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AP GRAMMAR REVIEW
Knowledge and mastery of grammar and usage are part of your college battery of tests which you take this year. It is also tested
in the AP writing sections (Language and Composition taken your junior year and Literature and Composition taken your senior
year) as you have to prove your mastery of the English language through your writing. Scorers look for well-organized essays
which effectively communicate the author’s analysis and grammar mistakes cannot impede the flow/sense of your argument.
While for the AP tests you will not have to label a participle, gerund, appositive, etc, you will have to use them effectively in
your writing. (For example, the use of one semi-colon effectively moves you into the “3” category.) You are going to aim for
strong, varied sentence patterns organized with a sense of symmetry in thought and structure; there should be no “glitches” over
subject/verb agreement, antecedents, or other common sentence errors. The PSAT and the SAT II both have a more direct testing
pattern in three of the five parts: 1) identifying sentence error questions, 2) sentence improvement questions, and 3) paragraph
improvement questions. All three sections test, if even just implied in the third section, grammar and usage. The questions
presented will have definite, unambiguous solutions based on your knowledge of writing and the conventions of English. You
will have no time to think about your response. You must know these rules.
FREQUENCY WITH WHICH CERTAIN ERRORS OCCUR:
Level 5: a near certainty and probably often
Subject/verb agreement
Verb forms
Verb tense
Use of comparisons
Diction (word choice)
Level 4: highly probable
Agreement of pronoun and antecedent
Pronoun reference
Parallel construction
English idiom
Level 3: likely
Pronoun choice
Double negatives
Level 2: possible
Punctuation (run-on sentences, comma splices)
Possessives
Level 1: conceivable
Spelling
Capitalization
In terms of review, I am going to assume that you know the rules of capitalization and spelling . (If you need to review on your
own, borrow a grammar book from me – page 350, 438 for capitalization and spelling- or buy Writer’s, Inc at Vroman’s – it is
the best, easiest, and most concise grammar review book out there.) Since double negatives (page 34) sound wrong to you and
verb tense forms (page 145, 156+), idiom (see me), diction (see me) are all sheer memorization, I am going to leave these up to
you to master if you need additional help. The rest is again pretty well up to you. Since AP is not a remediation course where I
teach grammar, but rather a course where you have proved your mastery of grammar, I am going to rely on you to bring up
questions and problems and points you want “taught.” If you do not bring anything up on the Wednesdays before the grammar
ring is due each week, I will assume you “get” the weekly review points.
(pages correlate to the Holt grammar book)
FIRST WEEK: Subject/verb agreement
p. 118 = 24 cards
Look for
Compound subjects
Joined by “and” (1)
Joined by “or” “nor” (2)
Combination singular/plural (3)
Intervening words – make one card for each of these
Intervening prepositional phrases (4)
Dependent clauses (5)
Interrupters (6)
Subject words that may be singular or plural (collective nouns, amounts)
Subject words that are indefinite pronouns
Subject words that are singular but sound plural
Subject words that are titles, names or organizations or countries
Subjects that follow verbs
Every, many
That, which, who
1. COMPOUND SUBJECTSCOMPOUND SUBJECTS JOINED BY THE WORD “AND” USE A PLURAL VERB FORM
John and Carol are going to the movies
2. COMPOUND SINGULAR SUBJECTS JOINED BY OR OR NOR USE A SINGULAR VERB
Neither John nor Carol wants to go
3. COMPOUND SUBJECTS WHICH ARE A COMBINATION OF SINGULAR AND PLURAL AND JOINED BY OR OR
NOR THE VERB AGREES WITH THE SUBJECT NEAREST THE VERB
Neither the performers nor the director was pleased with the review
4., 5., 6. INTERVENING WORDS: THE VERB IS NOT CHANGED BY ANY INTERVENING WORDS OR PHRASES
The characters in the allegory in the one book that stands out as Hawthorne’s best represent abstract ideas.
The history teacher, as well as her students, was fascinated by the huge sharks.
7. ANYBODY, ANYONE, ANYTHING, EACH, EITHER, EVERYBODY, EVERYONE, EVERYTHING, NEITHER,
NOBODY, NO ONE, NOTHING, ONE, SOMEBODY, SOMEONE, SOMETHING USE A SINGULAR VERB
Neither of the books contains any charts
8. BOTH, FEW, MANY, SEVERAL USE A PLURAL VERB
Both of the poems were written by Langston Hughes
9. ALL, ANY, MOST, NONE, SOME USE A SINGULAR OR PLURAL VERB, DEPENDING ON THE REFERENCE
The police told us that none of the dogs were killed
The police told of that none of the equipment was damaged
10. COLLECTIVE NOUNS (ARMY, ASSEMBLY, GROUP, STAFF, ETC)WHEN THE NOUN REFERS TO A GROUP AS A
UNIT, USE A SINGULAR VERB
The cast of the play is made up of students
11. WHEN THE NOUN REFERS TO A PARTS OR MEMBERS OF THE GROUP, USE A PLURAL VERB
The cast are joining their families for a celebration
THE WORD NUMBER IS
12. SINGULAR WHEN PRECEDED BY THE
he number of students has increased
13. PLURAL WHEN PRECEDED BY A
A number of students are going
AMOUNT
14. SINGULAR WHEN THOUGHT OF AS A UNIT
Five thousand books is a large library
15. PLURAL WHEN THOUGHT OF AS MANY PARTS
Three books in the collection are mysteries
16. NAMES OF ORGANIZATIONS, CREATIVE WORKS, CITIES, COUNTRIES TAKE A SINGULAR VERB
Avalon Textiles is located downtown
SOME ORGANIZATIONS COMPOSED OF MEMBERS MAY TAKE A
17. SINGULAR VERB IF IT IS A UNIT
The Yankees has won many pennants
18. PLURAL VERB IF THE REFERENCE IS TO THE MEMBERS
The Yankees are signing autographs in the lobby
19. SOME NOUNS ARE PLURAL IN MEANING BUT TAKE SINGULAR VERBS (MUMPS, PHYSICS, GENETICS, ETC)
Civics is a senior requirement
20. SOME NOUNS ARE ALWAYS PLURAL (PLIERS, SHORTS, SCISSORS, ETC)
Your pants are falling down
21. A SUBJECT THAT IS A PHRASE OR CLAUSE TAKES A SINGULAR VERB
Living in the woods is dangerous
22. A VERB AGREES WITH ITS SUBJECT, NOT WITH ITS PREDICATE NOMINATIVE
Sore muscles are one symptom
One symptom is sore muscles
23. SUBJECTS PRECEDED BY EVERY OR MANY A TAKE A SINGULAR VERB
Every dog and cat is shivering in fear
24. RELATIVE PRONOUNS (THAT, WHICH, WHO) THAT ARE THE SUBJECT OF A CLAUSE AGREE WITH THE
WORD TO WHICH THE PRONOUN REFERS
I have neighbors who run naked in their yard
SECOND WEEK: Agreement of pronoun and antecedent / pronoun reference p. 133, 204 = 17 cards
agreement in number/gender/person
agreement with indefinite pronouns
singular indefinite
plural indefinite
either
joined by “and”
joined by “or” or “nor”
combination singular/plural
collective antecedents
titles
antecedents plural in form but singular in meaning
antecedents always plural
antecedent preceded by every/ many a
ambiguous reference (two or more antecedents)
general reference
weak or non-existent reference
it, they, you
1. a pronoun agrees in number, gender, person with the word to which it refers
The joggers took their canteens with them.
2. as antecedents, indefinite pronouns may be singular
anybody, anyone, anything, each, either, everybody, everyone, anything, neither, nobody, no one, nothing, one,
somebody, someone, something
Each of the girls has memorized her part.
One of the boys left his lunch on the bus
3. or plural: both, few, many, several
Many of the fans could not find their seats in the dark.
4. depending on the reference for all, any, most, none, some
All of your practice served its purpose
All of the animals received their dinners.
5. compound antecedents joined by and: use a plural pronoun
If Shelley and Jane don’t study, they will fail.
6. compound antecedents joined by or or nor, use a singular pronoun
Neither Dick nor Tom wants a seat by himself.
7. If a mix of singular and plural, the pronoun agrees with the antecedent nearest
Neither the twins nor Jerry likes his new room.
Collective nouns may act as singular or plural antecedent
8. If the antecedent is used as a unit, use a singular pronoun reference
Yesterday, the OM club signaled its demise.
9.If the reference is to its parts or members, use a plural pronoun reference
However, the club disagree on the substitute competition.
10. Titles of creative works (books, songs, film, paintings), the name of organizations, countries, cities take a singular pronoun
reference
Twin Peaks is proud of its heritage.
11. Some words are plural in form, but singular in meaning and thus take a singular pronoun reference
Civics must be taken senior year for it to count for graduation
12.Some words take plural pronoun references (pants, pliers, shorts, etc)
Find the scissors and bring them to me.
13. Every and many a take singular pronouns
Every, dog, cat, and horse, was in its bed for the night.
Avoid ambiguous references between pronouns and antecedents
14. Beware of two or more antecedent of the same gender
Carol called Alice while she was doing her homework
15. Avoid what is called a general reference (referring to a general idea rather than to a specific noun)
Watch this, that, which, such
More than 85% of UC freshman fail to pass the minimum English requirements, which is a shame.
16. Avoid a weak reference where an idea not yet named is referred to
Our dog is jealous of our kitten; to help him get over it, I give him extra attention (it has no antecedent; the antecedent
should be jealousy)
17. Avoid the indefinite use of it, they, you
It is reported that 3,000 people died in the quake.
In the history book, they report on the immigration of the Irish.
THIRD WEEK: Subjunctive mood (almost a “wish” statement) = 1 card
1. A verb form that expresses a condition contrary to fact and usually appears in clauses with
As if
As though
If
FOURTH WEEK: Use of comparisons p. 220 = 8 cards
Degrees
Positive, comparative, superlative
Incomplete comparisons
Illogical comparisons
Parallelism in comparisons
Use of the same grammatical form when comparing parallel ideas
Not parallel: to go skateboarding is no longer as popular as rollerblading
Parallel: skateboarding is no longer as popular as rollerblading
Not parallel: Ogden Nash was more admired for his humor than for what his
poems had to say.
Parallel: Ogden Nash was more admired for his humor than his ideas.
1. One syllable modifiers usually take –er and –est
ofter, biggest
2. Some two syllable words take –er and –est, and some take more and most
Simpler, simplest; likelier, likeliest
More cautious, most freely
3 .More than two syllables use more and most
4. Avoid illogical comparisons
Include the word other or else when comparing one member of a group with the rest of the group
Anita has hit more home runs than any member of the team
I think Jean plays the flute better than anyone.
5. Avoid illogical comparisons
MacDonald’s hamburgers are better than Burger King.
6. Avoid incomplete comparisons
I tutor Ryan more than Isabel
Do you see movies more often than your friend?
7. Include all the words necessary to complete the compound sentence
The football team from our school played as well, if not better than, the one from Muir. (As well as)
8. Parallelism in comparisons
Use of the same grammatical form when comparing parallel ideas
Not parallel: to go skateboarding is no longer as popular as rollerblading
Parallel: skateboarding is no longer as popular as rollerblading
Not parallel: Ogden Nash was more admired for his humor than for what his poems had to say.
Parallel: Ogden Nash was more admired for his humor than his ideas.
FIFTH WEEK: Parallel construction p. 311 = 6 cards
Use of same grammatical form
Especially note how conjunctions control the phrase that follows
Use in comparing or contrasting ideas (also see above)
Use grammatical equivalents (eg. do not mix a gerund and an infinitive)
Incorrect: They are worried more about public opinion than what the effect of the proposal may be
Correct: They are worried more about public opinion than about the effects of the proposal
Incorrect: Going out to eat is not as much fun as to cook at home.
Correct: Going out to eat is not as much fun as cooking at home
Use when linking ideas with correlative conjunctions
Both…and, either…or, neither…nor, not only…but also
Signal words need to be correctly placed
Poor: Alice both started on the basketball and volleyball teams
Better: Alice started on both ….
Repeat articles, conjunctions, prepositions in the series
Poor: Our mechanic did a better job on my car than his
Better: Our mechanic did a better job on my car than on his
Parallel ideas should be logical equivalents
Poor: Jim is six feet tall, kind, and a New Yorker
Better: Kim, a six foot tall New Yorker, is kind.
Poor: On Wednesday Marge ate a peanut butter sandwich and got married
Better: since, contrary to rumor, eating a peanut butter sandwich and getting married are not equivalents
Before getting married on Wednesday, Marge ate a peanut butter sandwich
1. ideas of equal weight should be in parallel structure; phrases should be in the same format; gerund to gerund, participle to
participle, etc
Wrong: In winter I like to ski and skating
Right: In winter I like skiing and skating
Incorrect: They are worried more about public opinion than what the effect of the proposal may be
Correct: They are worried more about public opinion than about the effects of the proposal
Incorrect: Going out to eat is not as much fun as to cook at home.
Correct: Going out to eat is not as much fun as cooking at home
2. Use parallel structure when you compare and contrast
Wrong: To think logically is not as important as acknowledging your feelings
Right: Thinking logically is not as important as acknowledging your feelings
3. When you link ideas with correlative conjunctions (both…and, either…or, not only … but also, etc)
A principal must balance his love of students with raising money for the school.
A principal must balance both his love of students and his need to raise money for the school
4. Signal words need to be correctly placed
Poor: Alice both started on the basketball and volleyball teams
Better: Alice started on both ….
5. Repeat articles, conjunctions, prepositions in the series
Poor: Our mechanic did a better job on my car than his
Better: Our mechanic did a better job on my car than on his car
6 . Parallel ideas should be logical equivalents
Poor: Jim is six feet tall, kind, and a New Yorker
Better: Kim, a six foot tall New Yorker, is kind.
Poor: On Wednesday Marge ate a peanut butter sandwich and got married
Better: since, contrary to rumor, eating a peanut butter sandwich and getting married are not equivalents Before getting
married on Wednesday, Marge ate a peanut butter sandwich
SIXTH WEEK: Pronoun choice p. 187 = 10 cards
Use nominative case pronouns as the subject and in predicate nominative (page 291)
Use objective case pronouns when the pronoun is used as
The object in a prepositional phrase
The objects of verbs
Direct objects
Indirect objects
The objects of verbals
Use the correct form when the sentence is implied or unfinished – elliptical - (just finish it in your mind)
Jackie runs faster than (she or her)
Finished: Jackie runs faster than she runs
Carol is as tough as (me or I)
Finished: Carol is as tough as I am
Use the correct form when the pronoun is side by side with the noun (hint: eliminate the noun)
(We, us) seniors decided to take a day off in late May.
We decided to take a day off in late May.
Possessives
Use possessives before a gerund
Appositive
The pronouns is in the same case as the noun to which it refers
1. Use nominative case pronouns as the subject and in the predicate nominative
When I answered the phone, it was she.
The two candidates are Marco and I.
2. Use objective case pronouns when the pronoun is used as the object of a prep phrase
The tie is between her and me
Behind her is the beginning point of the line
3. Use objective case when the pronoun is the object of a verb
Throw him into the fire
4. Use objective case when the pronoun is the indirect object
Throw him a towel and then throw him into the fire
5. Use objective case when the pronoun is the object of a verbal
Protecting them is not enough action for the endangered species act.
No one expected the Rose Queen to be her.
6. Use the correct form when the sentence is implied or unfinished – elliptical - (just finish it in your mind)
Jackie runs faster than (she or her)
Finished: Jackie runs faster than she runs
Carol is as tough as (me or I)
Finished: Carol is as tough as I am
7. Use the correct form when the pronoun is side by side with the noun (hint: eliminate the noun)
(We, us) seniors decided to take a day off in late May.
We decided to take a day off in late May.
8. Possessives: Use possessives before a gerund
We all cheered Todd’s scoring the final touch down
Todd’s parents objected to his breaking his leg, though
9. Appositive: The pronouns is in the same case as the noun to which it refers
The two fullbacks, Todd and he, are both out for the season
(used as subject appositives)
The coach paid both boys, Todd and him, off handsomely
10. In elliptical construction, just finish the construction
Elliptical: She is taller than he
Finished: She is taller than he is
SEVENTH WEEK: Modifiers p. 229 = 2 cards
Misplaced
Dangling
1. Misplaced: The modifier must be placed near or next to the word it modifies to avoid nonsensical sentences
He saw a bear riding a motorcycle through the forest.
2. Dangling modifiers are phrases that do not sensibly modify any word or words in the sentence
Alone, the mountain is virtually impossible to climb.
EIGHTH WEEK: Punctuation p. 385 – 392, 397 - 399 = 16 cards
Commas
Two independent clauses
Non-essential clauses and phrases
Introductory elements
Mild exclamations
Participial phrases
Two or more introductory prepositional phrases
Introductory adverb clause
Interrupters
Appositives
Noun of direct address
Compound comparisons
Parenthetical expressions
Clarity
Semi-colons
Independent clauses with no conjunction
Independent clauses joined by conjunctive adverb or traditional expressions
Two independent clauses joined by a conjunction but with other commas within the
Clauses
1. Use a comma to separate two independent clauses joined by and, or, nor, for, but, so, yet
We can go in the morning when the sun comes up, or we can go later on in the day.
Use commas to set off nonessential clauses or participial phrase (clauses or phrases not necessary to the sense/meaning of the
sentence)
2. Non-essential clauses are not necessary for the meaning
Dr. Young, who lives down the street, is only thirty-five
Shari, trying her hardest, was nervous
3. Essential clauses are necessary to restrict the meaning of the sentence
 Leave the books that are due on the table by the door
Introductory elements
4. Mild exclamations, such as well, first, etc
5. Introductory participial phrases
Feeling close to tears, Jane ran to the restroom
6. Two or more prepositional phrases
Over the river and through the woods, we rode the horse.
7. Introductory adverb clauses
After I had introduced Jim and Mary, I wandered off to the buffet
Interrupters
8. Appositives
My favorite movie with Clark Gable, Gone with The Wind, is playing at the Mann
9. Nouns of direct address
John, get your hair cut
10. Compound comparisons
Jim is as well known as, if not better known than, his brother
Make sure to complete the comparison by repeating the second as
11. Parenthetical expressions
We ended up, after all, at the Hastings.
12. Clarity
Above an eagle soared majestically
 Above, an eagle soared majestically
The sea was calm; the moon, bright
What seats there were, were already taken
The bigger they are, the harder they fall.
Semi-colons
13. Use a semi-colon between two independent clauses that are closely related but not joined by a conjunction
The rain had threatened all day; it came suddenly in torrents.
14. Join independent clauses joined by a conjunctive adverb (accordingly, however, nevertheless, therefore, etc) with a semicolon
I wanted to see Matrix; however, I gave in and went to the other movie
15. Join independent clauses which already have a comma with a semi-colon
We ordered large servings of tacos, rice, and beans; but we only managed to eat a third of what was served
16. Use a semi-colon to separate items in a series if the items already contain commas
I have lived in Salt Lake City, Utah; Las Vegas, Nevada; and Arcadia, California
NINTH WEEK: Possessives p. 421 = 2 cards
Placement of apostrophe
Singular
Plural
Possessives – to show possession
1. To form the possessive of singular nouns, add an apostrophe and an s
If the noun ends in s or z sound, add only an apostrophe if the noun has two or more syllables
Hercules’ strength
2. To form the possessive of a plural noun, add only an apostrophe
TENTH WEEK: Fragments (p. 314 – 316), run-ons (p. 318 – 319), comma splices (p. 25, 318) = 7 cards
Fragments
Sentences beginning with subordinating conjunctions
Sentences beginning with prepositional phrases
Sentences beginning with participles
Sentences with the nouns in an appositive construction
Compound structure fragments
Run-ons
Comma splices
Fragments – the sentence has to be complete
1. Sentences beginning with subordinating conjunctions
While the football teams run down the field at practice
2. Sentences beginning with prepositional phrases
At the house alongside the main highway by the bend in the river
3. Sentences beginning with participles
Hailing from a long line of Republicans who had inherited much wealth from previous corporate founders
4. Sentences with the nouns in an appositive construction
He became the first male principal of the high school. An unusual position for someone in his family.
5. Compound structure fragments
I packed only casual clothes for the trip. Levis, sweats, t-shirts, swimming suits, and flip flops.
6. Run-ons – sentences joined together as if they were a single thought and Fused - sentences joined with no punctuation
between them
7. Comma splice – sentences incorrectly joined with just a comma
THE “GRAMMAR RING”
Your assignment is to make a hand written grammar ring (typed grammar rings will nto be
accepted). This means that you will buy a 3 inch or larger key ring (the metal interlocking kind),
use 4 X 6 index cards, punch a hole in each in the left hand corner, and write the rule.
One rule per card = 82 cards; 4 X 6 index cards or no credit
You may not cut paper to size or vary the size
DIRECTIONS
1. Buy a key ring, 3 inch or larger (as needed) (you are going to need 3 rings for this course)
2. Take @ 90 4 X 6 index cards
3. Put one rule per card
4. On the front side of the card, hand write an incorrect sentence illustrating the principle
(PSAT style)
5. On the back side (number these in the following manner):
1) hand write the title of the rule at the top;
2) hand write the rule (include all words/examples you need to know that are given
3) hand write the examples given (some rules have more than one example)
4) hand write one more correct sentence to illustrate the rule and are original. Punch a
hole large enough for the key ring to pass through in the upper left hand corner
6. Attach the cards
7. Add one more card that is colored with your name, period, and id number, putting it first
DUE DATES: These are due at the beginning of class ON THE Friday of the appropriate week
or they will not be given credit. Make sure you have them on a ring or I will not accept
them. Make sure you keep adding to the ring – do not just turn in the week’s assignment –
it is cumulative.
ACCOUNTABILITY:
When written papers are returned, there will be a check mark in the margin where a grammar
error occurs. For each error you will - on the back of the original paper – rewrite the sentence as
it stands once, write the full rule which governs that error, write the corrected sentence 5 times.
This is to be handwritten, not typed. Typed corrections will not get credit. Failure to make the
corrections will lower the original grade of the written piece by two full grades.
SUBJECT/VERB AGREEMENT
I. COMPOUND SUBJECTS
1. COMPOUND SUBJECTS JOINED BY THE WORD “AND”
USE A PLURAL VERB FORM
John and Carol are going to the movies
2. COMPOUND SINGULAR SUBJECTS JOINED BY OR OR NOR
USE A SINGULAR VERB
Neither John nor Carol wants to go
3. COMPOUND SUBJECTS WHICH ARE A COMBINATION OF SINGULAR AND PLURAL
AND JOINED BY OR OR NOR
THE VERB AGREES WITH THE SUBJECT NEAREST THE VERB
Neither the performers nor the director was pleased with the review
II. INTERVENING WORDS
4. THE VERB IS NOT CHANGED BY ANY INTERVENING WORDS OR PHRASES
a. The characters in the allegory in the one book that stands out as Hawthorne’s
best represent abstract ideas.
b. The history teacher, as well as her students, was fascinated by the huge
sharks.
III. SPECIAL CASES
5. ANYBODY, ANYONE, ANYTHING, EACH, EITHER, EVERYBODY, EVERYONE,
EVERYTHING, NEITHER, NOBODY, NO ONE, NOTHING, ONE, SOMEBODY, SOMEONE,
SOMETHING
USE A SINGULAR VERB
Neither of the books contains any charts
6. BOTH, FEW, MANY, SEVERAL
USE A PLURAL VERB
Both of the poems were written by Langston Hughes
7. ALL, ANY, MOST, NONE, SOME
USE A SINGULAR OR PLURAL VERB, DEPENDING ON THE REFERENCE
a. The police told us that none of the dogs were killed
b. The police told of that none of the equipment was damaged
8. COLLECTIVE NOUNS (ARMY, ASSEMBLY, GROUP, STAFF, ETC)
a. WHEN THE NOUN REFERS TO A GROUP AS A UNIT, USE A SINGULAR VERB
The cast of the play is made up of students
b. WHEN THE NOUN REFERS TO A PARTS OR MEMBERS OF THE GROUP, USE A
PLURAL VERB
The cast are joining their families for a celebration
9. THE WORD NUMBER IS
a. SINGULAR WHEN PRECEDED BY THE
The number of students has increased
b. PLURAL WHEN PRECEDED BY A
A number of students are going
10. AMOUNT
a. SINGULAR WHEN THOUGHT OF AS A UNIT
Five thousand books is a large library
b. PLURAL WHEN THOUGHT OF AS MANY PARTS
Three books in the collection are mysteries
11. NAMES OF ORGANIZATIONS, CREATIVE WORKS, CITIES,
COUNTRIES TAKE A SINGULAR VERB
Avalon Textiles is located downtown
12. SOME ORGANIZATIONS COMPOSED OF MEMBERS MAY TAKE
a. SINGULAR VERB IF IT IS A UNIT
The Yankees has won many pennants
b. PLURAL VERB IF THE REFERENCE IS TO THE MEMBERS
The Yankees are signing autographs in the lobby
13. SOME NOUNS ARE PLURAL IN MEANING BUT TAKE SINGULAR VERBS (MUMPS,
PHYSICS, GENETICS, ETC)
Civics is a senior requirement
14. SOME NOUNS ARE ALWAYS PLURAL (PLIERS, SHORTS, SCISSORS, ETC)
Your pants are falling down
15. A SUBJECT THAT IS A PHRASE OR CLAUSE TAKES A SINGULAR VERB
Living in the woods is dangerous
16. A VERB AGREES WITH ITS SUBJECT, NOT WITH ITS PREDICATE NOMINATIVE
a. Sore muscles are one symptom
b.One symptom is sore muscles
17. SUBJECTS PRECEDED BY EVERY OR MANY A TAKE A SINGULAR VERB
Every dog and cat is shivering in fear
18. RELATIVE PRONOUNS (THAT, WHICH, WHO) THAT ARE THE SUBJECT OF A
CLAUSE AGREE WITH THE WORD TO WHICH THE PRONOUN REFERS
I have neighbors who run naked in their yard
SECTION 2 – ANTECEDENTS
19. ANTECEDENT AGREEMENT
a pronoun agrees in number, gender, person with the word to which it refers
The joggers took their canteens with them.
20. As antecedents, indefinite pronouns may be singular
anybody, anyone, anything, each, either, everybody, everyone, anything, neither,
nobody, no one, nothing, one, somebody, someone, something
a. Each of the girls has memorized her part.
b. One of the boys left his lunch on the bus
21. Or plural
both, few, many, several
Many of the fans could not find their seats in the dark.
22. Depending on the reference for all, any, most, none, some
a. All of your practice served its purpose
b. All of the animals received their dinners.
23. Compound antecedents joined by and
use a plural pronoun
If Shelley and Jane don’t study, they will fail.
24. Compound antecedents joined by or or nor
use a singular pronoun
Neither Dick nor Tom wants a seat by himself.
25. If a mix of singular and plural, the pronoun agrees with the antecedent nearest
Neither the twins nor Jerry likes his new room.
26. Collective nouns may act as singular or plural antecedent
If the antecedent is used as a unit, use a singular pronoun reference
Yesterday, the OM club signaled its demise.
26. If the reference is to its parts or members, use a plural pronoun reference
However, the club disagree on the substitute competition.
27. Titles of creative works (books, songs, film, paintings), the name of organizations,
countries, cities take a singular pronoun reference
Twin Peaks is proud of its heritage.
28. Some words are plural in form, but singular in meaning and thus take a singular
pronoun reference
Civics must be taken senior year for it to count for graduation
29. Some words take plural pronoun references (pants, pliers, shorts, etc)
Find the scissors and bring them to me.
30. Every and many a take singular pronouns
Every dog, cat, and horse, was in its bed for the night.
31. Avoid ambiguous references between pronouns and antecedents
Beware of two or more antecedent of the same gender
Carol called Alice while she was doing her homework (ambiguous
antecedent)
32. Avoid what is called a general reference (referring to a general idea rather than to a
specific noun)
Watch this, that, which, such
More than 85% of UC freshman fail to pass the minimum English
requirements, which is a shame.
33. Avoid a weak reference where an idea not yet named is referred to
Our dog is jealous of our kitten; to help him get over it, I give him extra
attention (it has no antecedent; the antecedent should be jealousy)
34. Avoid the indefinite use of it, they, you
a. It is reported that 3,000 people died in the quake.
b. In the history book, they report on the immigration of the Irish.
SECTION 3: USE OF COMPARISONS
35. One syllable modifiers usually take –er and –est
Softer, biggest
36. Some two syllable words take –er and –est, and some take more and most
a. Simpler, simplest; liklier, likliest
b. More cautious, most freely
37. More than two syllables use more and most
38. Avoid illogical comparisons
Include the word other or else when comparing one member of a group with the
rest of the group
a. Anita has hit more home runs than any member of the team
b. I think Jean plays the flute better than anyone.
39. Avoid illogical comparisons
MacDonald’s hamburgers are better than Burger King.
40. Avoid incomplete comparisons
a. I tutor Ryan more than Isabel
b. Do you see movies more often than your friend?
41. Include all the words necessary to complete the compound sentence
The football team from our school played as well, if not better than, the
one from Muir.
(As well as)
42. Parallelism in comparisons
Use of the same grammatical form when comparing parallel ideas
a. Not parallel: to go skateboarding is no longer as popular as
rollerblading
b. Parallel: skateboarding is no longer as popular as rollerblading
c. Not parallel: Ogden Nash was more admired for his humor than for
what his poems had to say.
d. Parallel: Ogden Nash was more admired for his humor than his ideas.
SECTION 4: PARALLEL CONSTRUCTION
43. Ideas of equal weight should be in parallel structure
phrases should be in the same format
gerund to gerund, participle to participle, etc
a. Wrong: In winter I like to ski and skating
b. Right: In winter I like skiing and skating
c. Incorrect: They are worried more about public opinion than what the
effect of the proposal may be
d. Correct: They are worried more about public opinion than about the
effects of the proposal
e. Incorrect: Going out to eat is not as much fun as to cook at home.
f. Correct: Going out to eat is not as much fun as cooking at home
44. Use parallel structure when you compare and contrast
a. Wrong: To think logically is not as important as acknowledging your
feelings
b. Right: Thinking logically is not as important as acknowledging your
feelings
45. When you link ideas with correlative conjunctions (both…and, either…or, not only
… but also, etc)
a. A principal must balance his love of students with raising money for the
school.
b. A principal must balance both his love of students and his need to raise
money for the school
46. Signal words need to be correctly placed
a. Poor: Alice both started on the basketball and volleyball teams
b. Better: Alice started on both ….
47. Repeat articles, conjunctions, prepositions in the series
a. Poor: Our mechanic did a better job on my car than his
b. Better: Our mechanic did a better job on my car than on his car
48. Parallel ideas should be logical equivalents
a. Poor: Jim is six feet tall, kind, and a New Yorker
b. Better: Kim, a six foot tall New Yorker, is kind.
c. Poor: On Wednesday Marge ate a peanut butter sandwich and got
married
d. Better: since, contrary to rumor, eating a peanut butter sandwich and
getting married are not equivalents
Before getting married on Wednesday, Marge ate a peanut butter
sandwich
PART FIVE – SUBJUNCTIVE
48. Look this one up on line and make sure to include at least three examples
PART SIX – PRONOUN CHOICE
49. Use nominative case pronouns as the subject and in the predicate nominative
a. She loves her dog.
b. When I answered the phone, it was she.
c. The two candidates are Marco and I.
50. Use objective case pronouns when the pronoun is used as the object of a prep
phrase
a. The tie is between her and me
b. Behind her is the beginning point of the line
51. Use objective case when the pronoun is the object if a verb
Throw him into the fire
52. Use objective case when the pronoun is the indirect object
Throw him a towel and then throw him into the fire
53. Use objective case when the pronoun is the object of a verbal
a. Protecting them is not enough action for the endangered species act.
b. Did John ask them if OM was a “go”?
c. No one expected the Rose Queen to be her.
54. Use the correct form when the sentence is implied or unfinished – elliptical - (just
finish it in your mind)
a. Jackie runs faster than (she or her)
Finished: Jackie runs faster than she runs
b. Carol is as tough as (me or I)
Finished: Carol is as tough as I am
55. Use the correct form when the pronoun is side by side with the noun (hint: eliminate
the noun)
a. (We, us) seniors decided to take a day off in late May.
Correct: We decided to take a day off in late May.
56. Possessive Pronouns
Use possessives before a gerund
a. We all cheered Todd’s scoring the final touch down
b. Todd’s parents objected to his breaking his leg, though
57. Appositive
The pronouns is in the same case as the noun to which it refers
a. The two fullbacks, Todd and he, are both out for the season
(used as subject appositives)
b. The coach paid both boys, Todd and him, off handsomely
58. In elliptical construction, just finish the construction
a. Elliptical: She is taller than he
b. Finished: She is taller than he is
PART SEVEN - MODIFIERS
59. Misplaced Modifiers
The modifier must be placed near or next to the word it modifies to avoid
nonsensical sentences
He saw a bear riding a motorcycle through the forest.
60. Dangling modifiers are phrases that do not sensibly modify any word or words in
the sentence
Alone, the mountain is virtually impossible to climb.
PART EIGHT – COMMAS
61. Use a comma to separate two independent clauses joined by and, or, nor, for, but,
so, yet
We can go in the morning when the sun comes up, or we can go later on in
the day.
62. Use commas to set off nonessential clauses or participial phrase (clauses or
phrases not necessary to the sense/meaning of the sentence)
A. Non-essential clauses are not necessary for the meaning
a. Dr. Young, who lives down the street, is only thirty-five
b. Shari, trying her hardest, was nervous
B. Essential clauses are necessary to restrict the meaning of the sentence
a. Leave the books that are due on the table by the door
63. Introductory elements
A. Mild exclamations, such as well, first, etc
Introductory participial phrases
a. Feeling close to tears, Jane ran to the restroom
B. Two or more prepositional phrases
a. Over the river and through the woods, we rode the horse.
C. Introductory adverb clauses
a. After I had introduced Jim and Mary, I wandered off to the buffet
Interrupters
64. Appositives
My favorite movie with Clark Gable, Gone with The Wind, is playing at the Mann
65. Nouns of direct address
John, get your hair cut
66. Compound comparisons
Jim is as well known as, if not better known than, his brother
Make sure to complete the comparison by repeating the second as
67. Parenthetical expressions
We ended up, after all, at the Hastings.
68. Clarity
a. Above an eagle soared majestically
b. Above, an eagle soared majestically
c. The sea was calm; the moon, bright
d. What seats there were, were already taken
e. The bigger they are, the harder they fall.
PART NINE – SEMI-COLONS
69. Use a semi-colon between two independent clauses that are closely related but not
joined by a conjunction
a. The rain had threatened all day; it came suddenly in torrents.
70. Join independent clauses joined by a conjunctive adverb (accordingly, however,
nevertheless, therefore, etc) with a semi-colon
a. I wanted to see Matrix; however, I gave in and went to the other movie
71. Join independent clauses which already have a comma with a semi-colon
We ordered large servings of tacos, rice, and beans; but we only managed to eat
a third of what was served
72. Use a semi-colon to separate items in a series if the items already contain commas
I have lived in Salt Lake City, Utah; Las Vegas, Nevada; and Arcadia, California
PART TEN - POSSESSIVES - To show possession
73. To form the possessive of singular nouns, add an apostrophe and an s
Chris’s teddy bear
74. If the noun ends in s or z sound, add only an apostrophe if the noun has two or more
syllables
Hercules’ strength
75. To form the possessive of a plural noun, add only an apostrophe
The boys’ gym
PART ELEVEN – FRAGMENTS
Fragments – the sentence has to be complete
76. Sentences beginning with subordinating conjunctions
 While the football teams run down the field at practice
77. Sentences beginning with prepositional phrases
 At the house alongside the main highway by the bend in the river
78. Sentences beginning with participles
 Hailing from a long line of Republicans who had inherited much wealth from
previous corporate founders
79. Sentences with the nouns in an appositive construction
 He became the first male principal of the high school. An unusual position for
someone in his family.
80. Compound structure fragments
 I packed only casual clothes for the trip. Levis, sweats, t-shirts, swimming
suits, and flip flops.
RUN-ON SENTENCES
Run-ons – sentences joined together as if they were a single thought
81. Fused - sentences joined with no punctuation between them
I went to the 99 cent store and I bought all my friends gifts.
82. Comma splice – sentences incorrectly joined with just a comma
I went to the 99 cent store, and while I was there I bought all my friends
gifts.
BASIC GRAMMAR RULES
SUBJECT/VERB AGREEMENT
1. COMPOUND SUBJECTSCOMPOUND SUBJECTS JOINED BY THE WORD “AND”
 USE A PLURAL VERB FORM
 John and Carol are going to the movies
2. COMPOUND SINGULAR SUBJECTS JOINED BY OR OR NOR
 USE A SINGULAR VERB
 Neither John nor Carol wants to go
3. COMPOUND SUBJECTS WHICH ARE A COMBINATION OF SINGULAR AND PLURAL AND JOINED BY OR OR
NOR
 THE VERB AGREES WITH THE SUBJECT NEAREST THE VERB
 Neither the performers nor the director was pleased with the review
INTERVENING WORDS
1. THE VERB IS NOT CHANGED BY ANY INTERVENING WORDS OR PHRASES
 The characters in the allegory in the one book that stands out as Hawthorne’s best represent abstract ideas.
 The history teacher, as well as her students, was fascinated by the huge sharks.
SPECIAL CASES
1. ANYBODY, ANYONE, ANYTHING, EACH, EITHER, EVERYBODY, EVERYONE, EVERYTHING, NEITHER,
NOBODY, NO ONE, NOTHING, ONE, SOMEBODY, SOMEONE, SOMETHING
 USE A SINGULAR VERB
 Neither of the books contains any charts
BOTH, FEW, MANY, SEVERAL
 USE A PLURAL VERB
 Both of the poems were written by Langston Hughes
ALL, ANY, MOST, NONE, SOME
 USE A SINGULAR OR PLURAL VERB, DEPENDING ON THE REFERENCE
 The police told us that none of the dogs were killed
 The police told of that none of the equipment was damaged
COLLECTIVE NOUNS (ARMY, ASSEMBLY, GROUP, STAFF, ETC)
 WHEN THE NOUN REFERS TO A GROUP AS A UNIT, USE A SINGULAR VERB
 The cast of the play is made up of students
 WHEN THE NOUN REFERS TO A PARTS OR MEMBERS OF THE GROUP, USE A PLURAL VERB
 The cast are joining their families for a celebration
THE WORD NUMBER IS
 SINGULAR WHEN PRECEDED BY THE
 The number of students has increased
 PLURAL WHEN PRECEDED BY A
 A number of students are going
AMOUNT
 SINGULAR WHEN THOUGHT OF AS A UNIT
 Five thousand books is a large library
 PLURAL WHEN THOUGHT OF AS MANY PARTS
 Three books in the collection are mysteries
NAMES OF ORGANIZATIONS, CREATIVE WORKS, CITIES, COUNTRIES TAKE A SINGULAR VERB
 Avalon Textiles is located downtown
8. SOME ORGANIZATIONS COMPOSED OF MEMBERS MAY TAKE
 SINGULAR VERB IF IT IS A UNIT
 The Yankees has won many pennants
 PLURAL VERB IF THE REFERENCE IS TO THE MEMBERS
 The Yankees are signing autographs in the lobby
9. SOME NOUNS ARE PLURAL IN MEANING BUT TAKE SINGULAR VERBS (MUMPS, PHYSICS, GENETICS, ETC)
 Civics is a senior requirement
10. SOME NOUNS ARE ALWAYS PLURAL (PLIERS, SHORTS, SCISSORS, ETC)
 Your pants are falling down
11. A SUBJECT THAT IS A PHRASE OR CLAUSE TAKES A SINGULAR VERB
 Living in the woods is dangerous
12. A VERB AGREES WITH ITS SUBJECT, NOT WITH ITS PREDICATE NOMINATIVE
 Sore muscles are one symptom
 One symptom is sore muscles
13. SUBJECTS PRECEDED BY EVERY OR MANY A TAKE A SINGULAR VERB
 Every dog and cat is shivering in fear
14. RELATIVE PRONOUNS (THAT, WHICH, WHO) THAT ARE THE SUBJECT OF A CLAUSE AGREE WITH THE
WORD TO WHICH THE PRONOUN REFERS
 I have neighbors who run naked in their yard
SECTION 2
ANTECEDENT AGREEMENT
a pronoun agrees in number, gender, person with the word to which it refers
The joggers took their canteens with them.
as antecedents, indefinite pronouns may be singular
anybody, anyone, anything, each, either, everybody, everyone, anything, neither, nobody, no one, nothing, one, somebody,
someone, something
Each of the girls has memorized her part.
One of the boys left his lunch on the bus
or plural
both, few, many, several
Many of the fans could not find their seats in the dark.
depending on the reference for all, any, most, none, some
All of your practice served its purpose
All of the animals received their dinners.
compound antecedents joined by and
use a plural pronoun
If Shelley and Jane don’t study, they will fail.
compound antecedents joined by or or nor
use a singular pronoun
Neither Dick nor Tom wants a seat by himself.
If a mix of singular and plural, the pronoun agrees with the antecedent nearest
Neither the twins nor Jerry likes his new room.
Collective nouns may act as singular or plural antecedent
If the antecedent is used as a unit, use a singular pronoun reference
Yesterday, the OM club signaled its demise.
If the reference is to its parts or members, use a plural pronoun reference
However, the club disagree on the substitute competition.
Titles of creative works (books, songs, film, paintings), the name of organizations, countries, cities take a singular pronoun
reference
Twin Peaks is proud of its heritage.
Some words are plural in form, but singular in meaning and thus take a singular pronoun reference
Civics must be taken senior year for it to count for graduation
Some words take plural pronoun references (pants, pliers, shorts, etc)
Find the scissors and bring them to me.
Every and many a take singular pronouns
Every, dog, cat, and horse, was in its bed for the night.
Avoid ambiguous references between pronouns and antecedents
Beware of two or more antecedent of the same gender
Carol called Alice while she was doing her homework
Avoid what is called a general reference (referring to a general idea rather than to a specific noun)
Watch this, that, which, such
More than 85% of UC freshman fail to pass the minimum English requirements, which is a shame.
Avoid a weak reference where an idea not yet named is referred to
Our dog is jealous of our kitten; to help him get over it, I give him extra attention (it has no antecedent; the antecedent should be
jealousy)
Avoid the indefinite use of it, they, you
It is reported that 3,000 people died in the quake.
In the history book, they report on the immigration of the Irish.
SECTION 3
Use of Comparisons
One syllable modifiers usually take –er and –est
Softer, biggest
Some two syllable words take –er and –est, and some take more and most
Simpler, simplest; liklier, likliest
More cautious, most freely
 More than two syllables use more and most
3. Avoid illogical comparisons
Include the word other or else when comparing one member of a group with the rest of the group
Anita has hit more home runs than any member of the team
I think Jean plays the flute better than anyone.
4. Avoid illogical comparisons
MacDonald’s hamburgers are better than Burger King.
5. Avoid incomplete comparisons

I tutor Ryan more than Isabel
 Do you see movies more often than your friend?
Include all the words necessary to complete the compound sentence
 The football team from our school played as well, if not better than, the one from Muir. (As well as)
7. Parallelism in comparisons
Use of the same grammatical form when comparing parallel ideas
Not parallel: to go skateboarding is no longer as popular as rollerblading
Parallel: skateboarding is no longer as popular as rollerblading
Not parallel: Ogden Nash was more admired for his humor than for what his poems had to say.
Parallel: Ogden Nash was more admired for his humor than his ideas.
PART FIVE
Parallel construction
ideas of equal weight should be in parallel structure
 phrases should be in the same format
 gerund to gerund, participle to participle, etc
 Wrong: In winter I like to ski and skating
 Right: In winter I like skiing and skating
 Incorrect: They are worried more about public opinion than what the effect of the proposal may be
 Correct: They are worried more about public opinion than about the effects of the proposal
 Incorrect: Going out to eat is not as much fun as to cook at home.
 Correct: Going out to eat is not as much fun as cooking at home
Use parallel structure when you compare and contrast
 Wrong: To think logically is not as important as acknowledging your feelings
 Right: Thinking logically is not as important as acknowledging your feelings
When you link ideas with correlative conjunctions (both…and, either…or, not only … but also, etc)
 A principal must balance his love of students with raising money for the school.
 A principal must balance both his love of students and his need to raise money for the school
4. Signal words need to be correctly placed
 Poor: Alice both started on the basketball and volleyball teams
 Better: Alice started on both ….
5. Repeat articles, conjunctions, prepositions in the series
 Poor: Our mechanic did a better job on my car than his
 Better: Our mechanic did a better job on my car than on his car
 Parallel ideas should be logical equivalents
 Poor: Jim is six feet tall, kind, and a New Yorker
 Better: Kim, a six foot tall New Yorker, is kind.
 Poor: On Wednesday Marge ate a peanut butter sandwich and got married
 Better: since, contrary to rumor, eating a peanut butter sandwich and getting married are not equivalents Before
getting married on Wednesday, Marge ate a peanut butter sandwich
PART FOUR: subjunctive (look this one up)
PART SIX
Pronoun choice
 Use nominative case pronouns as the subject and in the predicate nominative
 She loves her dog.
 When I answered the phone, it was she.
 The two candidates are Marco and I.
 Use objective case pronouns when the pronoun is used as the object of a prep phrase
 The tie is between her and me
 Behind her is the beginning point of the line
 Use objective case when the pronoun is the object if a verb
 Throw him into the fire
 Use objective case when the pronoun is the indirect object
 Throw him a towel and then throw him into the fire
 Use objective case when the pronoun is the object of a verbal
 Protecting them is not enough action for the endangered species act.
 Did John ask them if OM was a “go”?
 No one expected the Rose Queen to be her.
2. Use the correct form when the sentence is implied or unfinished – elliptical - (just finish it in your mind)
Jackie runs faster than (she or her)
Finished: Jackie runs faster than she runs
Carol is as tough as (me or I)
Finished: Carol is as tough as I am
3. Use the correct form when the pronoun is side by side with the noun (hint: eliminate the noun)
(We, us) seniors decided to take a day off in late May.
We decided to take a day off in late May.
4. Possessives
Use possessives before a gerund
We all cheered Todd’s scoring the final touch down
Todd’s parents objected to his breaking his leg, though
5. Appositive
The pronouns is in the same case as the noun to which it refers
The two fullbacks, Todd and he, are both out for the season
(used as subject appositives)
The coach paid both boys, Todd and him, off handsomely
In elliptical construction, just finish the construction
Elliptical: She is taller than he
Finished: She is taller than he is
PART SEVEN
Misplaced Modifiers
 The modifier must be placed near or next to the word it modifies to avoid nonsensical sentences
 He saw a bear riding a motorcycle through the forest.
Dangling modifiers are phrases that do not sensibly modify any word or words in the sentence
 Alone, the mountain is virtually impossible to climb.
PART EIGHT
Commas
Use a comma to separate two independent clauses joined by and, or, nor, for, but, so, yet
We can go in the morning when the sun comes up, or we can go later on in the day.
 Use commas to set off nonessential clauses or participial phrase (clauses or phrases not necessary to the sense/meaning of
the sentence)
 Non-essential clauses are not necessary for the meaning
 Dr. Young, who lives down the street, is only thirty-five
 Shari, trying her hardest, was nervous
 Essential clauses are necessary to restrict the meaning of the sentence
 Leave the books that are due on the table by the door
 Introductory elements
 Mild exclamations, such as well, first, etc
 Introductory participial phrases
 Feeling close to tears, Jane ran to the restroom
 Two or more prepositional phrases
 Over the river and through the woods, we rode the horse.
 Introductory adverb clauses
 After I had introduced Jim and Mary, I wandered off to the buffet
Interrupters
Appositives
My favorite movie with Clark Gable, Gone with The Wind, is playing at the Mann
Nouns of direct address
John, get your hair cut
Compound comparisons
Jim is as well known as, if not better known than, his brother
Make sure to complete the comparison by repeating the second as
Parenthetical expressions
We ended up, after all, at the Hastings.
 Clarity
 Above an eagle soared majestically
 Above, an eagle soared majestically
 The sea was calm; the moon, bright
 What seats there were, were already taken
 The bigger they are, the harder they fall.




Semi-colons
Use a semi-colon between two independent clauses that are closely related but not joined by a conjunction
 The rain had threatened all day; it came suddenly in torrents.
Join independent clauses joined by a conjunctive adverb (accordingly, however, nevertheless, therefore, etc) with a semicolon
 I wanted to see Matrix; however, I gave in and went to the other movie
Join independent clauses which already have a comma with a semi-colon
 We ordered large servings of tacos, rice, and beans; but we only managed to eat a third of what was served
Use a semi-colon to separate items in a series if the items already contain commas
 I have lived in Salt Lake City, Utah; Las Vegas, Nevada; and Arcadia, California
PART NINE
Possessives – to show possession
 To form the possessive of singular nouns, add an apostrophe and an s
 If the noun ends in s or z sound, add only an apostrophe if the noun has two or more syllables
 Hercules’ strength
 To form the possessive of a plural noun, add only an apostrophe
PART TEN
Fragments – the sentence has to be complete
1. Sentences beginning with subordinating conjunctions
2. While the football teams run down the field at practice
3. Sentences beginning with prepositional phrases
4. At the house alongside the main highway by the bend in the river
5. Sentences beginning with participles
6. Hailing from a long line of Republicans who had inherited much wealth from previous corporate founders
7. Sentences with the nouns in an appositive construction
8. He became the first male principal of the high school. An unusual position for someone in his family.
9. Compound structure fragments
10. I packed only casual clothes for the trip. Levis, sweats, t-shirts, swimming suits, and flip flops.
 Run-ons – sentences joined together as if they were a single thought
 Fused - sentences joined with no punctuation between them
 Comma splice – sentences incorrectly joined with just a comma