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JUNIOR HONORS PROJECT
SPRING
2012
Sustainability and the Next
Generation
Sustainability and the
Next Generation
Junior Honors Project
Jake Lefebvre, Chemical Biology
Ann Maten, Interior Architecture
Carrie Scott, Architecture
Jaime Willbur, Chemical Biology
Erika Zajac, Graphic Design
Jake Lefebvre , Chemical Biology
Ann Maten, Interior Architecture
Carrie Scott, Architecture
Jaime Willbur, Chemical Biology
Erika Zajac, Graphic Design
Submitted June 10, 2012
Submitted June 10, 2012
Contents
Introduction/Abstract .................................................................................................................................. 3
Aim of the Study ......................................................................................................................................... 5
Materials and Methods .............................................................................................................................. 5
Initial Research ........................................................................................................................................... 7
Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ): ................................................................................................... 7
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) ............................................................................................... 12
Microbial Research .............................................................................................................................. 14
Precautions and Preventative Measures .......................................................................................... 22
Cleaning Products: .............................................................................................................................. 24
Main Results: Plan of Lesson and Execution ..................................................................................... 26
Conclusions & Discussion....................................................................................................................... 29
Future Projects ......................................................................................................................................... 31
Addition of a Five Senses Garden Project ....................................................................................... 31
Enrichment Project ............................................................................................................................... 32
Works Cited ............................................................................................................................................... 34
APPENDIX I: LESSON PLANS ............................................................................................................. 41
BACTERIAL SWABBING IN THE CLASSROOOM ........................................................................ 41
Objective ............................................................................................................................................. 41
Materials ............................................................................................................................................. 41
Procedure ............................................................................................................................................ 41
General Information: .......................................................................................................................... 42
NOTE ON SAFETY................................................................................................................................. 43
Bibliography ........................................................................................................................................ 43
ENVIRONMENTALLY FRIENDLY CLEANING ............................................................................... 44
Objective ............................................................................................................................................. 44
Materials (per classroom) ................................................................................................................... 44
Procedure ............................................................................................................................................ 44
General Information: .......................................................................................................................... 45
NOTE ON SAFETY................................................................................................................................. 45
Bibliography ........................................................................................................................................ 45
APPENDIX II: Descriptions of Common Bacteria and Fungi......................................................... 46
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Aspergillus ........................................................................................................................................... 46
Candida ............................................................................................................................................... 47
Escherichia .......................................................................................................................................... 48
Serratia ................................................................................................................................................ 49
Staphylococcus.................................................................................................................................... 50
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Introduction/Abstract
The project was developed to relate the major areas of study of the five Spring
2012 Junior Honors Project students which are as follows; Architecture, Chemical
Biology, Graphic Design and Interior Architecture.
The Junior Honors Project (JHP) group decided to look at the information
researched and find where areas across all majors could overlap. It was found that
education about bacteria and VOCs seemed to be able to fit together. Research was
then modified to look closer at the type of bacteria that may be found in the life of a first
grader and looking at how these first graders could clean with a solution that was safe
for them and the environment. Due to the curriculum in the school and the knowledge
to elementary students had acquired, the JHP group decided to work with the first grade
students at Eastover Elementary School. The overall goal was to promote education
and learning about sustainability for students at Eastover Elementary School in an
engaging and exciting while creating a model lesson to be used in other schools. To do
this, we looked at what each major could apply to the goal.
The architecture major was to evaluate the elementary school building for
sustainability, more specifically for volatile organic compounds (VOCs). She would also
brainstorm and enforce concepts to help achieve better sustainability with the students,
parents, faculty, staff, and community. The interior architecture major would be working
with children to make green cleaning products to enforce the concept of good indoor air
quality. She would also help promote interactive do-it-yourself projects and brainstorm
ideas for energy conservation within the school. The chemical biology majors would test
and analyze surfaces for bacteria with the elementary students. They would also
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brainstorm and enforce better habits to promote cleaner environments. The graphic
design major would develop graphic materials for website, presentations within the
classroom, and final presentation. She would also document the progress of the project
through photography.
Two visits to Eastover took place during the semester, during which three first
grade classes were visited twice to teach them about issues relating to Chemical
Biology and Interior Architecture, which will be discussed more fully in the following
report. The Architecture major proposed a future project to be completed with Eastover
Elementary, also discussed in this report, and the Graphic Design major worked on the
presentation of all collected data, including the creating of the website mentioned in the
proposal, and the photographical recording of each visit to Eastover Elementary. The
broader scope of the project was for the JHP class to make a model for other schools
and communities to follow in order to teach students and adults about the research
found and experiments completed by the students in the JHP class. This model includes
the following report, as well as lesson plans created by the JHP students and the
background research that went into creating this report, all of which is compiled on the
website created by the Graphic Design major.
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Aim of the Study
Herein follows the research and conclusions found by the Junior Honors Project
(JHP) class in the spring of 2012 at Lawrence Technological University. The JHP class
goal was to work as a team to develop a meaningful project by Lawrence Tech honor
students from diverse disciplines to promote sustainability education to the younger
generation.
Instructor, Associate Professor Janice K. Means, proposed working with
Eastover Elementary School in the Bloomfield Hills School District to teach the students
about sustainability and to make what was learned public via a website.
The results will therefore be available to the public, in addition to the elementary
students with which the JHP interfaced.
Materials and Methods
In deciding how to promote sustainability education to the younger generation, it
was necessary to reflect on what would affect a child. After a brainstorming session, it
was decided that a visual demonstration would prove most effective, and with Jaime
and Jake’s scientific backgrounds, what could teach about Indoor Environmental Quality
better than by showing them the germs all around their classroom and then how to
clean properly to eradicate these germs.
After this decision was made, the research and planning steps followed.
Research occurred individually online and as a group in a series of expert advice and
field trips. Experts we received advice from include Janice K. Means, Steve McMahon,
and Dr. Julie Zwiesler-Vollick, all affiliated with Lawrence Technological University.
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Connections were also established with Connie Lilley from Greenblendz and EcoStore
USA, manufacturers of green, eco-friendly cleaning supplies and Christina Tang from
Eastover Elementary School, where the lessons would be taking place.
In performing the experiments with the children the materials listed in the lab
exercises (Appendix I). We also used a Prezi presentation over a projector as a visual
aid for the class. Microsoft office was vital in preparing the final report, and Dropbox
was very useful in sharing files among the entire group.
A detailed week-by-week Gantt Chart is shown below, tracking our progress in
the completion of this project:
Figure 1 Gantt Chart tracking progress
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Initial Research
This section begins with a summary of literature research performed by the
team. The research was conducted to provide data for teaching elementary
students about sustainability. The final lesson plan and recommendations are
based on this research.
Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ):
Good Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ) involves maintaining good indoor air
quality (IAQ), comfortable temperatures and relative humidity levels, adequate lighting
and keeping environments clean. This report covers IAQ and, in particular, how to keep
environments clean as its focus.
Most people alive today have had or will have some sort of breathing issue
during their lifetime. It could be asthma, pneumonia, bronchitis, lung cancer, or an array
of other breathing ailments. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) recognizes
that “individuals presenting with environmentally associated symptoms [are] apt to have
been exposed to airborne substances originating not outdoors, but indoors” (EPA, “An
introduction for," 2010). Although most people tend to shrug off this fact thinking that
their indoor environments are safe, an EPA report cautions that, “The locations of
highest concern are those involving prolonged continued exposure- that is, the home,
school, and workplace” (EPA, "An introduction for," 2010).
Americans spend 90% of their time indoors, yet we seldom think of our indoor
environment as harmful to our overall well-being ("The inside story," 2012). No parent
would send a child to a school if they knew that the child would become sick just from
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being in the building. Just knowing that indoor levels of pollutants may bet two to five
times higher than the levels just outside that space would scare some parents off from
sending a child to school ("The inside story," 2012).
This research examines what causes illness in homes and schools. The causes
are many and can include, common germs, molds, dust mites, volatile organic
compounds (VOCs), asbestos, radon, poor ventilation, relative humidity being too high
or low, building remodeling, environmental tobacco smoke, combustion products other
than tobacco, animal dander and other pollutants.
Sick building syndrome (SBS) is defined as, “If more than 20 percent of the
building occupants complain of such problems as headache, eye irritation, fatigue and
dizziness for more than two weeks; if the symptoms are relieved when the complainant
leaves the building; and, if no specific cause of the problem can be identified. (ASHRAE
Journal, July 1988, p.40)” ("Indoor air diagnostics," 2011). Although SBS has no definite
cause, there are factors that are found to contribute to it which include improper
ventilation, chemical pollution within the building, chemical pollution from areas
surrounding a building, and biological contaminants. These factors may cause
symptoms that include cough, chest tightness, fever or chills, and muscle aches. The
key to deciding if these symptoms are being caused by SBS is by finding out if a cause
can be found for these symptoms. If these symptoms cannot be attributed to a cause
and the symptoms only persist while an occupant is in a building and last a short time
after leaving the space, SBS can be considered and investigated as a cause. If SBS is
thought to be a primary cause for persistent symptoms, a walkthrough of the building
can be requested so that causes of SBS may be determined and fixed if possible. It is
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also important to note that Sick Building Syndrome is different from Building Related
Illness. Sick Building Syndrome is only present while the occupant is in the space
causing it while Building Related Illness causes long lasting medical issues, such as
cancer. Indicators of BRI include, “Building occupants complain of symptoms such
as cough; chest tightness; fever, chills; and muscle aches, the symptoms can be
clinically defined and have clearly identifiable causes, complainants may require
prolonged recovery times after leaving the building” ("Indoor air facts," 1991). BRI is
caused by poor ventilation, chemical contaminants from indoor or outdoor sources, and
biological contaminants ("Indoor air facts," 1991). If Building Related Illness is
suspected of being present, a complaint can be filed with the EPA and an investigator
will come to the building for a walkthrough. Once the walkthrough is complete, a cause
of the BRI may be determined and can thus be fixed. Building Related Illness can also
be transferred from the building to a person who has not entered the building through
transference of the object causing the illness. For example, if someone is ripping out an
asbestos floor, the asbestos that is on their clothes can then be taken home and
transferred to their family.
Asbestos is a product that was once widely used in buildings as a construction
material and as a means of fireproofing. It was used in “heating systems and acoustic
insulation, in floor and ceiling tiles, and in shingles” ("An introduction for," 2010).
Asbestos becomes a danger once it begins to decay. As it decays, asbestos particles
are released into the air and then breathed in by the occupants of the space. Asbestos
can cause multiple types of cancer and breathing trouble. Asbestos is no longer used as
a building material and is being taken out of older buildings in present renovations.
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However, it is still found in several older buildings. Today, it is either contained or
removed by experts. The removal of asbestos can be just as dangerous as the decay
of it. Disturbing the asbestos ridden materials can disturb the particles and release them
into the air. To reduce injury and health problems while removing asbestos, precautions
must be taken. These precautions include face masks for those removing the asbestos,
enclosing the room so that the asbestos particles are not able to spread to other
portions of a building, and safe and proper disposal of the asbestos.
Molds and dust mites are nearly impossible to avoid all together, but they are
manageable. These cause symptoms including exacerbation of asthma, conjunctiva
inflammation, recurrent fever, chest tightness, and cough ("An introduction for," 2010).
The most important fact to remember for reducing the growth of mold and dust mites, is
that high relative humidity encourages dust mite populations to increase and allows
mold to grow on damp surfaces. Therefore, sources of unwanted humidity must be
monitored and, when adding humidity, humidifiers need to be kept clean, in good
working order. Surfaces should be kept dry. The proper humidity level will greatly help
with the drying of surfaces, but if something is spilled, it needs to be dried as quickly as
possible. Allowing a spill to sit and sink into a carpet or upholstery will make that spot a
potential breeding ground for mold. Proper and regimented cleanings of damp areas will
also help to reduce the probability of mold growth. These areas include, but are not
limited to, sink areas, toilets and the surrounding areas, showers, floors, and
refrigerators. When the relative humidity is too low, other health ailments such as
headaches and nausea can occur. Recommended relative humidity levels will be
addressed in a later section of this report.
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Dust mites can become just as much of a problem as mold. These will form from
improper or insufficient cleaning. Most people will clean and assume if they do not see
the dust, the room is clean. This becomes less and less the case as buildings age and
dust builds up. Dust can accumulate in air ducts, on ceilings, walls, carpeting and room
furnishings. Dust is disturbed by air. The buildup of dust in the vent is the key problem.
As the dust builds up in air ducts, the new air circulating into the space will be
‘contaminated’ and dirty. The point of air exchange and circulation, to keep the occupied
space fresh and clean, will be nearly offset. Both dust mites and mold can be hidden,
but often become a major concern as buildings age, no matter how good the
maintenance on the building has been.
Ventilation within a building is crucial for good IAQ. Building codes and standards
specify a minimum number of air exchanges per hour, depending on the use of the
building and its occupancy. For example, parts of a hospital will need to have up to
twenty air exchanges per hour for sterilization reasons, whereas a school or a home
would only require a few air exchanges per hour. The American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) has developed Standard 62.1,
which specifies how many cubic feet per hour( CFM) is required for ventilation based on
the use of the space and the number of occupants in it. ). Ventilation helps to remove
pollutants from the building.
Remodeling will cause dust. This dust can cause some problems with the indoor
air quality of the rest of the building. The dust will enter into the occupied spaces of the
building through floors and wall cracks, and possibly through polluted air ducts. Another
issue that can arise while remodeling is finding out what building materials were used in
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the original construction of the building. During the demolition process, asbestos, lead,
or mold could easily be found that were not known to exist in the building before. The
health threat that is present with mold and asbestos was discussed earlier in this
section of the report and a very similar threat is present with lead. These materials
cannot just be thrown in a dumpster. The area in which these materials are being
removed from must be quarantined and the people that occupy the space at any time
during the removal process must be notified. Professionals should be called in to
remove these hazardous materials. Once such materials are removed, testing must be
performed to ensure that all the hazardous material have truly been removed or
properly sealed.
As written by the EPA about schools, “To protect [good] indoor environmental
quality, the designer must understand indoor air quality problems and seek to eliminate
potential sources of contamination that originate from outdoors as well as indoors” (IAQ
Design Tools," 2011).
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)
Volatile Organic Compounds, (VOCs) “are emitted as gases from certain solids
or liquids. VOCs include a variety of chemicals, some of which may have short- and
long-term adverse health effects.” (An Introduction to Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) - Volatile
Organic Compounds (VOCs), 2012) They can induce “eye, ear and throat irritation;
headaches, loss of coordination, nausea; damage to liver, kidney and central nervous
system. Some organics can cause cancer in animals; some are suspected or known to
cause cancer in humans.” (An Introduction to Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) - Volatile Organic
Compounds (VOCs), 2012) It is important to note that levels of exposure and length of
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time exposed will affect how severe people react to VOCs. Precautions include
specifying non-VOC paints and products, such as carpeting, not storing open cans of
paint or other VOC materials in a school and, of course, providing good ventilation.
Activities such as paint stripping have caused VOCs to measure 1000 times higher than
outdoor background levels. (An Introduction to Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) - Volatile
Organic Compounds (VOCs), 2012)
When replacing or choosing flooring for a school, the effect the materials have on
the air quality is of particular concern. “People in schools have experienced a variety of
health problems linked to poor indoor air quality.” (Frances Gilmore) Allergens, irritants
and toxic chemicals are some of the main air components associated with flooring. “Air
quality may be affected by emissions from the flooring material itself, as well as by the
adhesives used to attach the floor, surface coatings and maintenance materials, such
as waxes and strippers. These emissions of volatile organic compounds, or VOCs, are
a major concern.” (Frances Gilmore) It is recommended that schools should look for
Low VOC products, such as vinyl composition tufted textile or VCTT for carpet.
However, carpet should be avoided as much as possible because it is difficult to keep
clean and can retain water, causing dust, mold, etc. to build up in it and effect the IAQ.
VCTT is a good choice for two reasons; “VCTT is applied with a non-wet "peel-andstick" adhesive that is unlikely to emit VOCs and VCTT retains the broadloom
characteristics of noise and glare control, and seating comfort.” (Frances Gilmore)
Schools looking for flooring choices should put considerable time into researching the
effects of carpet vs. wood vs. concrete, etc. as well as how much training of custodians
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to properly maintain the flooring would be needed. The website referenced in this
paragraph is a good start in picking flooring that will help improve IAQ.
For any new construction, renovation or addition it is recommended that a
building flush-out take place. A Building Flush-out is “where a large amount of tempered
outdoor air is forced through the building via the ventilation system prior to occupancy.
A flush-out typically lasts between 3 to 30 days depending on the building material and
furnishings, allowing the majority of pollutants to be.” (UCIAQ, 2009) This is a good way
to remove VOCs before people are exposed. “For LEED projects, a building flush-out
can be performed to earn credit for a Construction Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) Management
Plan.” (UCIAQ, 2009) Another type of “Flush-out” is called a Bake-out, which “refers to
increasing the building temperature up to 100°F in order to “artificially age” building
materials.” (UCIAQ, 2009) However it is not recommended because “effectiveness of a
bake-out has not been proven and may damage the mechanical ventilation system or
building components. Furthermore, research shows that levels of volatile organic
compounds (VOCs) after a bake-out are sometimes greater than before the bake-out.”
(UCIAQ, 2009)
Microbial Research
Sustainable environments are capable of “being sustained”, or rather, are
environments that have the capacity to withstand time while maintaining the natural
biological balance between humans and nature. In reality, humans are one of the
minorities in the vast expanse of the natural world and as such should acknowledge and
consider the other species of organisms sharing their living space. For instance,
humans live alongside scores of microorganisms that may be both biologically beneficial
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and harmful to their health. In terms of sustainability, humans must both coexist with
bacteria to preserve nature’s equilibrium, and maintain relatively clean IAQ to preserve
individual well-being.
In the natural environment, one milliliter of fresh water generally contains one
million bacterial cells and one gram of soil contains approximately 40 million bacterial
cells (Bacteria, 2012). The microbial population vastly outnumbers the human
population on the planet, and a similar situation exists even in the small scale of the
human body. Humans typically have between 100 and1000 bacteria on their bodies,
but on average, there are only about 500, different types.. Roughly 1014, or 100 trillion
bacterial cells exist in the human body, which is ten times more than the body’s own 10
trillion cells (Infections, 2007).
Many bacteria and other microbes are beneficial to the human existence. Some
microbes: make it possible to digest certain foods; create vitamins; and even degrade
VOCs, helping to maintain a sustainable IAQ. Approximately 70% of bacteria are
nonpathogenic, because they do not cause harm to humans; however the remaining 30%
of bacteria are harmful to human health (Bacteria, 2012). Harmless bacteria can be
found on the skin, in the body, and in both natural and manmade environments. Finding
the balance between not disturbing the majority of harmless bacteria and combating
harmful bacteria is the key to sustainable coexistence.
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For the most part, humans focus on combatting pathogenic bacteria to prevent
illness. A minimally microbe populated environment is a key idea of maintaining good
indoor air quality, which is a major component of sustainable living. Bacteria, fungi,
viruses, and other microbes are categorized under “bioaerosols”, which together with
particles and gases, i.e., dust and VOCs, are the main concerns in sustainable IAQ
(Detect & Control, 2012). Bacteria, mold, mildew, and fungi are special cases as they
are also living microorganisms which can rapidly grow and reproduce given the proper
conditions. These microbes are found both in the air and on surfaces which can make
containment and management of the harmful types difficult. Bioaerosols can cause
many of the more severe symptoms of indoor air quality which, according to Figure 2,
include respiratory irritation and infections, asthma attacks, and allergic reactions
Figure 2; Causes and Symptoms of Poor Indoor Air Quality (Detect,
2012).
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(Detect&Control, 2012).
To preserve the general health of the human population, environments in which
both microbes and humans inhabit, i.e., schools, offices, homes, must be properly
maintained. Preventing microbial growth is very nearly impossible; lessening microbial
growth on the other hand is quite feasible.
In order to grow and develop, microorganisms depend on nutrients, oxygen,
moisture, ideal temperatures, a level pH environment, light, and chemicals. Similar to
humans, microbes need carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals, and water to
grow. Some, like certain bacteria, contain chlorophyll which allows them to produce
proteins to survive. Other microbes, like viruses, rely on a host organism, one that will
supply the nutrients the virus needs to survive. Most microbes also require oxygen to
live. These microbes are referred to as ‘aerobic organisms’. Some microorganisms are
classified as ‘anaerobic’ and can exist in oxygen free environments (Rushing et al.,
2012). The ability of microbes to survive in a variety of environments makes them a
very robust population despite their small size and delicate structure.
Typical of robust organisms, microbes also thrive in a wide range of
temperatures. Most require moisture in the form of liquid water, so the freezing and
boiling of water inhibits their ability to grow (Rushing et al., 2012). However, when
conditions are unfavorable some bacteria develop a tough outer layer, forming a
bacterial spore. Spores preserve the bacteria in a suspended state of growth until the
conditions required to survive are restored (Rao, 2008). Microbes usually prefer to grow
at temperatures near or around either room temperature or body temperature (Rushing
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et al., 2012). This of course presents the problem of both humans and the majority of
microbes preferring to exist in the same environments.
Environmental acidity, light, and chemicals also play a part in bacteria population
life. Acidity is categorized on a pH scale ranging from 0 to 14, solutions near 0 are
highly acidic. Solutions near 14 are highly basic. The optimal pH at which most
microorganisms grow is a pH of 7, a neutral pH similar to that of water. However, many
microbes can exist between a pH of 4 and 9. Cleaning products generally have a pH
near or above 9, but homemade cleaning products, similar to the one made in the green
cleaning session at Eastover Elementary School (discussed later), contain vinegar
which has an acidic pH between 2 and 3. Other products contain bleach or hydrogen
peroxide which chemically imbalance the microbes’ environment and cause them to
enter a death phase. In sterilization methods, ultraviolet light is used to inhibit the
growth of microorganisms. Typically the light and chemicals simply injure the microbes,
unless subject to prolonged exposure, so eventually the microbial growth will either
return or continue to thrive. (Rushing et al., 2012) Most methods of managing microbial
growth alter the environmental conditions in such a way that makes them unlivable for
bacteria, viruses, fungi, and other microbes.
Microbes that affect indoor air quality fall into five main categories: vegetative
cells, mycobacteria, spores, fungi, and viruses. Vegetative cells are simply cells that do
not play a role in reproduction, and mycobacteria are pathogenic bacteria which
typically cause infection. Fungi may also cause infection but usually consist of mold
and yeast. Spores as described earlier are bacteria that are in a suspended growth
state. The outer layers of spores are very durable making them the most difficult
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microbe to rid from indoor air and surfaces (Rao, 2008). Depending on the physical
needs and robustness of the organism, each category of microorganism may require a
slightly different method of decontamination.
There are three main levels of decontamination: disinfection, sanitization, and
sterilization.
1. Disinfection is the most commonly used type of decontamination as it
eliminates the majority of pathogenic microorganisms. Household cleaning
products fall into the disinfectant category and usually rid surfaces of
microbes, except some mycobacteria and most spores.
2. Sanitization, usually commercial or industrial, takes care of all microorganisms,
but not bacterial spores.
3. Sterilization, used in hospitals and laboratories, kills all microorganisms,
including bacterial spores. (Rao, 2008)
While maintaining a clean environment is important, it must be kept in mind that
over-sterilization of everyday environments can also be detrimental to human health.
The main method of decontamination in schools is disinfection since it can be
performed often with commercial grade, relatively inexpensive cleaners. The frequency
of cleaning in schools must be continuous because of the highly trafficked small rooms
and corridors. Schools are inherently a microbial breeding ground because of the many
places for microbes to grow, and the constantly new or transferred microbe populations
provided by humans.
Schools promote microbial growth in the way they are often built. Many schools
have flat roofs which collect rainfall and, if not drained properly, results in stagnant
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water. The standing water creates a perfect environment for microbes to grow,
sometimes conveniently next to the school buildings’ ventilation systems (roof top units),
allowing easy access to the indoors. Leaks in the roof can allow microbial infiltration as
water collects in rugs, walls, and other internal spaces. Moisture offers prime locations
for fungi, mold, and mildew to grow which according to Figure 2, can lead to respiratory
infection or trigger allergic reactions (Hall, Hardin, Ellis, and Tilley, 2003). All entrances
to buildings must be carefully maintained so as not to promote the collection of water or
moisture.
Insulation and filters that come into contact with moisture should be replaced.
Fibrous material should be avoided, but where present, it should be kept clean and dry.
(Hall, Hardin, Ellis, and Tilley, 2003) Mold can collect in fibers and, when degraded, the
particles may enter the air systems of the school as airborne contaminants.
Non-airborne contaminants may also enter the school via humans or animals.
The environment surrounding the school should be carefully considered. If there are
wetlands or woodlands nearby, then entrances should be monitored and precautions
taken to deter unwanted animals from tracking in unwanted bacteria and disease. Rugs
and grates are important at school entrances. They should be cleaned regularly as
people can track in moisture or soil particles that may contain unwanted microbes.
The IAQ section described the importance of ventilation and humidity control.
Both are important aspects for inhabitant comfort, and also are important for microbial
control. While relative humidity over 60% is both uncomfortable for humans and
promotes the growth of bacteria, mold, and mildew. low relative humidity is also a
problem.. A relative humidity below 30% may also cause microbial problems because
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at these humidity levels, fungal spores begin to release into the air. For both the
comfort of human occupants and prevention of their microbial counterparts, humidity
should not exceed 60% in the summer nor fall below 30% during the winter (Hall, Hardin,
Ellis, and Tilley, 2003).
Microbial survival on surfaces depends on the type of microorganism, properties
of the surface material, moisture, temperature and humidity. Undisturbed microbes may
live on a surface for hours, days, or months given the right conditions. Contact transfer
of bacteria and viruses occurs all the time, but a higher transfer rate has been observed
on nonporous surfaces. Hard, smooth surfaces allow microbes to grow on the surface
rather than “soaked” into the material as would be observed in a porous sponge.
Surface bacteria have little association with the surface and are readily disturbed and
moved around on other organisms.
Classroom and school building furnishings offer prime locations for microbial
transportation and relocation via human skin. Often classroom surfaces are made of
plastic, laminates, and stainless steel, all of which are nonporous and maximize
transferability of bacteria and viruses from surface to students and on to other students.
In a study published by the Journal of School Nursing, it was reported that high
densities of bacteria and virus populations were found on drinking fountains, manual
pencil sharpeners, paper towel dispensers, sink faucets, computer keyboards, door
knobs, and student desktops (Bright, Boone, and Gerba, 2010).
There are many types of microbes commonly found on surfaces in the classroom,
on children’s hands, and under their fingernails. While many of these are relatively
harmless under normal circumstances, with a compromised or weakened immune
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system, many of these may cause fatal effects (Todar, 2012). The following bacteria
and fungi are commonly found in the classroom by skin to surface transfer: Aspergillus,
Candida, Escherichia, Serratia, and Staphylococcus.
The descriptions in Appendix II, below, summarize some of the negative effects
that may be encountered while living in a microbe infested environment. The purpose
of this information is to promote awareness of microbes in order to promote a cleaner
and more sustainable classroom environment. Many of the more negative aspects of
microbe-human cohabitation may be avoided using simple precautions and preventative
household measures.
Precautions and Preventative Measures
To minimize the frequency of student to microbe contact, surfaces should be
disinfected often and good personal hygiene habits should be promoted. A variety of
simple housekeeping measures can be taken to reduce the amount of microbes in both
homes and schools. Whenever possible, install hard non-porous surfaces or coverings
since they are easier to clean and keep dry. Carpeting or rugs should be wellmaintained. Fibers must be kept dry and vacuumed often, preferably with a high
suction, or a high efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filtered vacuum.
HEPA filters are required to capture 99.97% of particles that are 0.3 microns
large; this size is extremely small as 1 mm is 1,000 microns (Donaldson, 2011). The
diameter of a human hair is about 100 microns which places dust at about 25 microns in
size. HEPA filters efficiently capture particles that are about 80 times smaller than a
single particle of dust; and, HEPA filters are “microbially tested” to capture bacteria,
fungi, and viruses as efficiently as non-living particles (Donaldson, 2011). The dust,
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once collected via vacuum filter, should be well sealed to prevent unwanted microbes
from becoming airborne. Fabrics in the home, i.e. clothing, sheets, blankets, etc.,
should be washed weekly to avoid microbial growth (Detect&Control, 2012). Ill
maintained home environments can lead to microbial growth being transferred from the
home to students to the school and on to other students.
For surface cleaning, non-toxic cleaners should be used, especially if surfaces
are used for mealtime. Surfaces should be kept as dry as possible, and when
disinfected, the surface should be dried before use the area. Highly trafficked surfaces
should be disinfected more often than those that remain generally undisturbed, but any
surface that will be used for classroom activities should be cleaned beforehand. In
addition to keeping surfaces clean and dry, personal hygiene must also be promoted
and emphasized. Good hygiene is “the single most effective way to prevent the spread
of diseases” (Good Hand Hygiene, 2009).
Individuals should wash their hands before preparing food, eating, treating a
wound or cut, or visiting with a sick individual. Hand washing should also occur after
preparing food, sharing toys, using the toilet, sneezing or coughing, touching a person
who is sick or injured, or handling garbage. It is always in the best interest of others to
cough or sneeze into a tissue, but when one is not available coughing or sneezing into
the elbow or upper arm is effect; afterwards in either case, thorough washing of the
hands is required. When washing hands it is important to use warm water and soap and
wash for at least 20 seconds. Hands should be vigorously scrubbed, while cleaning
both the back and palm of the hand, in between fingers, and underneath fingernails.
Once suitably clean, individuals should then rinse well with warm water and dry
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completely using a hand towel, a clean disposable paper towel, or an automatic hand
drier (Good Hand Hygiene, 2009).
Practicing good personal hygiene will prevent the spread of disease causing
microbes, and maintaining indoor environmental cleanliness will minimize human to
microbe contact as a whole. Simply by keeping in mind the ideas outlined in this paper
should help promote sustainable environments and the health of individuals in those
environments. As the vastly outnumbered population, humans face a difficult task in
leading sustainable lifestyles, but by practicing only a few key ideas humans may
develop sustainable futures.
Cleaning Products:
One of the most important ways of creating a good indoor environmental quality
(IEQ) is through cleaning. Cleaning is a mandatory part of maintenance within all
buildings. The type of cleaning products is a choice that the facilities or maintenance
manager makes, usually based primarily on budget. These products are often made of
harsh chemicals. “Because products containing these chemicals tend to be used
indoors, they're a significant contributor to indoor air pollution. They're found indoors at
concentrations many times higher than you would find outdoors” (Good Housekeeping,
2012). Cleaning products contain warning labels about harsh chemicals and usually
advise the user to use such products in a well ventilated area. Many environmentally
friendly cleaning products have been making their ways to the shelves in mainstream
stores. Some even go as far as to offer biodegradable or recycled packaging. Looking
at what goes in to an environmentally friendly cleaning product was researched. The
formulas for these solutions depend on what the product is meant to clean.
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The focus on this section is on general cleaners which can be used on all types
of hard surfaces e.g., floors, desks, computer keyboards, counter tops, etc.
The main ingredient found in most cleaners is vinegar. This is because, “Vinegar
cleans by cutting grease… inhibits mold growth, dissolves mineral accumulations,
freshens the air, kills bacteria, and slows its regrowth” (Briggs and Head, 2009).
Therefore, vinegar helps to reduce the causes of poor IAQ without releasing VOCs
which can be harmful. Since vinegar inhibits mold growth, it can help to alleviate the
mold that causes difficulty breathing, headaches, and various other medical ailments. It
also kills the bacteria that can cause infections in open wounds and cause illness in
persons of any age.
Other common ingredients in cleaners are rubbing alcohol and water. Alcohol is
used to make the solution, as a whole, dry faster since alcohol evaporates at room
temperature. Water is simply used to cut the intensity of the rubbing alcohol and vinegar.
Additional to vinegar, alcohol and water, herbs or dish soap are added for
fragrance. The dish soap, besides adding fragrance, is also helpful in being able to cut
through grease.
The most basic multipurpose cleaning solution is made of one third part white
vinegar, one third part rubbing alcohol, one third part water, and a few drops of dish
soap (Briggs and Head, 2009). The combination of these liquids is not only safe for the
environment, but is also safe for users to breathe. Another option to making cleaning
solutions for a home or office while keeping with sustainability is using a recycled spray.
Using recycled containers expands their life cycle and prevents the bottles from ending
in a landfill after one short term use.
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Healthier cleaning products for the environment and the user can made at home
and are also becoming available in retail stores. People’s health, safety, and welfare are
becoming more important in many people’s minds than buying big brand name products.
People are realizing that just because it is available in a store, does not necessarily
mean that it is a safe product for all users in all circumstances.
Main Results: Plan of Lesson and Execution
Lesson plans were developed to teach first graders about the aspect of
sustainability related to health. They were taught about germs and how to protect
themselves from germs experimentally as explained below. The detailed lesson plans
can be found in the appendix.
After much research and many consultations with Christina Tang, the contact at
Eastover, the JHP students organized two Wednesday sessions at Eastover.
During the first session at Eastover, the JHP students did bacterial swabbing with
the first graders. The Eastover students learned about germs and bacteria through two
different activities and a mini lecture/discussion. The first activity was a short Glo
Germ™ experiment, where a special ultraviolet active lotion was applied to the hands of
two JHP students who then shook hands with Eastover students. Those students
shook hands with other students and then all the students had a chance to view their
hands under a black light. The lotion fluoresced so that the students could visually see
the transfer of imitation “germs.” The classes were then guided through bacterial
swabbing of classroom surfaces, i.e. desks, computers, sinks, and light switches. The
resulting bacterial cultures were incubated on nutrient agar petri dishes at room
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temperature for a week in a lab at LTU, photographically documented, sealed, and then
brought back to Eastover to present to the students.
The incubated petri dishes effectively demonstrated the quantity and diversity of
microbial organisms located in the room and gave the students an incentive to keep
their classrooms clean.
The second session complemented the first session quite well and the Eastover
students continued to exhibit a refreshing eagerness to learn.
Photos of the incubated petri dishes with comparisons to microbes described
above are shown in Figure 3, below. It is apparent that all five genera researched and
described in this report may be present; however genetic testing would need to be
completed to know for certain. Aspergillus appears black and fuzzy as in petri dish 1.
As seen is Petri dish 2, Candida appears as an opaque white. Escherichia appears in
white to yellow streaks across the plate (Petri dish 3). Serratia is reddish orange as in
Petri dish 5. Finally, Staphylococcus appears as a transparent white or yellow film
across the plate, shown in Petri dish 4.
The students’ plates show each of these types of microbial growth, as a whole.
Aspergillus can be seen particularly well in the plates swabbed from the classroom
calendar. Perhaps it provides a damp environment in which this genus thrives.
Candida was seen in nearly every plate but most noticeably on plates swabbed from the
floor of the classroom. Escherichia was profoundly noticed in the swab from the toilet.
This makes sense because E. coli is found wherever fecal matter is present. It is native
to the digestive tract. Serratia did not seem to be local to anyone location in particular
but can be found in many different locations. For example it can be found on the light
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Figure 3: Comparison Diagram compiled by Jake Lefebvre. Photo credit as follows: Above purple line, photos taken by Jaime
Willbur. Below purple line: 1) Aspergillus Fumigatus. Ninjatacoshell. Identified using Barnett, H. L. & Hunter, B.
B. (1998) Illustrated Genera of Imperfect Fungi. APS Press: St. Paul, MN; pp. 94–5 ISBN 0-89054-192-2.
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Aspergillus_plate.png 2) 3192. Dr. William Kaplan, CDC. http://phil.cdc.gov/
phil_images/20030219/4/PHIL_3192_lores.jpg 3) 6676. CDC. http://phil.cdc.gov/PHIL_Images/20050112/
ac25c1583db04e2d8c908f2329d0b944/6676_lores.jpg 4) 10544. Dr. Negut, CDC. http://phil.cdc.gov/PHIL_Images/
10544/10544_lores.jpg 5) Staphylococcus aureus - PC agar. Matthias M. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Staphylococcus_aureus_-_PC_agar.jpg
Page 28 of 51
switch, in the bathroom and on the desktop. Staphylococcus is often found in places
frequently touched. It makes sense, then, that it be found on the computer keyboard
and mouse and even on the sink where students frequently touch to wash their hands
and get drinks of water.
The students were suitably alarmed when they were shown the microbial growth
on the plates after only a week of incubation. The results triggered a willing response to
learn how to better clean their desks and classroom surfaces using sustainable cleaning
products. The JHP students demonstrated how a simple homemade cleaning solution
would work just as well as store bought solutions. The Eastover students decided
unanimously that they wanted to make this solution for themselves. They were given
individual spray bottles and guided through the simple recipe to make their own
personal cleaning solution. The Eastover students and teachers were thrilled with the
solutions, many chose to keep them at school to use, other students opted to take them
home, while one class agreed to use one at home and make another to use at school.
The JHP students were extremely satisfied with the outcome of the Eastover project.
Conclusions & Discussion
The project was an all-around success for all the parties involved in this
educational venture. Both the Junior Honors Project (JHP) students from Lawrence
Tech and the first grade students from Eastover Elementary found the overall
experience to be memorable and enriching. A lot of time, research, and effort were put
into creating the two 30-minute sessions that would be interesting and educational for
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first grade students. The lesson plans had to also appeal to the first grade teachers, to
convince them to take time out of their curriculum for us to work with the students. In
this respect, the lesson plans had to have elements in reading, writing, math, and/or
science. The teachers preferred to have us teach lessons that fit with what the students
already had learned or were very soon going to learn.
Teaching each class was a learning experience since the five JHP students had
little to no experience being in the front of a first grade classroom. The lessons were
geared toward younger students, but even while standing up presenting to them
changes were made to accommodate the students. However, by the end of the
sessions, the JHP students were quite comfortable with the lessons and had a routine
that seemed to work efficiently. The Eastover students seemed to enjoy both sessions
and the teachers seemed satisfied with the results of each lesson. The JHP students
received an email from their contact at Eastover a week after the lessons were
completed thanking them for their time spent with the elementary students. Apparently
the elementary students, teachers, and their parents were extremely impressed with the
results. The Eastover sustainability coordinator was pleased with the lasting impression
that the LTU Honors students left on the elementary students in such a short amount of
time. Both the Eastover and JHP students learned valuable lessons in only a few short
hours with each other, and overall the outcome was extremely pleasing and all parties
involved were satisfied with the outcome.
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Future Projects
Addition of a Five Senses Garden Project
Figure 4; Eastover Elementary Kindergarten Rooms
At the beginning of the semester it was
discussed that the temperature levels in the south
facing kindergarten rooms were unusually high. This
is likely due to the south facing walls being made up
of mostly windows that appear to be single pane. While it
was observed that there is an overhead canopy (Fig.4) on
that wall it is only approximately 5’-9” deep. A previous
group of students, under the direction of Professor Means,
had conducted an occupancy survey with the teachers and
Figure 5; Kentucky Wisteria
staff at Eastover. The results showed that the teachers in those south facing rooms
were uncomfortable. The architect major on the JHP team proposes to construct a trellis
structure outside the windows that would be, within a year of being
built, covered in vines and flowering plants in summer and early fall.
Some of the suggested plants are Clematis (Fig. 6 Flowerbed
Details. (2009, September 4)) which is a beautiful flowering vine and
Figure 6; Clematis
comes in many varieties, as well as Kentucky Wisteria (Fig. 5 Foley,
E. (2011, May 22). A free Saturday), the hardiest of the wisterias, and the Kiwi Vine (Fig.
7 Vigne, C. L. (2009, June). Christen La Vigne photos), which produces small edible
fruits and whose leaves are green with pink and silver edging, an unusual color
combination. (Plant Profiles - Vines) These vines would all let light pass through, but
Page 31 of 51
would also block a great deal of the light and thus the heat from entering the classrooms.
The teachers could then keep the shades open and the windows less blocked by
furniture and art.
In a discussion with Christina Tang, the contact at Eastover, it was discovered
the school had a plan for the area in front of the windows
already, a “Five Senses Garden”. This would fit with the
kindergarten curriculum, as well as adding some color to the
front of the building. Thus it was decided to suggest the
inclusion of the trellis, a smaller version that would only
block a few windows, in the garden and attach wind chimes
to it, so the children could learn about sound, one of the five
Figure 7; Kiwi Vine
senses. After consulting with Christina Tang once more, this became a planned future
project. It could not be done this semester because the school had decided to tear
down the south facing wall and replace it, presumably with better windows to limit the
heat gain. However the trellis is a good project for the school because of its two-fold
purpose: stimulating children with sound and creating needed shading from the sun.
Enrichment Project
Another future project that was considered after the initial project was completed
was organizing of continuing enrichment programs for elementary students. The
programs would be coordinated by Lawrence Tech University students and elementary
school administrators and teachers to “teach” mini lessons like the two designed in this
Honors project. Different lessons would be explored depending on the level of students
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being taught and the concentrations of the students doing the “teaching.” The lessons
could be a maybe once a year or semester event, while maintaining the integrity of
teaching one or two main lessons to younger students in a short period of time. The
experience would be valuable and educational for both university students and their
elementary student counterparts. Considering the successful results of this project and
the other previous projects, it seems that there is definitely interest from both parties.
This project would require more research to be conducted, but in the interest of
education it shows promise to be a very worthwhile effort.
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APPENDIX I: LESSON PLANS
BACTERIAL SWABBING IN THE CLASSROOOM
Developed by Jaime Willbur and Jake Lefebvre, 2012
30 minute exercise, ~20 students, 2 JHP students
Objective
Teach students about sustainable environments and the scientific method by analysing
the classroom environment for surface bacteria. Stimulate students to think critically
about bacteria and personal hygiene.
Materials
Petri Dishes, Polystyrene, Disposable, Sterile, 60 x 15 mm, Pk 20 (741246) $6.25
Swabs
Gloves
Labels
Permanent markers
Procedure
Make Observations/Research
1. Briefly discuss bacteria, good vs. bad, and where they might grow and why i.e.
moist, warm environments.
Form a Hypothesis
2. Based on the checklist, have students hypothesize where they might find
bacteria in the classroom or school. The most? The least? Why?
Test Hypothesis by Experiment
3. Distribute swabs and labels to students. Allow students to choose a location
to swab (i.e. in the classroom, bathroom and a variety of objects).
4. Have students wet down their swab with a little bit of water and write down
where they are swabbing on the label provided.
5. Demonstrate how they should swab the surface and transfer bacteria to petri
dish.
6. Dismiss students to swab*, when they return assist in plating the bacteria.
Place label on petri dish (student name, location, date).
*Take photos of locations where students swab.
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Analyse Data
7. Bring plates to LTU to incubate until the next session. Prepare pictures for
the students to see the progression of the bacterial growth into colonies.
Draw Conclusions
8. Present the findings to students, have examples and graphic posters to show.
9. Discuss where considerable bacterial growth was found and possible reasons
why? Have students suggest different ways to prevent spreading bacteria and
germs (i.e. washing hands, coughing into elbow, cleaning the desk before and
after meals, etc.).
10. Relate to sustainability – preserving personal health and the environment.
General Information:
Bacteria that would be found on classroom surfaces:
STAPHYLOCOCCUS EPIDERMIS—Can cause what is known as a Staph infection, but
only if it enters the body through a cut or other wound.
STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS—Can cause scalded skin syndrome, impetigo, boils,
and pimples at the base of the hair shaft. Also must enter the body through an open
wound. This type of bacteria also includes MRSA (Methicillan Resistant
Staphylococcus Aureus) infections.
E. Coli as few as 100 bacteria needed for infection
Salmonella as few as 10 bacteria needed for infection
According to literature most contaminated classroom surfaces:
1. Water fountain
2. Manual pencil sharpener
3. Sink faucet
4. Paper towel dispenser
5. Computer keyboard (Bright, Boone and Gerba 2009).
The bacteria found on the classroom surfaces are not cause for alarm; we come
into contact with bacteria on a daily, even hourly, basis. Steps should be taken to
promote general hygiene, but aside from that there is no feasible manner to
sustain a sterile classroom environment. The exercise is simply to make
students more aware of their surroundings and how they can impact their
surroundings, their health and well-being, and the health and well-being of others.
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NOTE ON SAFETY
Bacteria live everywhere, not only on surfaces but also in and on the human body.
Daily contact with bacteria is inevitable so the best way to combat bacterial or viral
illness is to promote good hygiene habits. Hand-washing is the best way to
decontaminate hands and prevents spreading germs to other surfaces or to other
people. Petri plates containing bacterial colonies can be treated with general safety
precautions. Dilute household bleach (10%), or common cleaning reagents (Lysol, etc.),
may be used at the completion of the study to decontaminate residual bacteria (Usinger
2007).
Bibliography
Bright, Kelly R., Boone, Stephanie A., and Gerba, Charles P. “Occurrence of
Bacteria and Viruses on Elementary Classroom Surfaces and the Potential Role
of Classroom Hygiene in the Spread of Infectious Diseases.” The Journal of
School Nursing (2010): 26:33.
Usinger, Laurie. “Germ Invasion.” Science Buddies. 22 Mar 2007. Bio Rad. 23 Feb
2012. < http://www.sciencebuddies.org/science-fair projects/ project_
ideas/MicroBio _p007.shtml>
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ENVIRONMENTALLY FRIENDLY CLEANING
Developed by Ann Maten and Carrie Scott, 2012
30 minute exercise, ~20 students, 2 JHP students
Objective
Teach students about safe cleaning products for both the environment and the user.
Stimulate students to think about the products that they use, and therefore breathe and
touch with their hands.
Materials (per classroom)
Recycled spray bottles (preferably one per student plus one for the teacher’s use) to
hold at least 16 fl. oz. (old Windex bottles are 32 fl. oz and would work)
13 1/3 cups white vinegar
13 1/3 cups rubbing alcohol
13 1/3 cups water
1 bottle of dishwashing liquid
Measuring cups
Gloves
Procedure
Make Observations/Research
8. Briefly discuss good forms of hygiene that the students practice in school on a
daily basis and how these practices may be improved i.e. using safer
products to clean.
Form a Hypothesis
9. Based on the hygiene practices the students’ use, have the students
hypothesize what components would make up a safe cleaning solution.
Test Hypothesis by Experiment
10. Let the students try to clean a piece of material brought in by JHP students
with their suggested ways to clean. (These ways may include just water, dish
soap, wet sponge, paper towel, etc.)
Analyse Data
11. Let the students determine what products seemed to work the best.
Draw Conclusions
5. Suggest to the students that the solutions they suggested plus some others
may work better combined. Also at this time, caution students that the
products that they may buy in stores or use at home are not to be combined.
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6. Discuss why the components used in the final solution are able to clean the
surface than any of the products individually.
7. Relate to sustainability – preserving personal health and the environment.
General Information:
Many cleaning products that are used to clean surfaces have multiple warnings that the
manufacturer expects all users to follow. These warnings often include, but are not
limited to, “Keep out of reach of children,” “Do not ingest,” and “use in a well ventilated
area.” All three of these warnings seem nearly impossible to avoid when looking to
clean a public space, especially one in which the primary users are children. When
children must clean a space and immediately eat or work on the space, there is no
doubt that the child will ingest some portion of the chemical used to clean the surface,
either by eating food that touched it, or touching the surface with their hands before
touching their eyes or mouth.
NOTE ON SAFETY
Chemicals are used in all forms to clean all surfaces. It is inevitable for any person to
avoid chemicals all together. The above lesson is to show students that they have the
ability to improve their health and safety by using environmentally friendly products in
proper circumstances.
Bibliography
Briggs, Margaret and Head, Vivian. (2009). Green Cleaning. (p. 37). New York, NY: Fall
River Press.
Environmentally friendly cleaning products. (1999). Retrieved from http://www.greentrust.org/wordpress/2011/08/20/environmentally-friendly-cleaning-products/
United States Environmental Protection Agency, (2011).Indoor air: An introduction to
indoor air quality (iaq). Retrieved from American Coatings Association website:
http://www.epa.gov/iaq/voc.html.
What's in clorox disinfecting wipes?. (2012). Retrieved from
http://www.clorox.com/products/clorox-disinfecting-wipes/ingredients-and-safety/.
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APPENDIX II: Descriptions of Common Bacteria and Fungi
Aspergillus
Aspergillus is a sac fungus of the phylum Ascomycota. It is commonly found as
a parasite on farms growing on grains, nuts, grapes, and coffee beans (Shearer,
Sweets and Baker, 1992). However, it is accustomed to adapting to new environments
and is now frequently found in the home and workplace in dust and building materials
(Aspergillosis, 2012). It also thrives under the fingernails and on the surface of the skin
(van Burik, Colven and Spach, 1998).
There are many species of Aspergillus; the most common are Aspergillus
fumigatus and Aspergillus flavus. When these two species affect the body, they cause
a disease known as aspergillosis. Aspergillosis may manifest in several different ways.
First, it may cause a condition called allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis (ABPA).
This causes respiratory symptoms mimicking allergies: coughing, wheezing, runny nose,
etc. This is the more mild form of aspergillosis because it is does not cause cell death
and tissue damage. The other forms are classified as invasive aspergillosis. In
invasive aspergillosis, Aspergillus usually attacks the tissue of the lungs, but can spread
through the body and infect other organs as well (Aspergillosis, 2012).
It is nearly impossible to avoid contact with the airborne spores of Aspergillus,
but preventive measures can be taken to avoid contraction of aspergillosis for those
more at risk. People with chronic respiratory conditions such as asthma and cystic
fibrosis are more at risk of ABPA. These people should wear an air filtering mask when
in a dusty environment, avoid activities that involve close contact with soil, use air
quality improvement systems such as a HEPA filter, and take prophylactic antifungal
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medication in extreme cases. Invasive aspergillosis can usually be managed by the
immune system, but those with compromised or weakened immune systems are at a
high risk of infection. The preventative measures above should be taken, and in
addition any skin injuries should be washed thoroughly with soap and warm water
(Aspergillosis, 2012).
Candida
There are two primary species of the yeast Candida: Candida albicans and
Candida dubliniensis. While C. albicans is by far more widespread, C. dubliniensis can
survive in harsher conditions, is immune to azole antifungal medication, and causes
more severe symptoms (Pinjon, Moran and Coleman, 2005). The natural habitat of
Candida is the mucus membranes of humans and other mammals. At normal levels,
this yeast will not cause issues, but in patients with immunodeficiency Candidiasis can
occur (Deacon).
Candidiasis has several names determined by where on the body the infection is
located. A Candida infection of the mouth and throat is called thrush (Deacon). When
Candida infects the vagina, it is termed a vaginal yeast infection (Candidiasis, 2012).
Invasive candidiasis causes fever and chills that do not respond to antibiotics at first, but
once they invade particular organs, these organs will begin showing signs of failure and
will eventually shut down entirely (Invasive Candidiasis, 2012).
The most dangerous form of candidiasis is candidemia, a blood stream infection
of Candida. This is how invasive candidiasis spreads to multiple organs and becomes
fatal. People at highest risk are hospital patients with open wounds and intravenous (IV)
injections, people with weakened immune systems, and low-birth-weight infants.
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Preventative actions can be taken by health providers and patients to reduce the risk of
contraction and spread of infection. Doctors and nurses can follow CDC-recommended
safety precautions every time they use an IV injection on a patient. Patients and homecaregivers can make sure the doctors and nurses have washed their hands before
administering an IV injection, can notify a doctor if injection site become red, sore, or
itchy, and can replace wet or dirty bandages (Candidiasis, 2012).
Escherichia
While Escherichia coli (E. coli) is not the only pathogenic species of the genus,
Escherichia, it is the most known and studied. There are a few strains of E. coli, some
pathogenic, and some non-pathogenic. One non-pathogenic strain is native and usually
confined to the lumen of the intestine, but even this may cause infection in an
immunosuppressed host or if it is introduced to another area in the body. Pathogenic
strains grow in raw meats, and can be contracted to the body by consumption of
undercooked meat, contaminated drinking water, or raw produce that has come in
contact with raw meat or contaminated water (Todar, 2012).
Once contracted some strains of E. coli can release Shiga toxin. The most
common of these strains is referred to in the United States as E. coli O157:H7. This is
the strain that the media discusses in mass outbreaks such as the massive tomato
contamination in 2010. A Shiga toxin-producing E. Coli (STEC) infection can cause
stomach cramps, diarrhea, and vomiting. A low fever may be associated with a STEC
infection (E.Coli, 2012).
There are no pharmacological cures for a STEC infection. Doctors suggest
hydration and replenishment of electrolytes and nutrients lost in the vomit and diarrhea.
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Preventative measures can be taken to lessen the risk of infection: wash hands; cook
meat thoroughly; avoid raw milk and unpasteurized juices; avoid swallowing water from
pools, lakes, and rivers; prevent cross-contamination of food preparation areas by
washing utensils after handling raw meats (E.Coli, 2012).
Serratia
Serratia is another genus of bacteria commonly found on the surface of the skin
and under the fingernails. The ideal habitat of Serratia has a temperature of 37 °C
(body temperature). This is why the body contracts a fever, its own natural defense
against bacteria like Serratia. The most well know pathogenic species of Serratia is
Serratia marcescens. It is a rod shaped bacteria, and it contains a characteristic red
pigment (Bizzarro, Dembry and Baltimore R.S., 2007).
In early studies, S. marcescens was thought to be non-pathogenic. For this
reason, the government used it to test how wind currents affect the drift of bacteria in
biological warfare by dropping balloons full of it over San Francisco in Operation Sea
Spray. It was not until a while later when an outburst of pneumonia and urinary tract
infections appeared in San Francisco citizens that anybody suspected its pathogenic
properties (Frazer, 2011).
Besides pneumonia and urinary tract infections, S. marcescens can cause
meningitis, wound infections, arthritis, and skin rashes. While all these symptoms may
be present, it is difficult to determine them from other species’ infections. Therefore,
cultures must be made to individualize the species of pathogen present (Buchholtz,
2004).
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Another interesting component of the S. marcescens bacterium is their
lipopolysaccharide (LPS) cell wall. This is an endotoxin to humans, meaning that once
the bacteria are killed, it releases lipopolysaccharides that are toxic to the human host.
It is recommended that normal antibiotics are not used in the treatment of an infection.
There have been antibiotics, not intentionally designed for, but useful in the treatment of
S. marcescens infections. They work by inhibiting the formation of proteins that build
the cell wall. They do not kill bacteria, but prevent new bacteria from forming (Makimura,
Asai and Sugiyama, 2007).
Staphylococcus
Staphylococcus is an immobile spherical genus of bacteria. Two of the most
important strains are Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermidis. These
two species are infamous for their resistance to conventional antibiotics. In fact, one
famous strain has been termed a Methicillan-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus. This
has become a huge problem in hospitals where there are many bacteria and many
antibiotics (U.S. National Library of Medicine, 2012). The resistant bacteria survive and
reproduce, following Darwin’s natural selection theory (University of California, Berkeley,
2008).
Infections by S. aureus and S. epidermidis are typically topical. They can cause
mild skin infections such as impetigo and follicitis; wound infections; and toxin mediated
diseases such as toxic shock syndrome, and scaled skin syndrome (U.S. National
Library of Medicine, 2012).
Because of their prevalence in hospitals, Staphylococcus species may serve as
reservoirs for antibiotic resistant genes. Bacteria have special capabilities to transfer
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genetic material between members of other species, and the antibiotic qualities of S.
aureus and S. epidermidis may be easily transferred to more damaging strains of
bacteria (Methicillin, 2011).
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