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Chapter 19
Compatibilities and conflicts between production
and conservation in the Queensland Mulga Lands
biogeographic region
BRUCE A. WILSON'
Tne Mulga -ands o~ogeograpnicreglon occJrs ;n me sem'.ar;d rangelands of south west Queensand and north.wes1 New South Wa.es. The
w desoread recoenitlon of land 0ccradal:on ano associated economic, cnvronmenlal and social problems in me reglon has lead to tne eslab.;snmcnt
regional adjJstment strategies wnicn a m to address ssJes in a comprenensive ana integrated manner. .x's a r g ~ e dtnat the s ~ c c e s s fintcerat.on
~l
of conscrvatlon Into regional land management strateges \roll rely on the ident!fcatlon of compati0il:ties and confl cts oehveen proauctlon and
conservar on g0a.s. Tnis w:l. allow effectve targeting of iana planning tonaros nat.re conservation requirements that are not accommodaled oy
c-rrcnt land manacement pracr ces that aim solely to meet sustainaole proa~cton objectives. Specfic compatib!.iriesand conflcts are a.sc.ssed
for the major management issues In the region: grazing, vegetation clearance, exotic plants and animals and water harvesting.
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Key words: conservation. Mulga Lands, rangelands, grazing, vegetation clearance
INTRODUCTION
I t is widely recognised that the conservation of
biodiversity requires the development of regional strategies
which include the integration of "on" and "off' park
activities (eg Biodiversity Working Party 1991, Biological
Diversity Advisory Committee 1992). Examples of offpark conservation strategies that have been put forward
range from simply complementing national parks with a
system of lower level nature reserves which allow for
multiple use (eg Wells et al.1995), to more comprehensive
approaches which include a range of tenure, economic and
other matters that need to be considered (eg Morton et al.
*
1995, Sattler 1995).
While it is important to develop regional and
integrated frameworks, the resulting strategies must be
specific enough to be implemented at an operational level.
This requires the development of strategies that are relevant
at scales at which land management occurs, such as on a
property or land type basis. In addition while strategies
which aim to improve the sustainability of production
values are likely to be compatible with many nature
conservation requirements (eg. Curry and Hacker 1990),
there are likely to be additional, specific requirements of
native species that are not met by such practices. Therefore
the implementation of regional strategies through the
effective targeting of incentives, constraints and other
planning mechanisms (eg Young et al. 1996) will require
the specific identification of compatibilities and conflicts
between the objectives of current management practices
for production and conservation to be clearly identified in
a region.
..
This oaner looks at someof the above issues in the
Mulga Lands region in south west Queensland. In this
region
of the economic,
- the widespread recognition
resource degradation, conservation and social problems
that exist has led to the establishment of regional
adjustment programs in Queensland (Williams 1995) and
New South Wales (Wise 1995). In Queensland, the natural
resource management strategy of the program includes
I
objectives to promote on-property nature conservation
initiatives and to integrate nature conservation into property
management plans (Williams 1995). While the
development of the program is currently at an early stage,
there is potential for the incorporation of well targeted
nature conservation strategies into the land management
fabric of the region.
Following is a brief background to the Mulga Lands
region which includes an overview of the current landscape
condition and extent, patterning and distribution of flora
and fauna, to give a context for the requirements of nature
conservation across major land types. This is followed by
a more detailed discussion of the compatibilities and
conflicts between current management practices and
conservation for the major land management issues in the
region: grazing, vegetation clearance, introduced plants
and animals and water harvesting.
BACKGROUND TO THE MULGALANDS
REGION
The Mulga Lands biogeographic region has been
defined in the recent Interim Biogeographic
Regionalisation of Australia (Thackway and Cresswell
1995). The region is classed as a semi-arid rangeland, with
annual rainfall ranging from about 250-450 mm. Most of
the area is utilised for pastoral production based largely
on nativespecies (Department of Lands 1993). While much
of the data and discussion presented here is derived from
the some 20 000 km2 of the region that occurs in southwest Queensland, it is also relevant to the further 22 000
km2 of the region that occurs in north-west New South
Wales.
Current Landscape Condition
The widespread occurrence of land degradation in the
Mulga Lands region has been documented for at least 5060 years in Queensland (Passmore and Brown 1992) and
longer in New South Wales (Lunney 1994). More recently,
a series of land use studies carried out in the 1970's and
Queensland Herbarium, Meien Road, lndooroopilly QLD 4068.
Pages 107-114 i,# CONSERVATTON OUTSIDE NATURE RESERVES, ed. by P. Hale and D . Lamb. Centre forConservation Biology, Thc ~niversitJof
Queensland. 1997.
108
WILSON: COMPATIBILITIESAND CONFLICTS IN THE QUEENSLAND MULGA LANDS
1980's (eg Mills 1986, Mills et al. 1989, Miles 1991) have
quantified the extent of degradation in Queensland. For
example Mills et a[. (1989) showed that more than hyothirds of the region exhibited evidence of landdegradation
in the form of soil erosion, increase in abundance of
unpalatable shrubs and decrease in abundance of palatable
perennial grasses. Other studies have pointed to the strong
link between land degradation and economic viability of
pastoral enterprises, particularly in relation to
small property size, which is seen as a major factor
underpinning the perpetuation of degradation cycles
(MacLeod 1990, Passmore and Brown 1992, Department
of Lands 1993).
The patterns and mechanisms that have been related
to degradation in the Mulga Lands are similar to those
that are widely recognised to occur throughout Australian
semi-arid woodlands (eg Harrington et al. 1984). The
changes are generally related to increased total grazing
pressure, particularly during droughts, associated with
introduction of domestic stock and feral animals and the
establishment of artificial watering points (Mills 1986).
Specific causes of these changes that are put forward
include a reduction in competition from palatable perennial
grass species (Harrington and Johns 1990); removal of
flammable fuel load resulting in reduced fire frequency
(Hodgkinson and Harrington 1985); loss of the top soil
which provides most of the nutrients available for plant
growth (Miles 1991); and a reduction in microheterogeneity and associated infiltration and run-off
processes considered critical to the functioning of these
ecosystems (Tongway and Ludwig 1990).
The degradation of soil and productive capacity in
the Mulga Lands have been associated with reductions in
native species (Sattler 1991), although few quantitative
figures relating to decline of flora and fauna are readily
available. Nine percent of the bird and 34% of the mammal
species recorded in the Mulga Lands are listed as rare or
threatened in New South Wales andlor Queensland (B.
Wilson unpublished data). Studies on the status of fauna
species from the Western Division of New South Wales,
which includes the Mulga Lands, show that 53% of
mammal species recorded have either disappeared from
the region or declined in abundance over the last 200 years
(Dickman et a1 1993) and 35% of bird species recorded
have decreased in abundance (Schodde 1994).
The deterioration in the diversity, ecological
complexity and functioning of ecosystems of the Mulga
woodlands (eg Tongway and Ludwig 1990) is likely to be
associated with a reduction in habitat values. Many of the
factors associated with declines in native species in other
parts of arid or semi-arid Australia are present in the Mulga
Lands, including high grazing pressure by domestic stock
and introduced herbivores (Mills et al. 1989), particularly
on critical refuge areas and during drought periods
(Hodgkinson 1993); introduced predators such as foxes
and cats (eg ANPWS 1991); changes in fire regime
(Harrington et al. 1984, Mills 1986); and vegetation
clearance (Pressey 1990, Wilson and Egan 1996).
The development of nature conservation objectives
in the Mulga Lands region can be complicated by the
hypothesised major alterations to vegetation composition
and structure that have occurred over the last 200 years
and the major management actions that are required for
recovery. Denny (1994) presents historical records from
Western New South Wales that indicate there has been an
overall decline in tree, shrub, grass and/or forb cover over
the last 150 years. However, there is a lot of anecdotal
evidence (eg Miles 1988, Chrichton 1995) and some
quantitative evidence (Burrows et a[. 1985, Witt andBeeton
1995) that plant communities in the region have changed
from "savanna" woodlands with an open treelshrub layer
and a diverse, mainly perennial grass understorey, to
communities with a dense mulga canopy and a shrubby
ground layer with little herbaceous cover.
It has been argued that sustainable management should
aim to return conditions to more open vegetation which
more closely represents the "natural state" of communities
that occurred before the arrival of Europeans (Cameron
and Blick 1991, Chrichton 1995). However, while
arguments about-what is natural may give some insights
into ecosystem functioning and past practices, they are not
necessarily a useful way to determine conservation
objectives in such a highly modified region. In such a
region, conservation planning and management should aim
to maintain and enhance current native habitat values and
work towards the development of specific objectives for
biota based on their specific requirements and their
responses to management (Witt and Beeton 1995).
Patterning of native species
The development of effective conservation strategies
requires an understanding of spatial and temporal
patterning of biota. This understanding is important to
identify areas of high conservation value traditionally
targeted for reservation (eg Pressey and Nicholls 1989)
but also to allow for conservation management to be
integrated with other land uses. While there is a paucity of
knowledge about how many of these factors operate in the
Mulga Lands and other parts of arid Australia (James et
al. 1996), the development of conservation plans and
research to address the knowledge deficiencies requires
the effective utilisation of current information.
The Mulga Lands region is generally a flat landscape,
dominated by highly weathered, nutrient deficient soils
with localised areas of better quality land types associated
with floodplain alluvium or exposure of underlying labile
geologies (Dawson 1974, Mills 1980, Mills and Lee 1990).
The spatial patterning of vegetation communities is closely
related to the nutrient and moisture availability of
landforms and associated soil types. Most of the region is
covered by Mulga (Acacia aneura) shrublands and
woodlands on plains with sandy and very infertile soils
andAcacia shrublands on low hills and ranges with shallow
infertile soils (Figure 1, Table 1). More fertilelmoist areas
supporting eucalypt woodlands and herblgrasslands are
scattered across the region associated with the riparian/
WIMON: COMPATIBILITIESAND CONFLICTS IN THE QUEENSLAND MULGA LANDS
109
Toble I: Major vegetation types in the Mulga Lands showing % area, % of subcategories with c30% of original extent remaining, %area in reservesystem
and the number of plant, bird, mammal (Mam.), replile and amphibian (Amph.) species assoc~atedwith each vegetation type. Number of species
given as total number and number that show a preference for each vegetation type [I.
Major Vegetation
Type
%Area
% 430%
%Area in Reserve
Original
Extent
Reserve
Plant
Bird
Mam.
Reptile
Amph.
747
256
56
94
23
in
Acacia shrublands
on ranges and
sandplains
Mulga
waodlshrublands
-Eucalypt woodlands
on riparian areas
and floodplains
Poplar box
woodlands
Total*
'Total number ofspecies in region. Includes species that are ubiquitous and not assigned to any vegetation type andspeeies thatshaw preference far more than
one vegetation type.
@
. Mulga wood/shrublands
Figure I. Generalised vegetation map of the region. Derived from Mills 1980, Boyland 1984, Neldner 1984, M~llsand Lee 1990.Approximate scale
1: 5 450 000.
110
WILSON: COMPATIBILITIES AND CONFLlClTS IN THE QUEENSLAND MULGALANDS
floodplains of major rivers and smaller drainage lines
(many of which are too small to map on Figure 1). Poplar
box (Eucalyptus populnea) woodlands predominantly
occur in the higher rainfall more eastern parts of the area
or on "run on" areas scattered across the mulga dominated
plains. Brigalow (Acacia harpophylla) and gidgee (Acacia
cambagei) woodlands or shrublands are scattered across
the region occurring on alluvial soils or soils produced
from more fertile underlying geologies.
Data on the number of species from different
taxonomic groups associated with major vegetation groups
are also presented in Table 1.For plant species, this data
has been derived directly from Neldner (1984, appendix
4). For fauna species, this data has been derived from all
available published and unpublished information and has
been presented in detail by Wilson and Egan (1996).
The eucalypt woodlands associated with riparian areas
have the highest number of species, particularly in the bird
and plant taxonomic groups, while the mulga andAcacia
shrublands often have the least. This is similar to the
patterning shown by bird and mammal species in western
New South Wales (Schodde 1994) and other parts of arid
Queensland (McFarland 1992). However, high levels of
diversity do occur in some lower fertility sites in the Mulga
Lands region. The shrublands on ranges have a relatively
high number of reptilesspecies (Table 1). The relict alluvial
dune fields east of the Warrego River in Queensland
support .a diverse "heath" related flora and the
microhabitats provided by some range areas can support a
relatively high number of plants including several endemic
species (Table 1, Neldner 1984, Purdie 1985).
Overlaying the pattern of species richness by major
vegetation type are temporal variations in species
abundance and distribution associated with seasonal
conditions and the requirement of fauna species to use
different habitat types at different times. An obvious
example is the high number of water birds that use and
breed in wetland areas when they are flooded (Kingsford
1995a). Koalas (Phascolarctos cinereus) in the Mulga
Lands in Queensland are found in greatest densities in
eucalypt riparian communities, but also occur in adjacent
upland areas of poplar box and ranges under favourable
seasonal conditions (Witt and Pahl1995). Despite the lack
of information relating to how organisms use the landscape
over space and time (James et al. 1996), it is apparent in
these largely infertile landscapes, that more resource rich
areas may often be disproportionably important for both
conservation (and production) values (Curry and Hacker
1990, Morton et al. 1995).
The distribution of major vegetation types in the
existing reserve system in the Queensland Mulga Lands is
also presented in Table 1. This shows that there is a
disproportionably larger representation of less productive
land types such as mulga and shrublands on ranges,
compared to the more productive types-such as brigalowl
gidgee and grassherblands. This is despite the fast that
most of the national parks have been recently acquired
(Sattler 1995) following the selection of areas using a
systematic methodology to include a representative range
of land types (Purdie et al. 1986). The bias can be partly
attributed to the methodology used in reserve selection
pressey and Nicholls 1989) and the high conservation
value of some of the less productive areas (Neldner 1984,
see above). It is also due to the higher production values
of more fertile land, which create greater conflicts with,
and costs for, conservation. Some of the latter land types
have also undergone extensive fragmentation caused by
clearing (seebelow) which makes it difficult to cover these
areas by the traditional, relatively large conservation
reserves (Purdie 1985). The bias towards lower productive
lands in the current reserve system will be transferred to
off-park conservation, unless the specific strategies and
mechanisms which target priority areas or land types are
put in place.
COMPATIBILITIESAND CONFLICTS
BETWEEN CONSERVATION AND
PRODUCTION PRACTICES
A delineation of areas which are important to native
biota in space or time and are also areas of high production
value will highlight areas where potential conflict between
production and conservation may occur. The actual level
of this conflict will depend on the response of the native
flora and flora to production related management practices.
These issues are discussed below under the major
managemen1 issues in the region.
Grazing
There is little argument that the composition and
abundance of grazing mammals in semi-arid Australia has
changed since the arrival of Europeans.These changes have
included the introduction of species such as goats, rabbits,
cattle and sheep (Wilson et al. 1992) and decreased
abundance of many native species (eg Morton 1990,
Dickman et al. 1993). In addition, the abundance of native
and introduced, water reliant, grazing animals has increased
with the establishment of permanent, artificial water
supplies (James et al. 1996, Landsberg et al. 1996) and
the reduction in number of dingos (Caughley et al. 1980).
The effects of these changes on native species may be
direct, through changes in species structure and
composition, or indirect, through changes in the productive
capacity of the soil (Friedel and James 1995).
The relative contributions to grazing impacts and
competition between domestic stock and other native and
feral herbivores is the subject of debate in the Mulga Lands
and other rangeland areas in Australia in the scientific
literature (eg Wilson 1991, Edwards et al. 1996) and by
local land managers (eg Chrichton 1995, and pers. comms.
from various graziers). While the abundance of nondomestic animals may be a major component of grazing
pressure (Landsberg et al. 1992) it appears that a reduction
of total grazing pressure is required at certain times and
places to meet the objectives of sustainable production and/
or conservation of native species. In addition to reducing
numbers of domestic stock, appropriate management
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WILSON. COMPATIBILITIESAND CONFLICl S I N THE QUEENSLAND MULGA LANDS
practices to mitigate these effects may include the
placement (Landsberg et al. 1996) and management
(Freudenberger et al. 1995) of wateringpoints and fencing.
Reduction in grazing pressure during and immediately
following the frequent drier periods that regularly occur
in the Mulga Lands region (Johnston 1988) is considered
to be important to allow the maintenance of perennial grass
cover (Harrington 1991, Hodgkinson 1993, Harrington and
Johns 1990) and associated critical ecosystem functions
(Tongway and Ludwig 1995). The use of the mulga tree as
a fodder source can compound this problem, because it
allows higher grazing pressures to be maintained during
dry periods than if pasture alone was the main source of
forage (Pressland 1976, Miles 1988). Reductions in grazing
pressure during drought periods in addition to those
required for sustainable production, may be required for
the conservation of native species, particularly on areas
that may act as important drought refuges (Morton et a[.
1995). Examples of such areas in the Mulga Lands may
include riparian woodlands and poplar box woodlands on
run-on areas scattered across the mulga dominated plains.
Several authors have claimed that conservative
stocking rates combined with tactical grazing management
will maintain essential ecosystem processes and be
compatible with biological conservation (Curry and Hacker
1990, Pickard 1994, Friedel and James 1995). Such
conservative stocking rates may include substantial
reduction in stocking of certain, more marginal land types
(Cameron and Blick 1995, Sattler 1995). However, while
stocking regimes which reinstate critical ecosystem
functions and allow for sustainable pastoral production will
be a major first step in improving the compatibility between
grazing and conservation, data currently being compiled
by Landsberg et al. 1996 suggests that some native species
may be adversely affected by any level of grazing by
domestic animals. This data indicates that although the
maintenance of many species is compatible with grazing
by domestic stock, specific management measures are
required to meet the needs of a significant number of native
species.
Vegetation clearance
The removal of woody vegetation to increase grazing
production is often seen as a major area of conflict between
the objectives of grazing and nature conservation (Glaznig
1995).While vegetation clearing in the Mulga Lands region
is extensive and widespread, its extent, intensity and
impacts on native speciesvaries across the region and with
land type.
Table 1 presents data on the proportions of major
vegetation types that have been cleared in the Queensland
Mulga Lands. This data is a summary of more detailed
breakdown of broadvegetation types (sub types) presented
by Wilson and Egan (1996), derived from an overlay of
vegetation cover (Ritman 195) with vegetation maps
(Neldner 1984, Boyland 1984) of the region.
.,
In the more arid parts of the region, or on poorer
quality sites, clearing of trees is inappropriate due to
111
constraints imposed by sustainable production objectives
(Cameron and Blick 1991). For example 80% of the lower
rainfall parts of the Mulga Lands region in Queensland (ie
west of the Warrego River) have been assessed as suffering
from an over utilisation of mulga trees (Mills et al. 1989).
The mulga and shrublands on residual vegetation types
are relatively little cleared, while many poplar box types,
which mainly occur in the eastern half of the region where
rainfall is higher, are extensively cleared (Table 1). The
gidgeelbrigalow types show intermediate extent of
clearing; they are extensively cleared in the eastern parts
of the region but less extensively cleared in more western
areas.
In more eastern parts tree clearance occurs in the
Mulga Lands region, but its extent and intensity vary with
land type.
The "intensity" of clearing changes across land types
from more complete removal of tree layer with associated
exotic pasture development to less intensive thinning and
clearing operations which are not accompanied by the
introduction of exotic plant species. More intensive
clearing is generally associated with more productive land
types in the eastern parts of the region, which causes direct
conflict between production and conservation objectives.
In brigalow and poplar box woodlands to the east of the
Mulga Lands, cleared areas have been shown to have less
species than adjacent uncleared areas (Ellis and Wilson
1992, Russell et al. 1992). In these areas, the effects of
clearing would appear to lead to problems similar to those
that have occurred in agricultural lands elsewhere in
Australia (eg Saunders et al. 1991). Currently, in such
situations, the impacts of habitat loss and fragmentation
are minimised by retaining a certain proportion of each
community type and connecting remnants with "habitat
corridors" (eg Queensland's Preliminary Tree Clearing
Policy 1995). While these approaches are practical, given
current knowledge, issues such as the proportion of each
community type retained and the usefulness of corridors
and retained areas for specific biota present in the region
require research attention.
A widespread current management practice in dense
mulga woodlands in the eastern parts of the Mulga Lands
is to clear the tree canopy to remove competition and allow
increased (native) grass growth, while regenerating a lesser
density of mulga stems than present in the original stand
(Pressland 1976, Chrichton 1995). Although no
quantitative studies have been carried out, this practice
may not be so detrimental to native species as vegetation
clearance has been in other parts ofAustralia. The laying
down of mulga trees associated with this practice may
create "traps" for litter and nutrients which provide foci
for the re-establishment of grasses (Tongway and Ludwig
1995). Thinned brigalow woodlands to the east of the
Mulga Lands in New South Wales can support as many
native fauna species as adjacent uncleared brigalow
woodland (Table 1 in Ellis and Wilson 1992). Clearing
mulga may also lead to some increase in micro-habitat
diversity and increase in plant species richness (B. Wilson
WILSON: COMPATIBILITIES AND CONFLICX S IN THE QUEENSLAND MULGA LANDS
112
. .
pers. ob.). ~ i v e nappropriatefollow-up manage'ient
(Pressland 1976), such clearing has the potential to restore
micro-heterogeneity, re-establish critical functioning and
create a pore stable and ~esilientsystem and, therefore,
be at least partly compatible with conservation (Cameron
and Blick 1991).
Feral plants and animals
Many of the invasive exotic plant species in the region,
such a s Rubber Vine (Cryptostegia grandiflora),
Parkinsonia (Parkinsonia aculeata), Mother of Millions
(Bryophylium spp.), Mesquite (Prosopissp.) currently have
only localised occurrences. However, these species have
a potentially high impact on native species because they
appear to be capable of more wide-spread occurrence in
the region (Humphries et al. 1991) and often show a
preference for more mesic, better quality habitats which
may be critical refuge areas for native biota.
.
Many of the above species have direct and substantial
impacts on grazing values. Therefore the eradication1
control of these types of weed species is a major
compatibility between the objectives of management for
production and conservation.. However, the preferred
method of control of weeds may vary betweenaims of
production and conservation. For example, Mother of
Millions appears to favour sites with an intact canopy and
one method of control is to clear the tree layer and introduce
exotic pasture species (B. Wilson pers. oh.). Thismethod
is obviously more compatible with production aims than
conservation aims.
The exotic species Buffel Grass (Cenchrrrs ciliaris)
is potentially a major conflict between conservation and
pastoralism in the Mulga Lands (and other parts of semiarid Australia). This species is actively promoted and
spread to increase grazing production (Caveye 1991). It is
also regarded as an environmental weed as it actively
invades many areas, forms a monoculture, alters fire
regimes and displaces native species (Humphries et al.
1991). Investigations into the ability of native grasses to
meet production and land conservation needs (eg Reu
1995) are needed to address these conflicts.
Feral herbivores that occur in the region include goats
(Kriticos and Lee 1995), rabbits (Robertshaw 1995) and
pigs (Mills 1986). These have been implicated in causing
land degradation and impacts on native species (eg
Robertshaw 1995, Wilson et al. 1992). Potential control
mechanisms may be possible by managing them as a
utilisable resource (Toseland 1993), although the
effectiveness of this method is subject to market price
fluctuations. More regional cooperative approaches to
control, which treat these animals as part of the total grazing
pressure, are required (eg Hynes et al. 1995).
Feral carnivores that occur in the region, such as the
fox and cat, probably have major impacts on native wildlife
(Catling 1988, ANPWS 1991) although there is little
quantitative information available. The impacts of these
species may also be obscured by complex interactions with
other plants and animals. For example, feral cats and foxes
may contribute to maintaining low numbers of rabbits in
an area (Pickard 1994). However, such species are
generally held in low esteem by graziers and their
eradication or at least control is generally considered a
high priority for the protection of biodiversity (ANPWS
1991). Current control measures include trapping, baiting
and shooting although long-term effective control appears
to require more regional and cooperative approaches, such
as biological controls. The justification for these expensive
measures requires more general community pressure,
which requires more quantification of their economic and
conservation impacts.
Water hawesting
The large river systems of the region (Warrego and
Paroo) have not generally been affected by water harvesting
in New South Wales (Kingsford 1995b) or Queensland (B.
Wilsonpers ob). However, some irrigation does occur and
applications for new water allocations are being made
(Kingsford 1995b). The natural flooding regimes have
"beneficial" effects; for grazing as they maintain and
invigorate vast areas of floodplain pasture growth and; for
conservation as they support large areas of important
floodplain and wetland habitat (Kingsford 1995a).As water
harvesting can also support high value cropping industries,
there is the potential for increased conflict between
irrigation and conservation and grazing as has occurred in
other parts of Queensland (eg. Morrish 1996). There is a
need for information on the effects of river flows on biota
to develop sustainable management of these systems
(Kingsford 1995b, Walker 1985) and to address the issue
of water harvesting in this region.
CONCLUSIONS
The level of compatibility and conflicts between
conservation and production objectives vary across land
types and management practices that occur in the Mulga
Lands region.
The control of exotic weed species and feral pests is
often a common, or at least non conflicting, objective of
production and conservation. In areas where grazing of
native pastures has lead to severe land degradation, the
implementation of strategies aimed at restoring sustainable
production are likely to improve the status of a large
number of native species. The clearing of mulga overstorey
to promote the growth of native pasture species and some
woody plant regeneration may also be at least partly
compatible with conservation objectives.
Additional measures are required to target what
appears to be a significant number of native species that
are adversely impacted by grazing levels that may meet
sustainable production objectives. Clearing of vegetation
where it is associated with the introduction of exotic pasture
species requires specific attention to ensure adequate
protection of native species and habitats across the region.
There are significant opportunities for conserving
much of the native biota from the Mulga Lands region.
.
WILSON: COMPATIBILITIESAND CONFLICIS IN THE QUEENSLAND MULGA LANDS
Focussing planning at the management level and on areas
w h e r e conflict exists between t h e
objectives of
conservation and production a l l o w s for the effective
targeting of incentives, conservation agreements or other
planning m e c h a n i s m s .
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
reported here was collated
Nature Conservation Agency, N a t i o n a l
Reserve Systems Cooperative Program P r o j e c t N302. Ros
Moye helped d e v e l o p the data on extent and distribution
of vegetation types and drafted Figure 1.Richard Johnson
carried out c o m p i l a t i o n of data used to derive species
r i c h n e s s figures. Comments made by Robyn Cowley,
Corrie McDonald, Mike Harris and Jill Landsberg
improved e a r l i e r v e r s i o n s of t h i s paper.
Some of the
information
u n d e r the A u s t r a l i a n
REFERENCES
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workshop held on 8-9 May 1991. Australian National Parks and
Wildlife Service: Canberra.
Biodiversity Working Party, 1991. The conservatian of biodiversity as it
relates to ecologically sustainable development. Australian
Government: Canberra
Biological Diversity Advisory Committee, 1992. A National Strategy for
the Conservation of Australia's Biodiversity: Draft far Public
Cammenl. Departmentof Arts, Sport, Environment and Territories:
Canberra.
Boyland, D.E., 1984. Vegetation Survey of Queensland - South Western
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.
Chapter 20
Any future for nature conservation within the industrial
landscape?: case studies from Central Queensland.
ROBERT.EVANS ',PETER JOHNSTONE :
ALISTAIR MELZER AND LAWRIE WADE '
in recent years, industry in Central Queensland has directed resources towards the re-establishment of natural processes within disturbed
industriai landscapes ieeneraliv mines1 and the development of management regimes which preserve natural systems aionEside the industrial
site (usually as buffer zones). ihese natural systems and rehabiiitatedyands have the potential to act as conserCation zonesiithin an industrial
landscape. This paper looks at how three businesses, a mine, a power station and a smelter, are seeking to recreate or preserve natural
biological systems on or adjacent to their industrial lands and discusses the conservation value of their actions. The biota each industry seeks to
preserve are generally described. The management strategies being employed and the environmental philosophy that they work within are
outlined. In all three oreanisations.
the success and direction of their conservation stratedes
- has been affected. and in some cases hindered.. bv.
the legislative environment as well as the associated political, bureaucratic and business culture. it is concluded that conservation on industrial
lands cannot be guaranteed beyond the life of the current industrial activity unless government, departmental bureaucracy and business are able
to establish mechanisms which successfully inculcate the second generation industrial activity wiih the "conservation cilture".
Key words: industry, rehabilitation, conservation, biodiversity
INTRODUCTION
I n 1992, the Prime Minister's Science Council considered
a paper on biodiversity (Anon. 1992). This paper was
prepared in two parts. Part one defined biodiversity in
Australia, discussed its significance and considered what
was happening to it. Part two considered its' maintenance
and management in Australia.
The paper identified the factors causing loss of
biodiversity as: clearing of natural vegetation;
fragmentation of habitat; land and water degradation from
agricultural, industrial, and urban impacts; introduced
plants, animals and disease; and uncontrolled exploitation
and trade in wildlife.
The paper points out that Australia's highly variable
climate as well as likely future climate change will
compound the effects of these factors on biodiversity.
The management ofAustralian biodiversity was seen
to consist of three components: management based on
natural bioclimatic regions, not state boundaries;
management directed, where possible, towards indigenous
species and communities, but also embracing successful
new combinations or associations of species; managing
all parts ofAustralia and including landscape management
as well as the management of the species and genetic
components of biodiversity.
This management includes, but extends beyond,
protected areas. Indeed the effectiveness of protected areas
as conservatories of biodiversity may be dependent on the
nature of the environment beyond the reserve. This offpark landscape has a structure which determines the
"connectivity" or corridors between reserves. The paper
'
.
to thescience Committee describes the three most common
types of corridors as natural (streams and other topographic
features), remnants, and revegetation areas.
Industry is directly involved in the fate ofAustralia's
biodiversity as it commonly contributes to the loss of
biodiversity by clearing or fragmenting habitat, produces
biproducts which result in gradual habitat degradation, and
facilitates the spread of exotic plants and animals.
It has, however, the potential to be involved in the
maintenance of biodiversity as it frequently retains parcels
of land which are not disturbed and on which the industry
provides defacto protection to the surviving natural systems
by excluding agriculture and other human activity, and
creates new ecological systems or associations
directly through rehabilitation and indirectly on abandoned
industrial lands which may provide habitat or dispersal
corridors for components of the native biodiversity.
In Central Queensland, at least, these industrial lands
are generally located within disturbed landscapes. Since
these lands are outside of the established reserve system
they are available for repeated reuse for various
anthropomorphic purposes. Consequently their role in the
maintenance of biodiversity and conservation outside
of reserves is dependent on the preservation of key
attributes over time and in the face of continued landuse
pressures.
This paper considers the potential value and likely
sustainability of management for conservation within
industrial settings and uses a coal mine, a power station
and an aluminium smelter as case studies from Central
Queensland.
Slanwell Power Station, Ausla Electric, PO Box 5895, RMC, Qld 4315
Curragh Queensland Minlng Ltd, Private Mail Bag, Blackwater, Qld 4717
Centre for Land and Water ResourceDevelopment, Faculty of Applied Science, Central Queensland Univenity, Rockhampton, Qid 4702.
Boyne Smelters Ltd, PO Box 524, Gladstone, Qld 4680.
Pages 115-122 in CONSERVATION OUTSIDE NATURE RESERVES, ed. by P. Hale and D. Lamb. Centre for Canservat~onBiology, The Unlvenity of
Queensland. 1997.
116
EVANS, JOHNSTONE, MELZER AND WADE: NATURE CONSERVATION WlTHlN THE INDUSTRIAL LANDSCAPE
THE COAL MINE:
Curragh Queensland Mining
The Curragh open cut coal mine is located on the
Tropic of Capricorn, approximately 200 km west of
Rockhampton (Figure 1). The mine is managed by ARC0
Coal Australia Inc. who is also the major co-venture partner
in Curragh Queensland Mining Ltd. The mine commenced
in 1983 and is expected to continue until 2008.
The mine lease covers about 4,500 ha, although
- onlv
3,000 ha will be disturbed by mining operations. Several
environmental reports are required to be submitted by the
coal mining companies and must be approved by the
Department of Minerals and Energy in order for the mine
to continue to operate. Curragh has an approved
Environmental Management Overview Strategy (EMOS)
which updates the original environmental impact
assessment as well as addressing environmental protection
and rehabilitation for the life of the mine. It also has
approval for the Plan of Operations, under the Mineral
Resources Act (1989 - 1990) which details the manner
and methods of rehabilitation, in compliance with the
approved EMOS.
-
Rehabilitation design
It is proposed that rehabilitation will:
establish a stable landform and drainage system that
will minimise soil erosion and the potential for
contamination of the natural creek systems,
Figurr I. Localiun of the study riles, Curragh Coal Minc, Slanwcll Power Station and Boync Smelle,~,withill Central Quecnsland.Thc dislribulion of open
atcoal miner intheBowcn Basin isillsoshown(rnodified hom aini%ppru%idud
by the Quucnslilnd Dcpvrlmcnlof Mvncrulr and c8lergy,Ruckhomplon).
EVANS, JOHNSTONE, MELZER AND WADE: NATURE CONSERVATION WITHIN THE INDUSTRIALLANDSCAPE
establish a native vegetation cover that will develop
into a new self sustaining association, and
provide a vegetation structure that will allow native
fauna to colonise the post-mining landscape.
The aim of mine management is to achieve landform
stability. Consequently the spoil is reshaped to produce
slopes as close as practical to equilibrium with natural
forces. There will, however, always be some erosion and
the management procedures used are subject to ongoing
research and continual review to increase their
effectiveness. Revegetation can aid in erosion control. The
strategy adopted to date has been to replace topsoil to a
depth of 20 cm and in strips approximately 10 m wide
along the slope. These strips are alternated with strips of
bare spoil of similar width. Grasses are seeded onto the
topsoil while native woody species are seeded onto the
spoil. Deep ripping is undertaken at the same time. The
top edge of each topsoil strip is oriented at a grade of 0.5
percent off the contour and the topsoil banks are established
along the top edge of each strip. The topsoil banks provide
.eood erosion resistance. Grasses nrovaeate auicklv on the
topsoil and the native woody species have a competition
free environment for establishment on the bare spoil. It is
expected that over time there will be a movement of species
between the bare spoil and the topsoil strips and that the
topsoil strips will provide soil microbiota for the
developing communities on the bare spoil. Drainage lines
and pondages have been built into the landscaping to
control erosion and water flow as well as generate wetland
habitat within the post-mining landscape. Currently fallen
timber is being stockpiled for later distribution as a
structural element within the rehabilitated landscape.
. .- .
Vegetation of pre-mined a n d remaining
undisturbed land
Brigalow communities originally covered most of the
lease area. Much of it was cleared for grazing. Selective
logging occurred in the remaining wooded areas. Brigalow
(Acacia harpophylla) dominates much of the landscape
generally as a low to tall shrubland. In places original
Brigalow, Coolibah (Eucalyptus coolibah), Poplar Box (E.
populnea), Dawson Gum (E. cambageana) and Napunya
(E. thozetiana) occur as open forest. The improved pasture
species Buffel Grass (Cenchrus ciliaris) dominates the
ground storey along with Rhodes Grass (Chloris gayana)
in places. Along the original drainage lines a midstorey of
Terminalia and bauhinia remains - in places forming a
seasonally dense community. Through the lease timber,
pushed during pre-mine clearing for grazing, lies in windrows. Some of these unmined lands continue to be grazed
under lease.
Fauna of the mine lease
Detailed fauna surveys were conducted on the mine
lease over a ten day period in each of three seasons - dry
spring (November 1994), winter (June 1995) and wet
autumn (March-April 1996). Observations of birds were
made at dawn, dusk and throughout the day. Some
nocturnal observations were made during spotlighting
117
surveys. Bats were surveyed by spotlighting and, during
the last trip, mist, wire and harp nets.All other vertebrate
fauna were sampled using: Elliot trapping, drift fences with
pit traps, spotlighting, and intensive diurnal trapping. The
survey yielded a total of 197 species. Birds dominated the
survey with 135 species in 16 orders.There were 33 species
of lizards and snakes including the vulnerable Paradelma
orientalis, 19 species of mammals, nine amphibians and
one turtle.
Conservation significance
Two vertebrate species of designated conservation
significance were located on the mine. These are
Lophoictinia isura (Square-tailed Kite) listed as rare in
Division 2 of Part 1 of Schedule 4 of the Nature
Conservation (Wildlife) Regulations of the Nature
Conservation Act 1992, and Paradelma orientalis (Central
Queensland Legless Lizard) which is listed as vulnerable
in Division 6 of Part 1 of Schedule 3 of the Nature
Conservation (Wildlife) Regulations of the Nature
Conservation Act 1992.
The brigalow communities on the mine represent
small remnants and regenerating patches of a number of
regional ecosystems. They are yet to be classified in terms
consistent with those used by the Queensland Department
of Environment and Heritage (QDEH 1995). However,
given the extent of development of the Brigalow
Biogeographic Region (Nix 1994) these remnants must
have conservation significance-not necessarily as pristine
examples of regional ecosystems but as habitat and refugia
for the component plants and animals.
The revegetated lands will form a new association of
plants, animals and soils. The conservation role for these
new habitats is yet to evolve. Currently they are used by
various species including the grey kangaroo, swamp
wallaby and dingo as well as a suite of grassland birds and
raptors. An invertebrate fauna community has developed,
and along with it has come a population of frogs and
fossorial reptiles.
Although the landscape is still evolving, the mine has
produced a complex of wetlands, woodlands, grasslands,
hills, plains and valleys with a variety of substrates from
fine mudstone and shale to sandstone rocky ridges.
Adjacent landowners already express concern at the
dingoes and kangaroos that seek refuge within the mine
lease as well as casting an envious eye on the perceived
grazing potential on and around the mine. As herbicides
and cultivation clear the remnant and regrowth woody
vegetation from the surrounding land Curragh Coal Mine
has become a conservation island in a sea of agricultural
land.
Operating philosophy
Agricultural production wasthe principle pre-mining
landuse within the mining lease. This took the form of
grazing and grain production and most of the land (74 %)
had been cleared for these purposes. Consequently the
environmental sensitivity of the pre-mining lease area was
118
EVANS, JOHNSTONE, MELZER AND WADE: NATURE CONSERVATTON WITHIN THE INDUSTRIAL LANDSCAPE
low. The current EMOS objective is that the original land
capability of the area should be maintained. This, however,
will not be so in the short-term. Blasting and subsequent
overburden removal and dumping changes the nature of
the overburden and inverts the strata creating a new
substrate. This new substrate has an increased volume
which is not offset by the bulk of the coal that is removed.
Consequently the resultant landform is higher than the
original land form. Also although the replaced topsoil and
the new substrate are generally suitable for the
establishment of many species of grass, trees and shrubs,
a raised, artificial and somewhat fragile environment
replaces the pre-mining gently undulating landscape. Given
the apparent sensitivity of the post-mining landscape,
Curragh believes that it is inappropriate to pursue the
original land capacity for the rehabilitated land. Rather
the mine will aim for a "new native" ecosystem which
will include habitat reconstruction.
Towards this aim Curragh has become involved with
the recovery plans for the endangered Bridled Nailtail
Wallaby. Formally common through much of central
eastern Australia this species is currently restricted to one
small area (Taunton ScientificReserve) about 100 km east
of Curragh Coal Mine. The mine is located within the
former range of the wallaby. Curragh is aiming to recreate
habitat for the wallaby as part of the revegetation process.
Establishment of overstorey trees is proceeding
successfully. The next stage is to re-establish an
understorey with structural characteristics that provide
shelter essential for the survival of the nailtail wallaby.
Irrespective of whether the wallaby is eventually released
to the site or not the resulting vegetation structure will
provide a relatively complex habitat which should suit
many other faunal species.
However, Curragh is required to ensure that the
rehabilitated landscape can be cleared and is capable of
supportinggrazing by domesticstockand to future tenancy
by graziers in line with the former land use.
The operating philosophy of the mine is constrained
by State Government authority. Whatever initiatives the
mine may take to preserve landscapes, flora or fauna,
ultimately the Department of Minerals and Energy
determines the enduse of the land and consequently its
future conservation value.
THE POWER STATION:
AUSTA Electric '
Stanwell Power Station is located about 28 km by
road south west of Rockhampton (Figure 1). It is owned
and operated by AUSTAElectric(formally the Queensland
Electricity Commission). The power station is sited on
about 1450 ha of land. Power generation commenced in
1992 and the station has an expected life of 30 to 50 years.
The power station and associated infrastructure cover some
460 ha leaving about 920 ha of wooded hills and ephemeral
creek lines in the east and 70 ha of largely cleared farm
lands on flat to undulating alluvial plains in the west. Again
this land is dissected by an ephemeral creek.
Flora a n d F a u n a
A detailed investigation of the flora and fauna of this
site has not been undertaken. What data there is was
brought together by Melzer (1994) and the Stanwell Power
Station Environmental Impact Assessment (QEC 1985).
Melzer identified five ecosystem types in the eastern
portion of the power station land with at least one other
system (Eucalyptuspopulnea woodland) occurring in the
western portion (QEC 1985). These are:
Acacia rhodoxylon woodland or open forest with a
sparse midstorey and sparse to open grassy
understorey;
semi-evergreen vine thicket;
Open woodland of Eucalyptus crebra, E.
melanophloia and E. erythrophloia with a grassy
understorey of Themeda triandra and other grasses;
Tall open forest of E. raveretiana, E. tereticornis, E.
tessellaris, Melaleuca nervosa and Casuarina
cunninghamiana;
Woodland of E. tereticornis, E. tessellaris, E. crebra,
E. tessellaris var. dallachyana, E. erythrophloia and
E. melanophloia with a shrubby midstorey and grassy
understorey; and
Woodland of E. populnea, E. tessellaris and E.
erythrophloia with a shrubby midstorey ofEremophila
mitchellii, Grevillea striata and Geijera parviflora.
Conservation significance
The buffer zone surrounding the power station offers
at least two significant conservation opportunities. Firstly,
the conservation status of E. raveretiana is poor. This
species is classed as vulnerable on a state and national
basis due to its restricted distribution. Regionally it is
poorly conserved. The conservation of this species on the
site will be a significant addition to the regional protection
of this species. Secondly, softwoodscrubs (includingsemievergreen vine thickets) are not well conserved in the
region with less than 5 percent (QDEH estimate) of the
original scrubs remaining in Central Queensland. On that
basis the conservation of the small scrubs within the buffer
zone is a significant addition to the overall reserve. The
conservation value of these patches is further enhanced
by the maintenance of their natural context. The
surrounding Eucalyptus communities are relatively
undisturbed.
Operating philosophy
The then QEC perceived the power station as having
the potential to provide a positive environmental benefit
(through the management of fire and weeds as well as the
removal of grazing pressures) to the 990 ha of land not
disturbed by the construction of the power station and
associated infrastructure (QEC 1985). They were
considered to have a positive attitude towards appropriate
conservation and management of the remaining natural
systems within the land which forms the buffer zone around
the plant (Melzer 1994). Despite this positive conservation
'
EVANS, JOHNSTONE, MELZER AND WADE: NATURE C01NSERVATION WITHIN THE INDUSTRIAL LANDSCAPE
119
eastern lands are considered to have some conservation
value and, in August 1992, QEC and the Queensland
Department of Environment and Heritage (now
Queensland Department of the Environment QDoE)
commenced negotiations to draw up a Conservation
Agreement (see Queensland Nature Conservation Act
1992) and establish a Nature Refuge over some 500 ha of
thisland.
AUSTAElectric has freehold title over the land on which
the power station is built. The corporation's economists
see this land as an asset from which potential profits could
be made - in the long term after the power station is
decommissioned, and in the short to medium term where
land adjacent to the power station could he made available
to ancillary industry which is able to utilise the biproducts
of the power station. Consequently the developing land
management strategy aims to balance the need to develop
ancillary industry, which consumes industrial biproducts,
with the desire to maintain the environmental and
conservation values identified within the buffer zone.
This environmental attitude is reflected in the concept
of Industrial Ecology which is cifculating within AUSTA
Electric. Industrial Ecology views industry as an
interwoven system of production and consumption
analogous to food webs and energy cycles in nature and
appears to work on the assumption that industrialisation is
the ultimate driver of the global environmental crisis (Tibbs
1993) - not overpopulation. These industrial food webs
and energy cycles must interface with the natural global
ecosystem, and represent a reorientation from conquering
nature to co-operating with nature. According to Tibbs
(1993) this requires an understanding of natural ecosystem
dynamics at all levels as well as the resilience of these
ecosystems - all of which requires real time information
on current environmental conditions.
Economic arguments limiting the inalienable
commitment of land for conservation purposes have to be
assessed against the public benefits to AUSTA Electric
derived from its environmental commitment. In 1992, as
QEC, AUSTA Electric was a willing partner in the
establishment of a Conservation Agreement over 500 ha
of land within the buffer zone. Both QEC and the QDEH
were agreed that the agreement should be established.
Despite this agreement it took until September 1996 to
put the Conservation Agreement in place. The reasons for
the delay in processing this agreement are beyond the
scope of this paper. The case, however, illustrates how
apparently inefficient government procedures may threaten
an opportunity to conserve land with high biodiversity
value.
In theory, all outputs from industry are considered
resources for other industry or components of the natural
environment. There is no concept of waste. T h e
surrounding natural environment is understood to the point
where permitted outfalls can be assimilated without
producing any lasting disturbance to the natural processes.
In the case of the Stanwell Power Station an industry or
natural system would be sought to utilise the CO, , waste
heat, waste water and flyash biproduct. Clearly a lot of
research needs to be done to fully install industrial ecology
in the work place. The concept, however, provided a basis
for strategic environmental planning within industry and,
within AUSTAElectric, provides an atmosphere conducive
to environmental conservation within the buffer zone.
During the years that the ConservationAgreementwas
being developed the Environmental Protection Act (1994)
was passed and various Environmental Protection Policies
have been drafted and circulated for comment. One of
these, Version 4.1 EnvironmentalProtection (Noise) Policy
(1995), sets out draft standard noise limit criteria for noise
received at a "noise sensitive place" (see page 19 schedule
1of Draft E.P. (Noise) P. 1995). Ag'noise sensitive place"
is defined in the draft policy as, amongst others, a
"protected place" (see page 40, Draft E.P.(Noise) P. 1995).
Within the Nature Conservation Act 1992 a Nature Refuge
established under a Conservation Agreement is a "Protected
Area9'(see Page 24, Section 14, Division 1of Part 4 of the
Nature Conservation Act 1992) and as such is a "noise
sensitive place" within the context of the draft
Environmental Protection (Noise) Policy 1995. As the
noise emanating from Stanwell Power Station is likely to
exceed the criteria set in Schedule 1 of this policy any
decision to establish aNature Refuge over the eastern sector
of the Buffer Zone would automatically place AUSTA
Electric in breach of the policy - if the draft is approved.
Following discussions with QDoE, a condition will be
written into Stanwell Power Station's operating licence
which will overide the provisions in Version 4.1
Environmental Protection (Noise) Policy (1995) relating
fo a "noise sensitive place" but only as they apply to the
proposed nature refuge. This "solution" to the legislative
impasse, however, may be open to dispute in law.
attitude there remains the possibility of significant impacts
on the surrounding environment - primarily in the effects
of gaseous nitrous and sulphurous oxide outfalls on the
surrounding vegetation (Melzer 1994, QEC 1985). The
Currently AUSTA Electric has programs in place
to develop a land management strategy which will
identify the key environmental values of the adjacent
lands and establish mechanisms which maintain these
values alongside future landuse and current management
practice.
Limits to conservation within AUSTA Electric
AUSTAElectric is a Government owned corporation
that builds, owns and operates most of Queensland's power
stations. As the former Queensland Electricity
Commission's Generation Business Unit, AUSTAElectric
supplies about 82 percent of Queensland's power. Now,
as a corporation, it is marketing its expertise, skills and
resources nationally and internationally to provide aprofitable return to its share holders while meeting the
clients needs and public environmental expectations.
Without a formal conservation caveat on the land title,
some reserve system in place or a legislative constraint on
certain land uses any conservation initiatives undertaken
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120
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EVANS, JOHNSTONE, MELZER AND WADE: NATURE CONSERVATION WITHIN THE INDUSTRIAL LANDSCAPE
by AUSTAElectric would remain in place for theduration
of the corporation's interest in the land. The long term fate
of conservation measures within the Stanwell Power
Station land would then depend on the attitudes of
subsequent land users.
THE ALUMINIUM SMELTER:
Boyne Smelters Limited
Boyne Smelters Limited owns and operates an
aluminium smelter at Boyne Island to the south of
Gladstone (Figure 1).The smelter produces approximately
250,000 tonnes of aluminium per annum in the form of
remelt ingot and extrusion billet. The capacity of the
smelter is currently being expanded to 475,000 tonnes per
annum by the addition of a third cell line. The smelter
commencedproduction in 1982 and is expected to continue
operation for a minimum of thirty years.
Alumina is delivered to the smelter from Queensland
Alumina by conveyor. The alumina is added to cells
containing a molten cryolite (sodium aluminium fluoride)
bath. The alumina is dissolved in the bath and the
aluminium and oxygen components of the alumina are
separated electrolytically. The aluminium collects at the
cathode and is tapped from the cell and cast as ingot or
billet.
During the smelting process fumes containing fluoride
are emitted from the bath. These fumes are collected and
ducted to a dry scrubber where the fluorides are adsorbed
onto the incoming alumina. Despite high collection
(>97%) and scrubbing (>99%) efficiencies there are
sufficient "fugitive" emissions of fluorides to have an
impact on vegetation in the vicinity of the smelter. The
phytotoxic nature of fluorides is well documented (Doley
1986) and the extent of damage adjacent to the Boyne
Island smelter has been described in Doley (1994).
The smelter, associated infrastructure and wharf are
situated on 600 ha of land on the northern edge of Boyne
Island and on South Trees Island. The land straddles the
boundaries of Calliope Shire and Gladstone City and is
bordered by residential areas (the town of Boyne Island)
to the south and by Queensland Alumina's red mud dams
in the north and west. The remaining border is formed by
Port Curtis and includes approximately eight km of beach
front.
The smelter and infrastructure occupy approximately
150 ha. The remainder of the land contains a relatively
intact mosaic of plant communities. These plant
communities range from beach strand and coastal vine
thickets to dry Eucalyptus woodlands (Melzer, Brushe and
Ray 1995). The degree of disturbance due to smelter
activities (construction and fluoride emissions) and other
people pressures (recreational and urban) varies throughout
the extent of the landholding.
Flora a n d fauna
Two hundred and sixty two species and sub-species
of plants were identified from 35 sites within the buffer
zone. Of these 55 (21% of species) were exotic. Twenty
nine structural forms of vegetation were recognised within
nine assemblages. One of these assemblages, low
microphyll vine forest 1 thicket, comprises forms of
rainforest. The remainder were non-rainforest forms. Two
of these, the E. tessellaris woodlands, are closely allied to
the rainforest forms.
There were 23 Orders of vertkbrates identified
including 15 Orders of birds (137 species), six Orders of
mammals (12 species), one Order of reptiles (25 species)
and one Order of amphibians (8 species of frogs). These
and invertebrates identified. There were 18 insect and nine
non-insect invertebrate Orders identified.Voucher species
have been determined'for ants (66 species) and spiders
(124 species) while the flies and wasps are the subject of
ongoing study at the University of Queensland. A more
comprehensive report on the fauna of the buffer zone is
provided by Melzer, Brushe and Ray (1995).
Conservation significance
No rare, threatened, vulnerable or restricted plant
species were collected from the buffer zone.
The low microphyll vine thickets and related forms
are, however, of conservationsignificance. Low microphyll
thickets and forests occur in small stands along 240 km of
coast from theTropicof Capricorn to the Bundaberg region
(Young and McDonald 1987). Their ecology is poorly
understood (Gillison 1987) and they are poorly represented
in nature conservation reserves. In 1991 only 22 ha was
conserved in Central Queensland (Melzer 1993).Although
the other forests, woodlands and grasslands are not
considered to be of significant conservation value at a
regional, state or national level they are highly significant
at a local level. This complex of relatively undisturbed
vegetation, in conjunction with adjoining land under local
government control, has been isolated by ongoing
industrial and urban development and consequently
provides a reserve of flora and fauna within a highly
alienated environment.
As mentioned above the Eucalyptus tall open
woodlands are considered to have only local conservation
significance. The vulnerable lizard, Paradelma orientalis,
has been found here and consequently the woodlands must
be considered to have conservation significance as habitat
for this lizard.
In all one vulnerable and three rare fauna species were
associated with the buffer zone. The vulnerable species,
Paradelma orientalis, has already been mentioned. The
rare species were all birds. The duck Tadorna radjah
(radjah shelduck) was using a modified creek line within
the buffer zone. Both the sooty oystercatcher (Haematopus
fuliginosus) and the eastern curlew (Numenius
madagascariensis) were sighted along the beach and
associated mud flats. Although not strictly within the buffer
zone, these two species would be affected by activities
"within the zone such as vehicle activity, dogs and fishing.
they both roost above the high tide mark and so are within
the buffer zone.
,
EVANS, JOHNSTONE, MELZERAND WADE: NATURE ICONSERVATION WITHIN THE INDUSTRIAL LANDSCAPE
The conservation status and regional significance of
the local fauna cannot be fully assessed in isolation from
the plant communities and environment within which they
live. So, although the majority of animals identified here
are not considered to have any current conservation
significance, the fauna is an essential component of the
plant communities they occupy.
Clearly Boyne Smelters Ltd has a very good
opportunity to make a contribution to nature conservation
outside of reserves which would be significant at all levels
of.the community.
Operating philosophy
Boyne Smelters has adopted an environmental policy
which requires it to minimise the impact of operations on
the air, water, and land through responsible management
and control of plant processes. Tlie company recognises
the impact of its emissions on the surrounding environment
and has established a comprehensive monitoring
programme which exceeds the requirements of the licences
granted by the Queensland Department of Environment.
The land surrounding the smelter was originally retained
as a buffer zone. While appropriate environmental
management requires that a buffer zone is maintained to
minimise the impact of an equipment malfunction, the
limiting of impacts on plant communities by emission
reduction has provided the opportunity for the land to be
managed for secondary roles. These secondary roles are
consistent with the corporate environmental policy.
In exploring the way in which these opportunities may
be realised, Boyne Smelters has commenced the preparation
, of a land management plan. The steps taken in developing
the land management plan have been identifying: the spatial
limits of the land reserve, key stakeholders in the
management of the land, and the physical and biological
attributes of the land.
The environmental values and land-use constraints
of the buffer zone were then determined and, in the light
of this determination, the land was divided into four
functional zones. These zones are:
Zone I -Industrial. This land is the footprint of the
smelter and adjacent highly disturbed areas. This area will
primarily b e managed to minimise the transport of
pollutants, control weeds and prevent erosion. The
management of this area will be undertaken in accordance
with the standards and procedures documented in the
Environmental Management Plan.
Zone 2 - Neighbourhood. This is the land between
Zone 1-Industrial and the residential area of BoyneIsland
and some adjacent land. The area is required to be managed
within the context that the key stake holders are the
residents living adjacent to Boyne Smelters Ltd land and
the users of the bikelpedestrian way. This zone is a key
area in the management of the vulnerable lizard Paradel'ma orientalis.
Zone 3 -Conservation A. This is land which is north
of Zones 1 and 2. It contains biological attributes worthy
121
of conservation but is moderately to highly impacted by
smelter emissions and to some extent recreational activity
from the nearby residential areas.
Zone 4 - Conservation B. This land is north of Zone
3 and, like Zone 3, it has biological attributes worthy of
conservation. This zone contains the lands furthest from
the smelter and consequently is minimally impacted by
smelter emissions. Recreational activity impacts on the
coastal portions of this zone.
By dividing the land area into four zones and
managing each for its potential benefits while addressing
the constraints existing on it, it is believed that it will be
possible to achieve the primary requirements of smelter
operation while simultaneously providing a valuable
environmental asset to the community. A key aspect of
this asset will be its conservation values including the ability
to ensure the retention of the low microphyll vine thickets
and the provision of habitat for a vulnerable species.
The management of this land, in conjunction with the
land of key neighbouring landholders, has potential to
provide a "green-belt" from the beach strand and mangrove
communities at the north of Boyne island to the open
woodlands of the drv rockv "Lillv Hills" in the south. If
achieved this would provide a green-belt along the southern
entry of Port Curtis and the industrial City of Gladstone.
Boyne Smelters Ltd has freehold title over most of
the land under its control. So, if the company retains its
current environmental position there should be no
constraints on conservation practice during the life of the
smelter. However, the conservation status of this land is
not guaranteed at the end of smelter !ife or if there is a
change of ownership.
These three case studies indicate clearly the
conservation value of some industrial landscapes. Each
organisation provides defacto habitat protection for some
species and ecosystems under threat elsewhere and they
provide refuges for plants and animals of lesser
conservation significance - allowing their persistence in
highly alienated environments.
Currently the philosophy operating within each
organisation favours active management to maintain
existing conservation values or to create new conservation
opportunities on rehabilitated lands. So- what is the future
fo; nature conservation within the industrial landscape?
These three case studies illustrate the problems for
long term conservation on industrial lands. Both AUSTA
Electric and Boyne Smelters Ltd have freehold title over
their 1and.The threats tothe continuity of the conservation
ethos on these lands come with a move tosecond generation
industry or a change in owners. One solution is to have the
conservation ethos written into the land title by negotiating
a conservation agreement with the QDoE and having the
land in question declared a protected area (e.g. a nature
refuge) under the Queensland Nature Conservation Act
1992. If the process is protracted, as in the AUSTAElectric
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122
EVANS, JOHNSTONE, MELZER AND WADE: NATURE COIVSERVATTON WITHIN THE INDUSTRIAL LANDSCAPE
case discussed previously, such an option is likely to be
unattractive to most organisations. Furthermore, the
provisions of the complex and conflicting legislation will
discourage industry from entering into nature conservation
agreements.
An alternate strategy is evolving on Boyne Island.
Consideration is being given to incorporating the buffer
zone into a Boyne Island "Green-belt". This belt would
incorporate the Boyne Smelters Ltd buffer zone,
Queensland Alumina Ltd land, crown land currently
controlled by the Queensland Lands Department, a
conservation park controlled by the Queensland
Department of Environment and Heritage and esplanades
and recreation reserves controlled by Calliope Shire
Council. How such a belt would be managed is yet to be
considered. Once established, however, any secondary land
user would inherit a community agreement with an
unofficial, but public, duty of care to maintain the corridor.
The case of the open-cut coal mine provides other
problems. Where these mines are on leasehold land the
Queensland Department of Minerals and Energy
determines the post-mining land use.Traditionally the mine
has been required to return the land to a state capable of
supportingthe pre-mine land use.This is difficult to achieve
in areasonable time frame-and if successful would negate
the conservation benefits gained from re-establishing
"natural systems" on the mine site. Currently the
Queensland Department of Minerals and Energy is
discussing allowing mines to establish "new natural
systems" on rehabilitated sites. For such a change to be
implemented, however, the Queensland Lands Department
must be willing to accept the loss of revenue from these
leases and must develop a policy to transform the title from
lease-hold to some form of protected lands.
In May 1995 there were 20 open-cut coal mines within
Central Queensland. More mines are being developed.
Each of these will leave a "mountain" of revegetation
surrounded by a slim border of unmined land. If they are
excluded from secondary use after mine life ends they will
provide refugia for a variety of plants and animals within
the intensively developed brigalow belt. Together these
rcfugia could form an archipelago of at least 20 "islands"
stretching from Theodore to Collinsville and west from
Biloela to Clermont (Figure 1).The assemblages within
each refuge would vary and, although containing a few
species of contemporary consewation significance, would
probably be dominated by species considered common
today. It should not he assumed that any current
conservation status is fixed. In time such refugia may be
valuable repositories of regional biodiversity. Perhaps, after
final decommissioning of the mine, the land should be
managed by the QDoE under the National Parks and
Wildlife Service, with some operating funds provided by
the mine as part of the decommissioning process.
Alternatively a RehabilitatedLands ManagementAuthority
could be established (again funded by industry and
government) with responsibility for ongoing management
of the environmental and conservation aspects of the postindustrial landscapes throughout Queensland.
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biodiversity.Off~ceoftheChiefScientis1, Department of lhe Prime
Minister and Cabinet, Australian Government Printing Service,
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Doley, D., 1986. Plant
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Melzer, A,, 1994. Evaluation of the proposed Slanwell Power Station
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Department of Environment and Heritage.
Melzer, A. I., Brushe, 1. and Rey, P., 1995. Vegetation of the Boyne
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Melzcr, R., 1993. Rainforests of the Central Coast Region. Unpublished
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