lymphoid tissue called Peyer’s patches and are responsible for endocytosis and transport
to the adjacent lymphoid tissue. The optimum size of particles for uptake by the Peyer’s patches
is less than 1 μm. Research by Blanco and Alonso has shown microparticles remain in Peyer’s
patches but nanoparticles are small enough for cellular internalization. This could be beneficial
for anticancer treatment (Hans and Lowman).
Olivia Merkel and colleagues explain the administration of therapeutic genes to
pulmonary epithelia. She claims the administration of therapeutic genes offer new approaches to
treating diseases such as asthma, cystic fibrosis, emphysema, and lung cancer. The nucleic acids
are formulated into nanosize carrier systems and delivered to the lung for uptake. This delivery
system leads to rapid local and systemic affects. The advantages of gene delivery include
reduced side effects and lower doses of the administered formulations. Merkel discusses various
delivery agents that show some degree of success including polysaccharide and polycation based
systems. The most studied of the gene carriers is the poly (ethylene imine) carrier because of its
effectiveness at protecting and releasing the DNA with successive transgene expression. Merkel
believes the addition of targeting ligands to the gene carriers may further the specificity of gene
transfer in the lung if an internalizing receptor is selected (Merkel et al).
I want to use the research in the literature review as a model to further cancer studies.
Tumors grow to large sizes because cancer cells are always dividing. The cells need a large
amount of nutrients to do so. Iron is an important nutrient cells need for growth. Transferrin is
protein that contains iron. I want to add transferrin to a gene carrier to serve as a target ligand as
Oliva Merkel has suggested. The surface of cancer cells modifies itself so that many transferrin
receptors are present. Proteins and receptors have an induced fit. The shape of the protein
matches the receptor. When they combine the receptor brings the protein into the cytosol by
endocytosis. I want to introduce siRNA inside the cell to stop the expression of DNA that signals
cell growth.
I believe the nanotechnology described by Hans and Lowman will work for lymphatic
cancer because of the research done by Blanco and Alonso. The lymphatic system is spread
throughout the body so it requires the intravenous delivery of drugs, which is an advantage of
nanotechnology. Nanocarriers are the right size for uptake in to lymphoid tissue by Peyer’s
patches. This offers a promising alternative to invasive treatment that eliminates part of the
lymphatic system from patients. It may also provide a way to stop cancer from spreading through
the lymphatic system.
Methods
The research will take five to eight years to complete. To have complete control over the
research it will have to take place in an academic setting. I will start with cell models and
continue to animal models. Clinical trials will take place after both cell models and animal
models are complete. I will have to contact and work closely with ethic committees for animal
and human testing. I will have to clone the siRNA sequence and insert it into non-viral vectors
and synthesize the gene carriers.
The first thing I need to do is find a mentor. I will send my resume to professors at
pharmacy and medical schools. My mentor will provide me with the laboratory research training
I need to begin preliminary testing. I will make a poster out of the lab report with an
introduction, the methods, the results, and the conclusions to use during my presentation of the
proposal to the Undergraduate Research and Creative Awards committee for funding. My
intentions are to secure additional grants from resources such as the American Association for
Cancer Research and the Gateway for Cancer Research for the clinical phase of the research.
After I secure funding I will assemble a team of researchers. I want to work with at least three
post-doctoral researchers with experience in pharmaceutical sciences. I will need a chemist to
synthesize the polymers to use as gene carriers. For the clinical trial stage of the research, I will
work with clinical pharmacists at hospitals. They will administer the drugs and collect data
through testing.
I will use previous data from past experiments to identify a short sequence of about 21-25
base pairs of siRNA that induces gene silencing and obtain a template. A polymerase chain
reaction (PCR) machine will use the template to amplify and replicate the siRNA. A cloning
vector from a bacterial phagemid will carry the cloned genes. The ligation process inserts the
siRNA fragments into the cloning vector. The vector will include a reporter gene for detection of
its expression.
Polyethylenimine (PEI) will serve as the siRNA gene carrier. The ring opening of
ethylenamine makes a dendrimer or branched PEI. It is a cationic (positively charged) polymer
and is attracted to the negative charge of the outer surface of cells. The synthesis of the polymer
will take place in a vented hood. Preparation will take place in a flask on top of a stir plate. The
PEI carrier will encapsulate double-stranded siRNA. Then my team will attach transferrin
ligands to the gene carrier. The transferrin ligand will bind to the transferrin receptor on the
cancer cell. The receptor will bring the siRNA into the cytosol by endocytosis.
I will use cell cultures made of human cancer cells from the American Type Cell Culture
bioresource center. The specific culture is the lymphoma p53 hotspot mutation cell panel. The
cell culture model permits the testing of small molecules or biologics for cancer drug delivery
and the understanding of genetic alterations in lymphoma. The cells require proper storage in the
vapor stage of liquid nitrogen. The use of a warm water bath will bring the cells to room
temperature to carry out the experiments. A topical gel will deliver the polymers containing the
siRNA to the cell model. Incubation of the cells after the administration of the drugs will follow.
The exact time is not known but I will adjust it accordingly.
The next step is to analyze the cells for the results with a PCR assay. A reverse
transcription PCR machine will allow this. Reverse transcription is a procedure to make DNA
from RNA. A PCR machine will again replicate the DNA for analysis. A computer program that
visualizes DNA fingerprint assays will identify the reporter gene and classify which genes are
knocked down and to what extent. From here I will know the efficiency of delivery in two ways,
how well the gene carrier works and how the transferrin receptor responds to the drug molecule.
When duplication of the experiments with the same successful results is complete, I will advance
to animal models.
I will present the data from my research to the Committee on Animal Research Ethics
(CARE). They will decide if my research justifies further study, and the scientific benefits from
testing on animals. I will have to work closely with them and follow any ethical guidelines they
impose. They will recommend the reduction of the number of animals through replacement with
more cell models as well as the purchase of the animals from a company that breeds animals for
scientific testing. I will begin animal models with mice. The structure of mice immune systems is
similar to humans but mice have bronchus-associated lymphoid tissue (Mestas and Hughes).
Even though there are minimal differences, I cannot assume the same response in mice will
happen in humans. Primate testing will have to occur before continuing to clinical trials.
Intravenous delivery of the drugs in the animal models is through the administration the drugs by
shots.
Clinical trials on humans will commence after a review from the Committee on Human
Research. I will also have to follow the ethical guidelines they require. The study will include
patients with varying stages of lymphatic cancer. Participants will receive free medical treatment
in exchange for their involvement. It is my duty to inform all participants that this type of
research is new and may not produce any results. I will obtain written consent from all
participants acknowledging the aforementioned information. Patients may reserve the right to
back out of the study at any time. The release of the partaker’s names will not happen under any
circumstance complying with patient confidentiality. Clinical pharmacists will administer the
drugs to the patients through shots. They will also collect data regarding the reduction in size and
number of tumors, side effects patients report, and if the spread of cancer diminishes.
Results/Conclusions
I expect the cell models to show significant gene knockdown in cancer cells that will
allow animal and human trials to ensue. I also expect the clinical trials to produce minimal side
effects compared to traditional treatments. I do not expect the results in the clinical trials to be
consistent with each patient. Early stages of the disease may respond better than later stages and
every patient’s body reacts differently to medication. This will help to determine the appropriate
application of this research and show areas that need adjustment. If my hypothesis is correct the
siRNA should disrupt the metabolism of the cancer cell. If the metabolism slows down tumor
sizes should reduce and the metastasis of the disease should decline. If complete shut down of
metabolism occurs the cell would effectively die.
If gene silencing does not occur because the target ligand is inefficient I will consider
using different ligands. Glucose is an important nutrient cells need to grow. I could substitute the
glucose ligand for transferrin. Other target ligands of interest are folate and lactose. If the tumor
sizes do not reduce but the spread of cancer does I will investigate what causes the metastasis to
decline for further research. The siRNA sequence may need modification to increase the efficacy
of the gene knockdown. If the results of the animal models are successful and the clinical trials
are not, I will adjust the animal models using the data from the clinical trials to resemble humans
more closely. In the event that the clinical trials do not indicate successful gene silencing, I will
have to perform some serious troubleshooting. I will study the data to discover why and when
the experiments fail. I will redesign the research to correct the mistakes.
The research I conduct will make an important contribution to the pharmacy discourse as
well as the medical community if it is successful. It could change the treatment of lymphatic
cancer by offering an alternative to removing tumors through surgery. My experiments may
show an effective way to insert genes into the cytosol of cells. The introduction of genes into
cancer cells has many possibilities. Gene expression of DNA sequences could repair damaged
cells or invade an infected cell and terminate it. This research could drive siRNA delivery toward
efficient gene silencing, better formulations of therapeutic genes, and correct dosage of
therapeutics. The success of the research can improve the efficacy of clinical trials that use
siRNA for various diseases.
.
Works Cited
Fire, Andrew, SiQun Xu, Mary K. Montgomery, Steven A. Kostas, Samuel E. Driver, Craig C.
Mello, “Potent and specific genetic interference by double-stranded RNA
in Caenorhabditis elegans.” Nature Journal. 806-811. (1998).
Web. 7 Apr.
2013.
Hans, M.L., A.M. Lowman. “Biodegradable Nanoparticles for drug delivery and targeting”
Science Direct Journal 6.4 (August 2002): p.319-317. Web. 7 Apr. 2013.
Merkel, Olivia M., Mengyao Zheng, Heiko Debus, and Thomas Kissel. “Pulmonary Gene
Delivery Using Polymeric Nonviral Vectors,” Bioconjugate Chemisty Journal (2012)
p.3-20. Web. 7Apr. 2013.
Mestas, Javier, Christopher Hughes. “Of Mice and Men: Difference Between Mice and Human
Immunology,” The Journal of Immunology. (March 1, 2004). Web. 7 Apr. 2013.
Rhetorical Analysis:
When Worlds Collide
Writing is a part of every scholar’s college experience. Students have to write essays on
many subjects. Most of these papers are written with information to show an understanding of
the material without the students creating knowledge or developing their writing identities. In
“Creating a Writer’s Identity on the Boundaries of Two Communities of Practice,” Jean Ketter
and Judy Hunter use logos and ethos to argue it is beneficial to provide students opportunities to
explore writing activities from contrasting communities of practice. It will teach them an
understanding of how to become an effective writer and help transform their identities as writers.
Jean Ketter is the Professor of Education and the Chair of the Education Department at
Grinnell University. She received her PhD in English Education from the University of Kansas.
Ketter has conducted research in the teaching and assessment of writing focusing on the effects
educational practices have on student learning (Grinnell University). Judy Hunter is the director
of the Grinnell Writing Lab. She serves as Erin Peterson’s writing tutor and was her faculty
advisor during the semester under study (Ketter and Hunter 308).
Ketter and Hunter’s target audience is educators. They reach professors and other faculty
members by publishing the article through the WAC Clearinghouse. It is an open access
educational website supported by Colorado State University in partnership with the International
Network of Writing Across the Curriculum Programs that publishes journals, books, and other
resources for teachers who use writing in their courses (The WAC Clearinghouse). Students who
obtain the article through their instructors are the secondary audience. The vocabulary is not
extensive and does not include jargon so both audiences can easily understand it. They begin the
article with an abstract to help the readers quickly identify the purpose and state their thesis. The
organization of the text is in sections that are clearly labeled so the readers can easily follow the
development of the essay.
Ketter and Hunter’s argument mainly relies on logos gathered from qualitative methods
and a wide range of data collected through “posing questions that ask Erin to document her
thinking as she engages in the process of writing over time and in various settings, looking at the
products of those writing activities, and considering her evaluation of how the process affects her
development as a writer” (Ketter and Hunter 309). They use this evidence to present how the
writing activities of both communities function. Through Erin they portray academic writing as
constraining with “formulaic exercises that deny her the opportunity to make meaning because
she is writing to earn a good grade” (Ketter and Hunter 312). Although the public relations
writings offer more freedom, she finds it is also constraining because of cultural values and the
motives of the institution. They paint a picture of the individual communities Erin is
participating in to show how she negotiates between conflicting motives when both of these
worlds collide to become a better writer.
Ketter and Hunter demonstrate how learning in both communities benefited Erin through
the products of her writing. In her Russian literature paper the topic and structure of the paper are
different from her previous academic papers. She introduces her thesis through dialogue in
informal language used in public relation pieces. They state she is “immersed in the communities
of practice of public relations and academia … trying out language she has found freeing in her
writing for public relations in her academic writing” (Ketter and Hunter 321). Because she is
stretching the genre, they claim Erin “becomes more than the novice that academic discourse
demands of her; she acts not just to reproduce knowledge but to create it as well” (Ketter and
Hunter 321). This example also proves Ketter and Hunter’s claim that teachers can benefit from
their students experience. Through an interview with Erin’s professor they learn he wants to use
the knowledge she created in his paper. Teachers will be able to learn more from their students.
Ketter uses her research background to establish her ethos by comparing their data to
other author’s works about writing in different communities. For example she shows how Erin’s
experience compares to the article “Worlds apart: acting and writing in academic and workplace
contexts” by Dias, Freedman, and Medway. In the article the authors state that communities
carry stored knowledge, ways of acting, and generic information that prescribes certain ways of
writings and precludes others (Ketter and Hunter 311). This is exactly what Erin learns through
her internship. Ketter and Hunter’s experience as students making the transition from college to
the workplace gives them authority on the subject. They recognized an area that needs
improvement and performed this study.
Ketter and Hunter’s argument is somewhat reliable. I do agree that students will benefit
from writing in their discourse communities along with academia. It will help them find where
they belong in both worlds. I do have a couple of criticisms about the piece. The first criticism is
the authors should have more than one student in the study. One student is too small of a sample
to represent thousands of college students. The second is that they could take all the data over the
semester and choose which samples would best fit their argument. Ketter and Hunter
acknowledge this by saying “we do not claim to present an unmitigated or genuine portrait
because we are aware that our own decisions about what evidence to use and how to interpret
that evidence” (309). The fact they recognize a weakness in the argument strengthens their ethos.
Through the use of rhetorical appeals, Ketter and Hunter achieve their goal of showing
students benefit from exploring and researching contrasting communities of practice. They leave
the methods educators and scholars can use open to further research. This not only benefits the
students but also the teachers and the university. This article relates to our class because we will
be learning the language and genres of our discourse communities while participating in the
academic world. At the end of this course, we should have a better understanding of our future
professions. We will also learn to be better writers able to make the transition into our discourse
communities.
Works Cited
Department of Education at Grinnell University. Jean Ketter. Web. 18 Jan 2013.
http://www.grinnell.edu/academic/education/faculty/ketter
Ketter, Jean, and Judy Hunter. Creating a Writer’s Identity on the Boundaries of Two
Communities of Practice. Writing Selves/Writing Societies. Ed. Bazerman and Russell.
Authors and Editors, 2003. 307-329. Web
http://wac.colostate.edu/books/selves_societies/ketter_hunter/
The WAC Clearinghouse. Web. 18 Jan 2013.
http://wac.colostate.edu/
Writing Response 2:
John Hewitt recently published an article titled 3D printing cancer drugs molecule-bymolecule using DNA scaffolds. He is an engineer and neuroscientist. He is also the former owner
of CRE Precision machine shop that specializes in manufacturing instruments for biomedical
research. He shows authority on the subject by displaying his knowledge on engineering tools
such as CAD programs and Parabon’s InSequio design studio. He demonstrates his background
in biology by knowing what a PCR reaction is and includes an illustration of how therapeutic
agents can attach to single stranded DNA. The subject matter of the blog is on new technology
funded by the National Science Foundation that can be used to nanotailor drugs for treating
cancer. The InSequio design studio allows drug designers to assemble DNA molecules that can
link to drugs forming a hybrid and self assemble into sequences. The DNA acts as a delivery
system with target molecules that bind to receptors on cancer cells. This relates to my studies and
future profession because this may be the way cancer, along with other diseases, is potentially
treated in the years to come. It may be able to create a pill that can contain anti-nausea medicine,
pain medicine, and other pharmaceuticals custom made for a patient’s treatment. The applied
science may even lower the cost of drugs by reducing excess along with decreasing hospital and
pharmacy error. The intended audience is for people who are enthusiastic about technology.
Although the article contains information on medicine it is published on extremetech.com.
Hewitt appeals to his audience by explaining an emerging computing technology and its
application to benefit society. He interacts with the readers by asking them to imagine a scenario
where a human with a fancy CAD program can design parts that can self assemble but does not
encourage comments.
http://www.extremetech.com/extreme/143365-3d-printing-cancer-drugs-molecule-by-moleculeusing-dna-scaffolds