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Chapter 19 Compatibilities and conflicts between production and conservation in the Queensland Mulga Lands biogeographic region BRUCE A. WILSON' Tne Mulga -ands o~ogeograpnicreglon occJrs ;n me sem'.ar;d rangelands of south west Queensand and north.wes1 New South Wa.es. The w desoread recoenitlon of land 0ccradal:on ano associated economic, cnvronmenlal and social problems in me reglon has lead to tne eslab.;snmcnt regional adjJstment strategies wnicn a m to address ssJes in a comprenensive ana integrated manner. .x's a r g ~ e dtnat the s ~ c c e s s fintcerat.on ~l of conscrvatlon Into regional land management strateges \roll rely on the ident!fcatlon of compati0il:ties and confl cts oehveen proauctlon and conservar on g0a.s. Tnis w:l. allow effectve targeting of iana planning tonaros nat.re conservation requirements that are not accommodaled oy c-rrcnt land manacement pracr ces that aim solely to meet sustainaole proa~cton objectives. Specfic compatib!.iriesand conflcts are a.sc.ssed for the major management issues In the region: grazing, vegetation clearance, exotic plants and animals and water harvesting. - - Key words: conservation. Mulga Lands, rangelands, grazing, vegetation clearance INTRODUCTION I t is widely recognised that the conservation of biodiversity requires the development of regional strategies which include the integration of "on" and "off' park activities (eg Biodiversity Working Party 1991, Biological Diversity Advisory Committee 1992). Examples of offpark conservation strategies that have been put forward range from simply complementing national parks with a system of lower level nature reserves which allow for multiple use (eg Wells et al.1995), to more comprehensive approaches which include a range of tenure, economic and other matters that need to be considered (eg Morton et al. * 1995, Sattler 1995). While it is important to develop regional and integrated frameworks, the resulting strategies must be specific enough to be implemented at an operational level. This requires the development of strategies that are relevant at scales at which land management occurs, such as on a property or land type basis. In addition while strategies which aim to improve the sustainability of production values are likely to be compatible with many nature conservation requirements (eg. Curry and Hacker 1990), there are likely to be additional, specific requirements of native species that are not met by such practices. Therefore the implementation of regional strategies through the effective targeting of incentives, constraints and other planning mechanisms (eg Young et al. 1996) will require the specific identification of compatibilities and conflicts between the objectives of current management practices for production and conservation to be clearly identified in a region. .. This oaner looks at someof the above issues in the Mulga Lands region in south west Queensland. In this region of the economic, - the widespread recognition resource degradation, conservation and social problems that exist has led to the establishment of regional adjustment programs in Queensland (Williams 1995) and New South Wales (Wise 1995). In Queensland, the natural resource management strategy of the program includes I objectives to promote on-property nature conservation initiatives and to integrate nature conservation into property management plans (Williams 1995). While the development of the program is currently at an early stage, there is potential for the incorporation of well targeted nature conservation strategies into the land management fabric of the region. Following is a brief background to the Mulga Lands region which includes an overview of the current landscape condition and extent, patterning and distribution of flora and fauna, to give a context for the requirements of nature conservation across major land types. This is followed by a more detailed discussion of the compatibilities and conflicts between current management practices and conservation for the major land management issues in the region: grazing, vegetation clearance, introduced plants and animals and water harvesting. BACKGROUND TO THE MULGALANDS REGION The Mulga Lands biogeographic region has been defined in the recent Interim Biogeographic Regionalisation of Australia (Thackway and Cresswell 1995). The region is classed as a semi-arid rangeland, with annual rainfall ranging from about 250-450 mm. Most of the area is utilised for pastoral production based largely on nativespecies (Department of Lands 1993). While much of the data and discussion presented here is derived from the some 20 000 km2 of the region that occurs in southwest Queensland, it is also relevant to the further 22 000 km2 of the region that occurs in north-west New South Wales. Current Landscape Condition The widespread occurrence of land degradation in the Mulga Lands region has been documented for at least 5060 years in Queensland (Passmore and Brown 1992) and longer in New South Wales (Lunney 1994). More recently, a series of land use studies carried out in the 1970's and Queensland Herbarium, Meien Road, lndooroopilly QLD 4068. Pages 107-114 i,# CONSERVATTON OUTSIDE NATURE RESERVES, ed. by P. Hale and D . Lamb. Centre forConservation Biology, Thc ~niversitJof Queensland. 1997. 108 WILSON: COMPATIBILITIESAND CONFLICTS IN THE QUEENSLAND MULGA LANDS 1980's (eg Mills 1986, Mills et al. 1989, Miles 1991) have quantified the extent of degradation in Queensland. For example Mills et a[. (1989) showed that more than hyothirds of the region exhibited evidence of landdegradation in the form of soil erosion, increase in abundance of unpalatable shrubs and decrease in abundance of palatable perennial grasses. Other studies have pointed to the strong link between land degradation and economic viability of pastoral enterprises, particularly in relation to small property size, which is seen as a major factor underpinning the perpetuation of degradation cycles (MacLeod 1990, Passmore and Brown 1992, Department of Lands 1993). The patterns and mechanisms that have been related to degradation in the Mulga Lands are similar to those that are widely recognised to occur throughout Australian semi-arid woodlands (eg Harrington et al. 1984). The changes are generally related to increased total grazing pressure, particularly during droughts, associated with introduction of domestic stock and feral animals and the establishment of artificial watering points (Mills 1986). Specific causes of these changes that are put forward include a reduction in competition from palatable perennial grass species (Harrington and Johns 1990); removal of flammable fuel load resulting in reduced fire frequency (Hodgkinson and Harrington 1985); loss of the top soil which provides most of the nutrients available for plant growth (Miles 1991); and a reduction in microheterogeneity and associated infiltration and run-off processes considered critical to the functioning of these ecosystems (Tongway and Ludwig 1990). The degradation of soil and productive capacity in the Mulga Lands have been associated with reductions in native species (Sattler 1991), although few quantitative figures relating to decline of flora and fauna are readily available. Nine percent of the bird and 34% of the mammal species recorded in the Mulga Lands are listed as rare or threatened in New South Wales andlor Queensland (B. Wilson unpublished data). Studies on the status of fauna species from the Western Division of New South Wales, which includes the Mulga Lands, show that 53% of mammal species recorded have either disappeared from the region or declined in abundance over the last 200 years (Dickman et a1 1993) and 35% of bird species recorded have decreased in abundance (Schodde 1994). The deterioration in the diversity, ecological complexity and functioning of ecosystems of the Mulga woodlands (eg Tongway and Ludwig 1990) is likely to be associated with a reduction in habitat values. Many of the factors associated with declines in native species in other parts of arid or semi-arid Australia are present in the Mulga Lands, including high grazing pressure by domestic stock and introduced herbivores (Mills et al. 1989), particularly on critical refuge areas and during drought periods (Hodgkinson 1993); introduced predators such as foxes and cats (eg ANPWS 1991); changes in fire regime (Harrington et al. 1984, Mills 1986); and vegetation clearance (Pressey 1990, Wilson and Egan 1996). The development of nature conservation objectives in the Mulga Lands region can be complicated by the hypothesised major alterations to vegetation composition and structure that have occurred over the last 200 years and the major management actions that are required for recovery. Denny (1994) presents historical records from Western New South Wales that indicate there has been an overall decline in tree, shrub, grass and/or forb cover over the last 150 years. However, there is a lot of anecdotal evidence (eg Miles 1988, Chrichton 1995) and some quantitative evidence (Burrows et a[. 1985, Witt andBeeton 1995) that plant communities in the region have changed from "savanna" woodlands with an open treelshrub layer and a diverse, mainly perennial grass understorey, to communities with a dense mulga canopy and a shrubby ground layer with little herbaceous cover. It has been argued that sustainable management should aim to return conditions to more open vegetation which more closely represents the "natural state" of communities that occurred before the arrival of Europeans (Cameron and Blick 1991, Chrichton 1995). However, while arguments about-what is natural may give some insights into ecosystem functioning and past practices, they are not necessarily a useful way to determine conservation objectives in such a highly modified region. In such a region, conservation planning and management should aim to maintain and enhance current native habitat values and work towards the development of specific objectives for biota based on their specific requirements and their responses to management (Witt and Beeton 1995). Patterning of native species The development of effective conservation strategies requires an understanding of spatial and temporal patterning of biota. This understanding is important to identify areas of high conservation value traditionally targeted for reservation (eg Pressey and Nicholls 1989) but also to allow for conservation management to be integrated with other land uses. While there is a paucity of knowledge about how many of these factors operate in the Mulga Lands and other parts of arid Australia (James et al. 1996), the development of conservation plans and research to address the knowledge deficiencies requires the effective utilisation of current information. The Mulga Lands region is generally a flat landscape, dominated by highly weathered, nutrient deficient soils with localised areas of better quality land types associated with floodplain alluvium or exposure of underlying labile geologies (Dawson 1974, Mills 1980, Mills and Lee 1990). The spatial patterning of vegetation communities is closely related to the nutrient and moisture availability of landforms and associated soil types. Most of the region is covered by Mulga (Acacia aneura) shrublands and woodlands on plains with sandy and very infertile soils andAcacia shrublands on low hills and ranges with shallow infertile soils (Figure 1, Table 1). More fertilelmoist areas supporting eucalypt woodlands and herblgrasslands are scattered across the region associated with the riparian/ WIMON: COMPATIBILITIESAND CONFLICTS IN THE QUEENSLAND MULGA LANDS 109 Toble I: Major vegetation types in the Mulga Lands showing % area, % of subcategories with c30% of original extent remaining, %area in reservesystem and the number of plant, bird, mammal (Mam.), replile and amphibian (Amph.) species assoc~atedwith each vegetation type. Number of species given as total number and number that show a preference for each vegetation type [I. Major Vegetation Type %Area % 430% %Area in Reserve Original Extent Reserve Plant Bird Mam. Reptile Amph. 747 256 56 94 23 in Acacia shrublands on ranges and sandplains Mulga waodlshrublands -Eucalypt woodlands on riparian areas and floodplains Poplar box woodlands Total* 'Total number ofspecies in region. Includes species that are ubiquitous and not assigned to any vegetation type andspeeies thatshaw preference far more than one vegetation type. @ . Mulga wood/shrublands Figure I. Generalised vegetation map of the region. Derived from Mills 1980, Boyland 1984, Neldner 1984, M~llsand Lee 1990.Approximate scale 1: 5 450 000. 110 WILSON: COMPATIBILITIES AND CONFLlClTS IN THE QUEENSLAND MULGALANDS floodplains of major rivers and smaller drainage lines (many of which are too small to map on Figure 1). Poplar box (Eucalyptus populnea) woodlands predominantly occur in the higher rainfall more eastern parts of the area or on "run on" areas scattered across the mulga dominated plains. Brigalow (Acacia harpophylla) and gidgee (Acacia cambagei) woodlands or shrublands are scattered across the region occurring on alluvial soils or soils produced from more fertile underlying geologies. Data on the number of species from different taxonomic groups associated with major vegetation groups are also presented in Table 1.For plant species, this data has been derived directly from Neldner (1984, appendix 4). For fauna species, this data has been derived from all available published and unpublished information and has been presented in detail by Wilson and Egan (1996). The eucalypt woodlands associated with riparian areas have the highest number of species, particularly in the bird and plant taxonomic groups, while the mulga andAcacia shrublands often have the least. This is similar to the patterning shown by bird and mammal species in western New South Wales (Schodde 1994) and other parts of arid Queensland (McFarland 1992). However, high levels of diversity do occur in some lower fertility sites in the Mulga Lands region. The shrublands on ranges have a relatively high number of reptilesspecies (Table 1). The relict alluvial dune fields east of the Warrego River in Queensland support .a diverse "heath" related flora and the microhabitats provided by some range areas can support a relatively high number of plants including several endemic species (Table 1, Neldner 1984, Purdie 1985). Overlaying the pattern of species richness by major vegetation type are temporal variations in species abundance and distribution associated with seasonal conditions and the requirement of fauna species to use different habitat types at different times. An obvious example is the high number of water birds that use and breed in wetland areas when they are flooded (Kingsford 1995a). Koalas (Phascolarctos cinereus) in the Mulga Lands in Queensland are found in greatest densities in eucalypt riparian communities, but also occur in adjacent upland areas of poplar box and ranges under favourable seasonal conditions (Witt and Pahl1995). Despite the lack of information relating to how organisms use the landscape over space and time (James et al. 1996), it is apparent in these largely infertile landscapes, that more resource rich areas may often be disproportionably important for both conservation (and production) values (Curry and Hacker 1990, Morton et al. 1995). The distribution of major vegetation types in the existing reserve system in the Queensland Mulga Lands is also presented in Table 1. This shows that there is a disproportionably larger representation of less productive land types such as mulga and shrublands on ranges, compared to the more productive types-such as brigalowl gidgee and grassherblands. This is despite the fast that most of the national parks have been recently acquired (Sattler 1995) following the selection of areas using a systematic methodology to include a representative range of land types (Purdie et al. 1986). The bias can be partly attributed to the methodology used in reserve selection pressey and Nicholls 1989) and the high conservation value of some of the less productive areas (Neldner 1984, see above). It is also due to the higher production values of more fertile land, which create greater conflicts with, and costs for, conservation. Some of the latter land types have also undergone extensive fragmentation caused by clearing (seebelow) which makes it difficult to cover these areas by the traditional, relatively large conservation reserves (Purdie 1985). The bias towards lower productive lands in the current reserve system will be transferred to off-park conservation, unless the specific strategies and mechanisms which target priority areas or land types are put in place. COMPATIBILITIESAND CONFLICTS BETWEEN CONSERVATION AND PRODUCTION PRACTICES A delineation of areas which are important to native biota in space or time and are also areas of high production value will highlight areas where potential conflict between production and conservation may occur. The actual level of this conflict will depend on the response of the native flora and flora to production related management practices. These issues are discussed below under the major managemen1 issues in the region. Grazing There is little argument that the composition and abundance of grazing mammals in semi-arid Australia has changed since the arrival of Europeans.These changes have included the introduction of species such as goats, rabbits, cattle and sheep (Wilson et al. 1992) and decreased abundance of many native species (eg Morton 1990, Dickman et al. 1993). In addition, the abundance of native and introduced, water reliant, grazing animals has increased with the establishment of permanent, artificial water supplies (James et al. 1996, Landsberg et al. 1996) and the reduction in number of dingos (Caughley et al. 1980). The effects of these changes on native species may be direct, through changes in species structure and composition, or indirect, through changes in the productive capacity of the soil (Friedel and James 1995). The relative contributions to grazing impacts and competition between domestic stock and other native and feral herbivores is the subject of debate in the Mulga Lands and other rangeland areas in Australia in the scientific literature (eg Wilson 1991, Edwards et al. 1996) and by local land managers (eg Chrichton 1995, and pers. comms. from various graziers). While the abundance of nondomestic animals may be a major component of grazing pressure (Landsberg et al. 1992) it appears that a reduction of total grazing pressure is required at certain times and places to meet the objectives of sustainable production and/ or conservation of native species. In addition to reducing numbers of domestic stock, appropriate management - WILSON. COMPATIBILITIESAND CONFLICl S I N THE QUEENSLAND MULGA LANDS practices to mitigate these effects may include the placement (Landsberg et al. 1996) and management (Freudenberger et al. 1995) of wateringpoints and fencing. Reduction in grazing pressure during and immediately following the frequent drier periods that regularly occur in the Mulga Lands region (Johnston 1988) is considered to be important to allow the maintenance of perennial grass cover (Harrington 1991, Hodgkinson 1993, Harrington and Johns 1990) and associated critical ecosystem functions (Tongway and Ludwig 1995). The use of the mulga tree as a fodder source can compound this problem, because it allows higher grazing pressures to be maintained during dry periods than if pasture alone was the main source of forage (Pressland 1976, Miles 1988). Reductions in grazing pressure during drought periods in addition to those required for sustainable production, may be required for the conservation of native species, particularly on areas that may act as important drought refuges (Morton et a[. 1995). Examples of such areas in the Mulga Lands may include riparian woodlands and poplar box woodlands on run-on areas scattered across the mulga dominated plains. Several authors have claimed that conservative stocking rates combined with tactical grazing management will maintain essential ecosystem processes and be compatible with biological conservation (Curry and Hacker 1990, Pickard 1994, Friedel and James 1995). Such conservative stocking rates may include substantial reduction in stocking of certain, more marginal land types (Cameron and Blick 1995, Sattler 1995). However, while stocking regimes which reinstate critical ecosystem functions and allow for sustainable pastoral production will be a major first step in improving the compatibility between grazing and conservation, data currently being compiled by Landsberg et al. 1996 suggests that some native species may be adversely affected by any level of grazing by domestic animals. This data indicates that although the maintenance of many species is compatible with grazing by domestic stock, specific management measures are required to meet the needs of a significant number of native species. Vegetation clearance The removal of woody vegetation to increase grazing production is often seen as a major area of conflict between the objectives of grazing and nature conservation (Glaznig 1995).While vegetation clearing in the Mulga Lands region is extensive and widespread, its extent, intensity and impacts on native speciesvaries across the region and with land type. Table 1 presents data on the proportions of major vegetation types that have been cleared in the Queensland Mulga Lands. This data is a summary of more detailed breakdown of broadvegetation types (sub types) presented by Wilson and Egan (1996), derived from an overlay of vegetation cover (Ritman 195) with vegetation maps (Neldner 1984, Boyland 1984) of the region. ., In the more arid parts of the region, or on poorer quality sites, clearing of trees is inappropriate due to 111 constraints imposed by sustainable production objectives (Cameron and Blick 1991). For example 80% of the lower rainfall parts of the Mulga Lands region in Queensland (ie west of the Warrego River) have been assessed as suffering from an over utilisation of mulga trees (Mills et al. 1989). The mulga and shrublands on residual vegetation types are relatively little cleared, while many poplar box types, which mainly occur in the eastern half of the region where rainfall is higher, are extensively cleared (Table 1). The gidgeelbrigalow types show intermediate extent of clearing; they are extensively cleared in the eastern parts of the region but less extensively cleared in more western areas. In more eastern parts tree clearance occurs in the Mulga Lands region, but its extent and intensity vary with land type. The "intensity" of clearing changes across land types from more complete removal of tree layer with associated exotic pasture development to less intensive thinning and clearing operations which are not accompanied by the introduction of exotic plant species. More intensive clearing is generally associated with more productive land types in the eastern parts of the region, which causes direct conflict between production and conservation objectives. In brigalow and poplar box woodlands to the east of the Mulga Lands, cleared areas have been shown to have less species than adjacent uncleared areas (Ellis and Wilson 1992, Russell et al. 1992). In these areas, the effects of clearing would appear to lead to problems similar to those that have occurred in agricultural lands elsewhere in Australia (eg Saunders et al. 1991). Currently, in such situations, the impacts of habitat loss and fragmentation are minimised by retaining a certain proportion of each community type and connecting remnants with "habitat corridors" (eg Queensland's Preliminary Tree Clearing Policy 1995). While these approaches are practical, given current knowledge, issues such as the proportion of each community type retained and the usefulness of corridors and retained areas for specific biota present in the region require research attention. A widespread current management practice in dense mulga woodlands in the eastern parts of the Mulga Lands is to clear the tree canopy to remove competition and allow increased (native) grass growth, while regenerating a lesser density of mulga stems than present in the original stand (Pressland 1976, Chrichton 1995). Although no quantitative studies have been carried out, this practice may not be so detrimental to native species as vegetation clearance has been in other parts ofAustralia. The laying down of mulga trees associated with this practice may create "traps" for litter and nutrients which provide foci for the re-establishment of grasses (Tongway and Ludwig 1995). Thinned brigalow woodlands to the east of the Mulga Lands in New South Wales can support as many native fauna species as adjacent uncleared brigalow woodland (Table 1 in Ellis and Wilson 1992). Clearing mulga may also lead to some increase in micro-habitat diversity and increase in plant species richness (B. Wilson WILSON: COMPATIBILITIES AND CONFLICX S IN THE QUEENSLAND MULGA LANDS 112 . . pers. ob.). ~ i v e nappropriatefollow-up manage'ient (Pressland 1976), such clearing has the potential to restore micro-heterogeneity, re-establish critical functioning and create a pore stable and ~esilientsystem and, therefore, be at least partly compatible with conservation (Cameron and Blick 1991). Feral plants and animals Many of the invasive exotic plant species in the region, such a s Rubber Vine (Cryptostegia grandiflora), Parkinsonia (Parkinsonia aculeata), Mother of Millions (Bryophylium spp.), Mesquite (Prosopissp.) currently have only localised occurrences. However, these species have a potentially high impact on native species because they appear to be capable of more wide-spread occurrence in the region (Humphries et al. 1991) and often show a preference for more mesic, better quality habitats which may be critical refuge areas for native biota. . Many of the above species have direct and substantial impacts on grazing values. Therefore the eradication1 control of these types of weed species is a major compatibility between the objectives of management for production and conservation.. However, the preferred method of control of weeds may vary betweenaims of production and conservation. For example, Mother of Millions appears to favour sites with an intact canopy and one method of control is to clear the tree layer and introduce exotic pasture species (B. Wilson pers. oh.). Thismethod is obviously more compatible with production aims than conservation aims. The exotic species Buffel Grass (Cenchrrrs ciliaris) is potentially a major conflict between conservation and pastoralism in the Mulga Lands (and other parts of semiarid Australia). This species is actively promoted and spread to increase grazing production (Caveye 1991). It is also regarded as an environmental weed as it actively invades many areas, forms a monoculture, alters fire regimes and displaces native species (Humphries et al. 1991). Investigations into the ability of native grasses to meet production and land conservation needs (eg Reu 1995) are needed to address these conflicts. Feral herbivores that occur in the region include goats (Kriticos and Lee 1995), rabbits (Robertshaw 1995) and pigs (Mills 1986). These have been implicated in causing land degradation and impacts on native species (eg Robertshaw 1995, Wilson et al. 1992). Potential control mechanisms may be possible by managing them as a utilisable resource (Toseland 1993), although the effectiveness of this method is subject to market price fluctuations. More regional cooperative approaches to control, which treat these animals as part of the total grazing pressure, are required (eg Hynes et al. 1995). Feral carnivores that occur in the region, such as the fox and cat, probably have major impacts on native wildlife (Catling 1988, ANPWS 1991) although there is little quantitative information available. The impacts of these species may also be obscured by complex interactions with other plants and animals. For example, feral cats and foxes may contribute to maintaining low numbers of rabbits in an area (Pickard 1994). However, such species are generally held in low esteem by graziers and their eradication or at least control is generally considered a high priority for the protection of biodiversity (ANPWS 1991). Current control measures include trapping, baiting and shooting although long-term effective control appears to require more regional and cooperative approaches, such as biological controls. The justification for these expensive measures requires more general community pressure, which requires more quantification of their economic and conservation impacts. Water hawesting The large river systems of the region (Warrego and Paroo) have not generally been affected by water harvesting in New South Wales (Kingsford 1995b) or Queensland (B. Wilsonpers ob). However, some irrigation does occur and applications for new water allocations are being made (Kingsford 1995b). The natural flooding regimes have "beneficial" effects; for grazing as they maintain and invigorate vast areas of floodplain pasture growth and; for conservation as they support large areas of important floodplain and wetland habitat (Kingsford 1995a).As water harvesting can also support high value cropping industries, there is the potential for increased conflict between irrigation and conservation and grazing as has occurred in other parts of Queensland (eg. Morrish 1996). There is a need for information on the effects of river flows on biota to develop sustainable management of these systems (Kingsford 1995b, Walker 1985) and to address the issue of water harvesting in this region. CONCLUSIONS The level of compatibility and conflicts between conservation and production objectives vary across land types and management practices that occur in the Mulga Lands region. The control of exotic weed species and feral pests is often a common, or at least non conflicting, objective of production and conservation. In areas where grazing of native pastures has lead to severe land degradation, the implementation of strategies aimed at restoring sustainable production are likely to improve the status of a large number of native species. The clearing of mulga overstorey to promote the growth of native pasture species and some woody plant regeneration may also be at least partly compatible with conservation objectives. Additional measures are required to target what appears to be a significant number of native species that are adversely impacted by grazing levels that may meet sustainable production objectives. Clearing of vegetation where it is associated with the introduction of exotic pasture species requires specific attention to ensure adequate protection of native species and habitats across the region. There are significant opportunities for conserving much of the native biota from the Mulga Lands region. . WILSON: COMPATIBILITIESAND CONFLICIS IN THE QUEENSLAND MULGA LANDS Focussing planning at the management level and on areas w h e r e conflict exists between t h e objectives of conservation and production a l l o w s for the effective targeting of incentives, conservation agreements or other planning m e c h a n i s m s . ACKNOWLEDGMENTS reported here was collated Nature Conservation Agency, N a t i o n a l Reserve Systems Cooperative Program P r o j e c t N302. Ros Moye helped d e v e l o p the data on extent and distribution of vegetation types and drafted Figure 1.Richard Johnson carried out c o m p i l a t i o n of data used to derive species r i c h n e s s figures. Comments made by Robyn Cowley, Corrie McDonald, Mike Harris and Jill Landsberg improved e a r l i e r v e r s i o n s of t h i s paper. Some of the information u n d e r the A u s t r a l i a n REFERENCES ANPWS, 1991. The impact of cats on native wildlife. Proceedings of a workshop held on 8-9 May 1991. Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service: Canberra. Biodiversity Working Party, 1991. The conservatian of biodiversity as it relates to ecologically sustainable development. Australian Government: Canberra Biological Diversity Advisory Committee, 1992. A National Strategy for the Conservation of Australia's Biodiversity: Draft far Public Cammenl. Departmentof Arts, Sport, Environment and Territories: Canberra. Boyland, D.E., 1984. Vegetation Survey of Queensland - South Western Queensland. Queensland Botany Bulletin No. 4. Department a t Primary Industries: Brisbane. Burrows, W.H.,Beale, I.F.,Silwck,R.G. andPressland,A.J., 1985.Prediclion of tree and shrub population changes in semi-arid woodland. Pp 7290 in Emlory and Mana~ementof the World's Savannas ed bv J.C. 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D.B. and Dausan, T.E 1996 Compelitiun ktween red kangaroo (Macropus ncfitr) and sheep (Obk arier) in the arid rangclsn& of Auslralia.Aasr. J. Ecoi. 21i2): 165-72. . Ellis, M. and Wilson, P., 1992. An overview of the vertebrate fauna of the brigalow belt north east Bourke, New South Wales. Unpublishcdrepon to Australian Herilage Commission: Canberra. Freudenbergcr, D., Hacker, R, and Brill,'r., 199j.Tacliwl managemen1 of kangaroo and go31 grazing pressure by manipulating access to water rupplie. Pp 133-37 it, Ecologtwl reseauch and manzgemcnl in the ~ b i g Lanhsed a by M. page and^. ~ e u t e lproceedings . of conference held 5-6July 1994. University of Queensland, Gatton College: Gatton. Friedel, M.H. and James, C.D., 1995. How does grazing of native pastures affect their biodiversity?. Pp 249-259 it, Conserving Biodiversity: Threats and Solutions. ed by R.A. Bradstock, T.D. Auld, D.A. Keith, R.T. Kingsford, D. Lunney, D.P. Sivertson. Surrey Beatty and Sans: Sydney. - G1aznie.A.. -. . 1995. Native veeetation clearance. habitat lass and tiiodiversitv decline. anovrniesr ofrecent "alive vcget~lionclcalance in Auslralia audits tmplicaliunr fur biadi\ersity. Biodiversity Scrlcs . paper . No. 6, ~ i o d i v e r s iunit, t ~ Department of ~nvironment,Sport and Territories, Canberra. Harrington, O.N.,Mills,D.M.D..Pressland,A.J.andHodgkinson,K.C., 1984. Semi-arid woodlands. Pp 189-208, in Management of Australia's 2 Rangelands cd by G.N. Hanington, A.D. Wilson and M.D. Young. CSlRO Division of Wildlife and Rangelands Research: Melbourne. tlnmng~on,ON. and John*.G.G., 1990. Herbaceous biomasinaEucolyp~s raranna woodland afar removing trces andlor shrubs. I . App. Ecoi. 27. 775-87. Harrington, G.N., 1991 Effeclsafsoilmoistureonshrublandseedlingsurvival in a semi-arid grassland. Ecology 72(3) 1138-49. Hodgkinson, K.C., 1993.Taclical grazing can help maintain stability of semiarid wooded grasslands. Pp 75-6 in Proceedings 17th International Grasslands Congress: Massey University, Palmenton North, New Zealand. Hodgkinson, K.C. and Harrington, G.N., 1985. The case for prescribed burning to control s h r u b in eastern semi-arid woodlands.Aust. Rang. J. 7: 64-74. Humohries. . . S.E... Groves. R.H. and Mitchell..D.S... 1991. Plant invasnonsaf Auerallan ecorynems. A slatus review and management dircclions. K o ~ a r 2. i Austral~anNature Conrervatinn Agmcy: Canherla. Hynes, R.,Thompson, J., Kelly, D. and Scanlan, ].Adaptive manage'ment of feral Eoats in Queensland's Mulea Lands. PD 107-112 i,z Ecoloeical rweaih and management in t h e ~ u l g aLank cd by M. Pagc id^. Beutel. University of Queensland, Gallon College: Gatton. lames; C.D., Landsberg, 1. and Morton, S.R., 1996. Ecological functioning in arid Australia and research to assist conservation of biodiversity. Poc Cons. Bid. 2(2): 126-141. Johnston, P., 1988. Climate. Pp 8-9 1,t An introduction la south-west Queensland. A handbook prepared by the Queensland Department of Primary Industries: Charleville. Kingsford, R.T. 1995a. Occurrence of high concentrations of waterbirds in arid Australia. J. AridEnvir: 29: 421-425 ~ ~ Kingsford, R.T., 1995b Ecological effectsof river management in New South Wales. Pp 144-61 it, Conserving Biodiversity: Threats and Solutions ed by R.A. Bradstock, T.D. Auld, D.A. Keith, R.T. Kingsford, D. Lunney, D.P. Sivertson,. Surrey Beatty and Sans: Sydney. Kriticos, D.J. and Lee, I.M., 1995. Feral goats dislribulion in the Mulga Lands. Pp 197-202 i,t Ecological research and management in the Mulga Lands ed by M. Page andT. Beutel. University of Queensland, Gaaon College: Gauon. Landsberg, J. Stol, I., Stafford-Smith, D.M. and Hodgkinson, K., 1992. Distributionof sheen eoatsand kanearwr in semi-aridwoodland paddocks. Pp. 117-21 in Australian Rangelands in a changing Environment. Australian Rangeland Society Conference, Cobar. Landsberg, I.. lames, C.D, Morton, S.R., Hobbs, T, Slol, I., Drew, A. and Tongway, H. 1996.The relationship behveen the provision of artificial water sources in arid and semi-arid Australia, and changes in biodiversity. An interim report on a consultancy undertaken for the Biodiversity Unit of the Department of Environment, Sport and Territories, CSIRO, Division of W~ldlifeand Ecology: Canberra. 'Lunney, D.. 1994. Re, iew ofofficial slliluder to werlern Ncw South \Vales 1901-93 with psrlicular ~efrrcncelo lhc fauna. Pp 1-26 in Future of the fauna of wwtern New South Wales, cd by D. Lunney, S. Hand, P. .- - 114 WILSON: COMPATIBILITIES AND CONFLICl'S IN THE QUEENSLAND MULGALANDS Reed andD. Butcher.Transact~ansaf the Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales. Surrey Beally &Sons: Sydney. McFarland, D., 1992.Fauna of the Channel C o u n y BiogcographicRegion, South West Queensland. Unpublished report to Department of Environment and Heritage: Brisbanc MacLeod, N.D., 1990. Issues of sizc andviability ofpastoral holdings in the western division of New South Wales. Range. J., 12(2): 67-78. Miles R.. 1988. Pasture deeradation. Pn 22-25 in An introduction to southwest Queensland. Ahandbook prepared by the QuoenslandDepartment of Primary Industries: Charleville. Miles, R.L., 1991.~elanddegradationsituation of the mulga lands of southwest Qucensland. in Papers ofArid land Administrators Conference: Charleville, April 1990. Mills, J.R., 1980. Land Systems in Western Arid kegion Land Use Study Part 2. Technical Bulletin No. 22, Division of Land Utilisation, Qveensland Department of Primary Industries: Bdsbanc. Mills, J;R., 1986. Degradation and rehabilitation of the Mulga systems. Pp 79-83 in Mulga Lands. Pp 79-83 ed by P.S. Sattler. Royal Society of Queensland Symposium, Brisbane. - Mills. J.R.. 1989. ManagcmunlofMulga Lands in far south west Queenrland Prop3 Repod, Qucensland Dcpartmenl olPrimary Industries: Brisbane. Mills, J.R:, Turner, E.J. and ~altabiano,T., 1989. Land Degradation in south west Queensland. Project Report Q089008, Queensland Depanment of Primary Industries: Brisbane. Mills, J.R. and Lee, A,, 1990. Land Systems in westem Arid Region Land Usc Study -Part 3. Technical Bulletin No. 29, Division of Land Utilisation. Queensland De~anmentof Primary Industries: Brisbane. Morrish, B. 1996. An eculogical prrspctivc on Caope~rCrcck. Windornh workshop. 3-5 September 1996. The Ausrrolian Rangeland Socier) Xonge hfanogc,nenr Newslerler 96(3): . . 16-17. .~ o i t o n S.R., , 1990. The impact of European settlement on the vertebrate animals of arid Australia: a conceptual model. Proc. Ecdl. Soc. Ausr. 16: 201-13. Morton, S.R., Stafford-smith,D.M., Friedel, M.H., Griffen, G.E. andpickup, G., 1995. The stewardship of arid Australia: ecology and landscape management. J. Env. Manage., 43: 195-217. Neldner, V.J., 1984. ~egCtationS u ~ v ~ofyQueensland - South Central Queensland. Botany Bulletin No. 3. Queensland Department of Primary Industries: Brisbani. Passmarc,. J.G.I., and Brown, C.G., 1992. Property size and rangeland degradation in the Queensland mulga rangelands. R.ange.J., 14(1): 925. Pickard, J., 1994. Land degradation and land conservatson in the aridzone: grazing is the problem ...and the cure. Pp 131-37 in: Conservation biolaev -,in Australia and Oceaniaed bv C. Morilzand J. Kikkawa Po. 131-37. Surrey Bealty and Sons: Chipping Norton. pressland, A.J., 1976. Possible effects of removal of mulga on rangelands stability in south west Queensland.Allst. Rottgei. J.. 1:24-30. Pressey, R.L. and Nicholls, A.O., 1989.Application of anumerical algorithm totheselection of reserv,es insemi-arid New South Wales.Biol. Come,: 50: 263-78. Fressey, R.L. 1990. Clearing and conservation in the Western Division of New South Wales. Nor. P o r k J. 34(66): . . 16-24. Purdie, R.W., 1985. Nature Conservation Sualegy - Mulga Lands. General repon and findings. Report to Queensland National Parks and Wildlife Service: Brisbane. Purdie, R.W., Blick, R. and Balten, M.P., 1986. Selection of a conservation rescrvc network in the MulgaBiogeographicRegionof south-western Queensland, Austmlia. Biological Cottsenrotion 38: 369-384. Queensland'sPreliminary Tree Clearing Policy, 1995. Policy document, December 12 1995. Queensland Government: B~isbane. Reu, S., 1995. Assessment and use of native grasses for rangeland rehabilitation in central Australia. TlteAusrralion Ra~~gelandSociety Range MorxogenlenfNewslener. 95(3): 1-2. Rilman, ~ . ~ , ' 1 9 9Structural 5. Vegetation Data: a ~pcifidaiionsManual for theMurray DarlingBasin ProjectM305. New South Wales Department of Land and Water Conservation, Land Information Centre: Bathunt. Robemhaw, J.D., 1995. The role of rabbits in Mulgaland degradation. Pp 163-168 bz Ecological research and managemcnl in tho MulgaLnnds ed by M. PagiandT.Beutel. University of Queensland, Gatton College: Gatlon. ~ u s s e l M.J., ~ , Young, R.A. ~ e m c a t tK.E., , Alcock, K.M., Glassop, w.J., Pitt, K.M., McKilligan, N.G. and McCannell, P., 1992. Planning and monitoring of habitat retention in Qucensland. Unpublished report to Australian Nature Conservation Agency, ESP Project 39. University of Southern QueeGland: Toowoomba. Sattler, P., 1991. Natureconservation in westernQueenrland. Occasional paper 1. Queensland Department of Environment and Heritage: Brisbane. Salllcr, P., 1995. Emlogical sustainable nl3nagemml and the protection 01 blodivcrsity in the Mulga Lands-thr. neud for anrategicvicw Pp 1-12 in Emlogical research aod management in the Mulca Lands edbv M. page a n h Beutel. Univenity of~uecnsland,Gall& Collegc: Gaiton. Saunders, D.A., Hobbs, R.J. and Margules, C.R., 1991. Biological consequences of ecosystem fragmentation: A review. Consem Biol. 5: 18-32. Schodd*, R.. IY94.Thc bird fauna of western New South Wdes: geography and slatus. Pp 107-122 m Future of thc fauna of western new South Wales, ed by D. Lunncy. S. Hand. P. RecdandD. Butchcr.Tranuetionr of the R O Zoologi&l ~ ~ Society of New South Wales. Surrey Bealty and Sons: Sydney. Thackway, R. and Cresswell, I.D, 1995. Interim Biogeographic Regionalisation For Australia: A Framework for Setting Priorities in the National Reserves System Cooperative Program. Version 4.0. Australian Nature Conservation Agency: Canberra. Tongway, D.J. and Ludwig, J.A., 1990. Vegetation and soil patterning in semi-arid mulga lands of eastern Australia. Aust. J. of Ecol. 15: 23-34. Tongway. D.J. and Ludwig, J.A. 1995 Funclton and dysfunction in mulga woodland^. Pp 85-90 in Ecological rescarch and management in the MulgaLandsed by M. Page a n d T Bculul. Univcrsily ofOuccnsland. Gaton College: datton. Toseland, B., 1993. Goals are a - a n industry perspective. In Proceedings of the national workshop on feral goat management: planning for action, 9-11 October 1992, Dubbo, New South Wales ed by D. Freudenbe~ger.Bureau of Resource Sciences: Canberra. Walker, K.F., 1985. A review of the ecological effects of river regulation in Australia. Hydrobiol. 125: 111-29. Wells, G. D., Williams, R.D. and Taylor, P.M., 1995. ~ueensland's "offpark" natureconservationscheme. in People and Nature Conservation ed by A. Bennett, G. Backhause, T. Clark Transactions of the Royal Zoological Society New South Wales. Surrey Bcatty & Sans: Sydney. Williams, R., 1995. The south west strategy: An integrated regional adjustment and recovery program for south west Queensland and the Westem Division afNew South Wales. Pp 13-18 in Ecological research and management in the Mulga Lands ed by M. Page and T. Beutel. University of Quccnsland, Galton College: Gatton. Wilson, A.D: 1991. The influence of kangaroo and forage supply on sheep productivity in thesemi-arid woodlands. Rntrgel. J. 13: 69-80. Wilson, B.A. and Egan, S.A. (1996) Model for bioregional management: Mulga Lands south west Queensland. Final report tq the Australian Nature Conservation Agency for Phase 1 of the National Reserve Systems Cooperative Program Project N302. Department of Environment: Brisbane. Wilson G.R., Dexter, N., O'Brian, P. and Bomford, M., 1992. Pest animals in Australia. A survey of introduced wild animals. Bureau of Rural Resources, Department of Primary InduSlries and Energy: Canberra. mse, G., 1995. W.E.S.T.~OOO The Ausrrolion Rangeland Society Range Manoge!ne,tr Newsletter 95(3): 10. W~tt,B.G. andBeeton, J.S., 1995.The regional implications of 'naturalness' inprateaedarea management; acasestudy from the Queensland Mulga Lands. Pp 177-182 in Ecological research and management in the MulgaLands ed by M. PageandT. Beutel. University of Qucensland, Gatton College: Gatton. resource Witt, G.B. and Pahl, L., 1995. Mulgaland communities of south-west Queensland as habitat for Koalas. Pp 177-82 in Ecological research and management in the Mulga Lands ed by M. Page and T. Bcutel. University of Queensland, Gatton College: Gatlon. Young, M.D, Gunningham, N., Elix, I., Lambcrt,I., Howard, B, Graborky, P and McCrone, E., 1996. Reimbursing the Future: An evaluation of motivational, voluntary, price-based, propcny-right andregulatory inccntiv- for ths sonrsrunlion of biodivsrsiy Biodivcnitr Scri~. paper No. j.Biodiversity unit, Department of Environment, Sport and Territories: Canberra. . Chapter 20 Any future for nature conservation within the industrial landscape?: case studies from Central Queensland. ROBERT.EVANS ',PETER JOHNSTONE : ALISTAIR MELZER AND LAWRIE WADE ' in recent years, industry in Central Queensland has directed resources towards the re-establishment of natural processes within disturbed industriai landscapes ieeneraliv mines1 and the development of management regimes which preserve natural systems aionEside the industrial site (usually as buffer zones). ihese natural systems and rehabiiitatedyands have the potential to act as conserCation zonesiithin an industrial landscape. This paper looks at how three businesses, a mine, a power station and a smelter, are seeking to recreate or preserve natural biological systems on or adjacent to their industrial lands and discusses the conservation value of their actions. The biota each industry seeks to preserve are generally described. The management strategies being employed and the environmental philosophy that they work within are outlined. In all three oreanisations. the success and direction of their conservation stratedes - has been affected. and in some cases hindered.. bv. the legislative environment as well as the associated political, bureaucratic and business culture. it is concluded that conservation on industrial lands cannot be guaranteed beyond the life of the current industrial activity unless government, departmental bureaucracy and business are able to establish mechanisms which successfully inculcate the second generation industrial activity wiih the "conservation cilture". Key words: industry, rehabilitation, conservation, biodiversity INTRODUCTION I n 1992, the Prime Minister's Science Council considered a paper on biodiversity (Anon. 1992). This paper was prepared in two parts. Part one defined biodiversity in Australia, discussed its significance and considered what was happening to it. Part two considered its' maintenance and management in Australia. The paper identified the factors causing loss of biodiversity as: clearing of natural vegetation; fragmentation of habitat; land and water degradation from agricultural, industrial, and urban impacts; introduced plants, animals and disease; and uncontrolled exploitation and trade in wildlife. The paper points out that Australia's highly variable climate as well as likely future climate change will compound the effects of these factors on biodiversity. The management ofAustralian biodiversity was seen to consist of three components: management based on natural bioclimatic regions, not state boundaries; management directed, where possible, towards indigenous species and communities, but also embracing successful new combinations or associations of species; managing all parts ofAustralia and including landscape management as well as the management of the species and genetic components of biodiversity. This management includes, but extends beyond, protected areas. Indeed the effectiveness of protected areas as conservatories of biodiversity may be dependent on the nature of the environment beyond the reserve. This offpark landscape has a structure which determines the "connectivity" or corridors between reserves. The paper ' . to thescience Committee describes the three most common types of corridors as natural (streams and other topographic features), remnants, and revegetation areas. Industry is directly involved in the fate ofAustralia's biodiversity as it commonly contributes to the loss of biodiversity by clearing or fragmenting habitat, produces biproducts which result in gradual habitat degradation, and facilitates the spread of exotic plants and animals. It has, however, the potential to be involved in the maintenance of biodiversity as it frequently retains parcels of land which are not disturbed and on which the industry provides defacto protection to the surviving natural systems by excluding agriculture and other human activity, and creates new ecological systems or associations directly through rehabilitation and indirectly on abandoned industrial lands which may provide habitat or dispersal corridors for components of the native biodiversity. In Central Queensland, at least, these industrial lands are generally located within disturbed landscapes. Since these lands are outside of the established reserve system they are available for repeated reuse for various anthropomorphic purposes. Consequently their role in the maintenance of biodiversity and conservation outside of reserves is dependent on the preservation of key attributes over time and in the face of continued landuse pressures. This paper considers the potential value and likely sustainability of management for conservation within industrial settings and uses a coal mine, a power station and an aluminium smelter as case studies from Central Queensland. Slanwell Power Station, Ausla Electric, PO Box 5895, RMC, Qld 4315 Curragh Queensland Minlng Ltd, Private Mail Bag, Blackwater, Qld 4717 Centre for Land and Water ResourceDevelopment, Faculty of Applied Science, Central Queensland Univenity, Rockhampton, Qid 4702. Boyne Smelters Ltd, PO Box 524, Gladstone, Qld 4680. Pages 115-122 in CONSERVATION OUTSIDE NATURE RESERVES, ed. by P. Hale and D. Lamb. Centre for Canservat~onBiology, The Unlvenity of Queensland. 1997. 116 EVANS, JOHNSTONE, MELZER AND WADE: NATURE CONSERVATION WlTHlN THE INDUSTRIAL LANDSCAPE THE COAL MINE: Curragh Queensland Mining The Curragh open cut coal mine is located on the Tropic of Capricorn, approximately 200 km west of Rockhampton (Figure 1). The mine is managed by ARC0 Coal Australia Inc. who is also the major co-venture partner in Curragh Queensland Mining Ltd. The mine commenced in 1983 and is expected to continue until 2008. The mine lease covers about 4,500 ha, although - onlv 3,000 ha will be disturbed by mining operations. Several environmental reports are required to be submitted by the coal mining companies and must be approved by the Department of Minerals and Energy in order for the mine to continue to operate. Curragh has an approved Environmental Management Overview Strategy (EMOS) which updates the original environmental impact assessment as well as addressing environmental protection and rehabilitation for the life of the mine. It also has approval for the Plan of Operations, under the Mineral Resources Act (1989 - 1990) which details the manner and methods of rehabilitation, in compliance with the approved EMOS. - Rehabilitation design It is proposed that rehabilitation will: establish a stable landform and drainage system that will minimise soil erosion and the potential for contamination of the natural creek systems, Figurr I. Localiun of the study riles, Curragh Coal Minc, Slanwcll Power Station and Boync Smelle,~,withill Central Quecnsland.Thc dislribulion of open atcoal miner intheBowcn Basin isillsoshown(rnodified hom aini%ppru%idud by the Quucnslilnd Dcpvrlmcnlof Mvncrulr and c8lergy,Ruckhomplon). EVANS, JOHNSTONE, MELZER AND WADE: NATURE CONSERVATION WITHIN THE INDUSTRIALLANDSCAPE establish a native vegetation cover that will develop into a new self sustaining association, and provide a vegetation structure that will allow native fauna to colonise the post-mining landscape. The aim of mine management is to achieve landform stability. Consequently the spoil is reshaped to produce slopes as close as practical to equilibrium with natural forces. There will, however, always be some erosion and the management procedures used are subject to ongoing research and continual review to increase their effectiveness. Revegetation can aid in erosion control. The strategy adopted to date has been to replace topsoil to a depth of 20 cm and in strips approximately 10 m wide along the slope. These strips are alternated with strips of bare spoil of similar width. Grasses are seeded onto the topsoil while native woody species are seeded onto the spoil. Deep ripping is undertaken at the same time. The top edge of each topsoil strip is oriented at a grade of 0.5 percent off the contour and the topsoil banks are established along the top edge of each strip. The topsoil banks provide .eood erosion resistance. Grasses nrovaeate auicklv on the topsoil and the native woody species have a competition free environment for establishment on the bare spoil. It is expected that over time there will be a movement of species between the bare spoil and the topsoil strips and that the topsoil strips will provide soil microbiota for the developing communities on the bare spoil. Drainage lines and pondages have been built into the landscaping to control erosion and water flow as well as generate wetland habitat within the post-mining landscape. Currently fallen timber is being stockpiled for later distribution as a structural element within the rehabilitated landscape. . .- . Vegetation of pre-mined a n d remaining undisturbed land Brigalow communities originally covered most of the lease area. Much of it was cleared for grazing. Selective logging occurred in the remaining wooded areas. Brigalow (Acacia harpophylla) dominates much of the landscape generally as a low to tall shrubland. In places original Brigalow, Coolibah (Eucalyptus coolibah), Poplar Box (E. populnea), Dawson Gum (E. cambageana) and Napunya (E. thozetiana) occur as open forest. The improved pasture species Buffel Grass (Cenchrus ciliaris) dominates the ground storey along with Rhodes Grass (Chloris gayana) in places. Along the original drainage lines a midstorey of Terminalia and bauhinia remains - in places forming a seasonally dense community. Through the lease timber, pushed during pre-mine clearing for grazing, lies in windrows. Some of these unmined lands continue to be grazed under lease. Fauna of the mine lease Detailed fauna surveys were conducted on the mine lease over a ten day period in each of three seasons - dry spring (November 1994), winter (June 1995) and wet autumn (March-April 1996). Observations of birds were made at dawn, dusk and throughout the day. Some nocturnal observations were made during spotlighting 117 surveys. Bats were surveyed by spotlighting and, during the last trip, mist, wire and harp nets.All other vertebrate fauna were sampled using: Elliot trapping, drift fences with pit traps, spotlighting, and intensive diurnal trapping. The survey yielded a total of 197 species. Birds dominated the survey with 135 species in 16 orders.There were 33 species of lizards and snakes including the vulnerable Paradelma orientalis, 19 species of mammals, nine amphibians and one turtle. Conservation significance Two vertebrate species of designated conservation significance were located on the mine. These are Lophoictinia isura (Square-tailed Kite) listed as rare in Division 2 of Part 1 of Schedule 4 of the Nature Conservation (Wildlife) Regulations of the Nature Conservation Act 1992, and Paradelma orientalis (Central Queensland Legless Lizard) which is listed as vulnerable in Division 6 of Part 1 of Schedule 3 of the Nature Conservation (Wildlife) Regulations of the Nature Conservation Act 1992. The brigalow communities on the mine represent small remnants and regenerating patches of a number of regional ecosystems. They are yet to be classified in terms consistent with those used by the Queensland Department of Environment and Heritage (QDEH 1995). However, given the extent of development of the Brigalow Biogeographic Region (Nix 1994) these remnants must have conservation significance-not necessarily as pristine examples of regional ecosystems but as habitat and refugia for the component plants and animals. The revegetated lands will form a new association of plants, animals and soils. The conservation role for these new habitats is yet to evolve. Currently they are used by various species including the grey kangaroo, swamp wallaby and dingo as well as a suite of grassland birds and raptors. An invertebrate fauna community has developed, and along with it has come a population of frogs and fossorial reptiles. Although the landscape is still evolving, the mine has produced a complex of wetlands, woodlands, grasslands, hills, plains and valleys with a variety of substrates from fine mudstone and shale to sandstone rocky ridges. Adjacent landowners already express concern at the dingoes and kangaroos that seek refuge within the mine lease as well as casting an envious eye on the perceived grazing potential on and around the mine. As herbicides and cultivation clear the remnant and regrowth woody vegetation from the surrounding land Curragh Coal Mine has become a conservation island in a sea of agricultural land. Operating philosophy Agricultural production wasthe principle pre-mining landuse within the mining lease. This took the form of grazing and grain production and most of the land (74 %) had been cleared for these purposes. Consequently the environmental sensitivity of the pre-mining lease area was 118 EVANS, JOHNSTONE, MELZER AND WADE: NATURE CONSERVATTON WITHIN THE INDUSTRIAL LANDSCAPE low. The current EMOS objective is that the original land capability of the area should be maintained. This, however, will not be so in the short-term. Blasting and subsequent overburden removal and dumping changes the nature of the overburden and inverts the strata creating a new substrate. This new substrate has an increased volume which is not offset by the bulk of the coal that is removed. Consequently the resultant landform is higher than the original land form. Also although the replaced topsoil and the new substrate are generally suitable for the establishment of many species of grass, trees and shrubs, a raised, artificial and somewhat fragile environment replaces the pre-mining gently undulating landscape. Given the apparent sensitivity of the post-mining landscape, Curragh believes that it is inappropriate to pursue the original land capacity for the rehabilitated land. Rather the mine will aim for a "new native" ecosystem which will include habitat reconstruction. Towards this aim Curragh has become involved with the recovery plans for the endangered Bridled Nailtail Wallaby. Formally common through much of central eastern Australia this species is currently restricted to one small area (Taunton ScientificReserve) about 100 km east of Curragh Coal Mine. The mine is located within the former range of the wallaby. Curragh is aiming to recreate habitat for the wallaby as part of the revegetation process. Establishment of overstorey trees is proceeding successfully. The next stage is to re-establish an understorey with structural characteristics that provide shelter essential for the survival of the nailtail wallaby. Irrespective of whether the wallaby is eventually released to the site or not the resulting vegetation structure will provide a relatively complex habitat which should suit many other faunal species. However, Curragh is required to ensure that the rehabilitated landscape can be cleared and is capable of supportinggrazing by domesticstockand to future tenancy by graziers in line with the former land use. The operating philosophy of the mine is constrained by State Government authority. Whatever initiatives the mine may take to preserve landscapes, flora or fauna, ultimately the Department of Minerals and Energy determines the enduse of the land and consequently its future conservation value. THE POWER STATION: AUSTA Electric ' Stanwell Power Station is located about 28 km by road south west of Rockhampton (Figure 1). It is owned and operated by AUSTAElectric(formally the Queensland Electricity Commission). The power station is sited on about 1450 ha of land. Power generation commenced in 1992 and the station has an expected life of 30 to 50 years. The power station and associated infrastructure cover some 460 ha leaving about 920 ha of wooded hills and ephemeral creek lines in the east and 70 ha of largely cleared farm lands on flat to undulating alluvial plains in the west. Again this land is dissected by an ephemeral creek. Flora a n d F a u n a A detailed investigation of the flora and fauna of this site has not been undertaken. What data there is was brought together by Melzer (1994) and the Stanwell Power Station Environmental Impact Assessment (QEC 1985). Melzer identified five ecosystem types in the eastern portion of the power station land with at least one other system (Eucalyptuspopulnea woodland) occurring in the western portion (QEC 1985). These are: Acacia rhodoxylon woodland or open forest with a sparse midstorey and sparse to open grassy understorey; semi-evergreen vine thicket; Open woodland of Eucalyptus crebra, E. melanophloia and E. erythrophloia with a grassy understorey of Themeda triandra and other grasses; Tall open forest of E. raveretiana, E. tereticornis, E. tessellaris, Melaleuca nervosa and Casuarina cunninghamiana; Woodland of E. tereticornis, E. tessellaris, E. crebra, E. tessellaris var. dallachyana, E. erythrophloia and E. melanophloia with a shrubby midstorey and grassy understorey; and Woodland of E. populnea, E. tessellaris and E. erythrophloia with a shrubby midstorey ofEremophila mitchellii, Grevillea striata and Geijera parviflora. Conservation significance The buffer zone surrounding the power station offers at least two significant conservation opportunities. Firstly, the conservation status of E. raveretiana is poor. This species is classed as vulnerable on a state and national basis due to its restricted distribution. Regionally it is poorly conserved. The conservation of this species on the site will be a significant addition to the regional protection of this species. Secondly, softwoodscrubs (includingsemievergreen vine thickets) are not well conserved in the region with less than 5 percent (QDEH estimate) of the original scrubs remaining in Central Queensland. On that basis the conservation of the small scrubs within the buffer zone is a significant addition to the overall reserve. The conservation value of these patches is further enhanced by the maintenance of their natural context. The surrounding Eucalyptus communities are relatively undisturbed. Operating philosophy The then QEC perceived the power station as having the potential to provide a positive environmental benefit (through the management of fire and weeds as well as the removal of grazing pressures) to the 990 ha of land not disturbed by the construction of the power station and associated infrastructure (QEC 1985). They were considered to have a positive attitude towards appropriate conservation and management of the remaining natural systems within the land which forms the buffer zone around the plant (Melzer 1994). Despite this positive conservation ' EVANS, JOHNSTONE, MELZER AND WADE: NATURE C01NSERVATION WITHIN THE INDUSTRIAL LANDSCAPE 119 eastern lands are considered to have some conservation value and, in August 1992, QEC and the Queensland Department of Environment and Heritage (now Queensland Department of the Environment QDoE) commenced negotiations to draw up a Conservation Agreement (see Queensland Nature Conservation Act 1992) and establish a Nature Refuge over some 500 ha of thisland. AUSTAElectric has freehold title over the land on which the power station is built. The corporation's economists see this land as an asset from which potential profits could be made - in the long term after the power station is decommissioned, and in the short to medium term where land adjacent to the power station could he made available to ancillary industry which is able to utilise the biproducts of the power station. Consequently the developing land management strategy aims to balance the need to develop ancillary industry, which consumes industrial biproducts, with the desire to maintain the environmental and conservation values identified within the buffer zone. This environmental attitude is reflected in the concept of Industrial Ecology which is cifculating within AUSTA Electric. Industrial Ecology views industry as an interwoven system of production and consumption analogous to food webs and energy cycles in nature and appears to work on the assumption that industrialisation is the ultimate driver of the global environmental crisis (Tibbs 1993) - not overpopulation. These industrial food webs and energy cycles must interface with the natural global ecosystem, and represent a reorientation from conquering nature to co-operating with nature. According to Tibbs (1993) this requires an understanding of natural ecosystem dynamics at all levels as well as the resilience of these ecosystems - all of which requires real time information on current environmental conditions. Economic arguments limiting the inalienable commitment of land for conservation purposes have to be assessed against the public benefits to AUSTA Electric derived from its environmental commitment. In 1992, as QEC, AUSTA Electric was a willing partner in the establishment of a Conservation Agreement over 500 ha of land within the buffer zone. Both QEC and the QDEH were agreed that the agreement should be established. Despite this agreement it took until September 1996 to put the Conservation Agreement in place. The reasons for the delay in processing this agreement are beyond the scope of this paper. The case, however, illustrates how apparently inefficient government procedures may threaten an opportunity to conserve land with high biodiversity value. In theory, all outputs from industry are considered resources for other industry or components of the natural environment. There is no concept of waste. T h e surrounding natural environment is understood to the point where permitted outfalls can be assimilated without producing any lasting disturbance to the natural processes. In the case of the Stanwell Power Station an industry or natural system would be sought to utilise the CO, , waste heat, waste water and flyash biproduct. Clearly a lot of research needs to be done to fully install industrial ecology in the work place. The concept, however, provided a basis for strategic environmental planning within industry and, within AUSTAElectric, provides an atmosphere conducive to environmental conservation within the buffer zone. During the years that the ConservationAgreementwas being developed the Environmental Protection Act (1994) was passed and various Environmental Protection Policies have been drafted and circulated for comment. One of these, Version 4.1 EnvironmentalProtection (Noise) Policy (1995), sets out draft standard noise limit criteria for noise received at a "noise sensitive place" (see page 19 schedule 1of Draft E.P. (Noise) P. 1995). Ag'noise sensitive place" is defined in the draft policy as, amongst others, a "protected place" (see page 40, Draft E.P.(Noise) P. 1995). Within the Nature Conservation Act 1992 a Nature Refuge established under a Conservation Agreement is a "Protected Area9'(see Page 24, Section 14, Division 1of Part 4 of the Nature Conservation Act 1992) and as such is a "noise sensitive place" within the context of the draft Environmental Protection (Noise) Policy 1995. As the noise emanating from Stanwell Power Station is likely to exceed the criteria set in Schedule 1 of this policy any decision to establish aNature Refuge over the eastern sector of the Buffer Zone would automatically place AUSTA Electric in breach of the policy - if the draft is approved. Following discussions with QDoE, a condition will be written into Stanwell Power Station's operating licence which will overide the provisions in Version 4.1 Environmental Protection (Noise) Policy (1995) relating fo a "noise sensitive place" but only as they apply to the proposed nature refuge. This "solution" to the legislative impasse, however, may be open to dispute in law. attitude there remains the possibility of significant impacts on the surrounding environment - primarily in the effects of gaseous nitrous and sulphurous oxide outfalls on the surrounding vegetation (Melzer 1994, QEC 1985). The Currently AUSTA Electric has programs in place to develop a land management strategy which will identify the key environmental values of the adjacent lands and establish mechanisms which maintain these values alongside future landuse and current management practice. Limits to conservation within AUSTA Electric AUSTAElectric is a Government owned corporation that builds, owns and operates most of Queensland's power stations. As the former Queensland Electricity Commission's Generation Business Unit, AUSTAElectric supplies about 82 percent of Queensland's power. Now, as a corporation, it is marketing its expertise, skills and resources nationally and internationally to provide aprofitable return to its share holders while meeting the clients needs and public environmental expectations. Without a formal conservation caveat on the land title, some reserve system in place or a legislative constraint on certain land uses any conservation initiatives undertaken - 120 -- - - - -- EVANS, JOHNSTONE, MELZER AND WADE: NATURE CONSERVATION WITHIN THE INDUSTRIAL LANDSCAPE by AUSTAElectric would remain in place for theduration of the corporation's interest in the land. The long term fate of conservation measures within the Stanwell Power Station land would then depend on the attitudes of subsequent land users. THE ALUMINIUM SMELTER: Boyne Smelters Limited Boyne Smelters Limited owns and operates an aluminium smelter at Boyne Island to the south of Gladstone (Figure 1).The smelter produces approximately 250,000 tonnes of aluminium per annum in the form of remelt ingot and extrusion billet. The capacity of the smelter is currently being expanded to 475,000 tonnes per annum by the addition of a third cell line. The smelter commencedproduction in 1982 and is expected to continue operation for a minimum of thirty years. Alumina is delivered to the smelter from Queensland Alumina by conveyor. The alumina is added to cells containing a molten cryolite (sodium aluminium fluoride) bath. The alumina is dissolved in the bath and the aluminium and oxygen components of the alumina are separated electrolytically. The aluminium collects at the cathode and is tapped from the cell and cast as ingot or billet. During the smelting process fumes containing fluoride are emitted from the bath. These fumes are collected and ducted to a dry scrubber where the fluorides are adsorbed onto the incoming alumina. Despite high collection (>97%) and scrubbing (>99%) efficiencies there are sufficient "fugitive" emissions of fluorides to have an impact on vegetation in the vicinity of the smelter. The phytotoxic nature of fluorides is well documented (Doley 1986) and the extent of damage adjacent to the Boyne Island smelter has been described in Doley (1994). The smelter, associated infrastructure and wharf are situated on 600 ha of land on the northern edge of Boyne Island and on South Trees Island. The land straddles the boundaries of Calliope Shire and Gladstone City and is bordered by residential areas (the town of Boyne Island) to the south and by Queensland Alumina's red mud dams in the north and west. The remaining border is formed by Port Curtis and includes approximately eight km of beach front. The smelter and infrastructure occupy approximately 150 ha. The remainder of the land contains a relatively intact mosaic of plant communities. These plant communities range from beach strand and coastal vine thickets to dry Eucalyptus woodlands (Melzer, Brushe and Ray 1995). The degree of disturbance due to smelter activities (construction and fluoride emissions) and other people pressures (recreational and urban) varies throughout the extent of the landholding. Flora a n d fauna Two hundred and sixty two species and sub-species of plants were identified from 35 sites within the buffer zone. Of these 55 (21% of species) were exotic. Twenty nine structural forms of vegetation were recognised within nine assemblages. One of these assemblages, low microphyll vine forest 1 thicket, comprises forms of rainforest. The remainder were non-rainforest forms. Two of these, the E. tessellaris woodlands, are closely allied to the rainforest forms. There were 23 Orders of vertkbrates identified including 15 Orders of birds (137 species), six Orders of mammals (12 species), one Order of reptiles (25 species) and one Order of amphibians (8 species of frogs). These and invertebrates identified. There were 18 insect and nine non-insect invertebrate Orders identified.Voucher species have been determined'for ants (66 species) and spiders (124 species) while the flies and wasps are the subject of ongoing study at the University of Queensland. A more comprehensive report on the fauna of the buffer zone is provided by Melzer, Brushe and Ray (1995). Conservation significance No rare, threatened, vulnerable or restricted plant species were collected from the buffer zone. The low microphyll vine thickets and related forms are, however, of conservationsignificance. Low microphyll thickets and forests occur in small stands along 240 km of coast from theTropicof Capricorn to the Bundaberg region (Young and McDonald 1987). Their ecology is poorly understood (Gillison 1987) and they are poorly represented in nature conservation reserves. In 1991 only 22 ha was conserved in Central Queensland (Melzer 1993).Although the other forests, woodlands and grasslands are not considered to be of significant conservation value at a regional, state or national level they are highly significant at a local level. This complex of relatively undisturbed vegetation, in conjunction with adjoining land under local government control, has been isolated by ongoing industrial and urban development and consequently provides a reserve of flora and fauna within a highly alienated environment. As mentioned above the Eucalyptus tall open woodlands are considered to have only local conservation significance. The vulnerable lizard, Paradelma orientalis, has been found here and consequently the woodlands must be considered to have conservation significance as habitat for this lizard. In all one vulnerable and three rare fauna species were associated with the buffer zone. The vulnerable species, Paradelma orientalis, has already been mentioned. The rare species were all birds. The duck Tadorna radjah (radjah shelduck) was using a modified creek line within the buffer zone. Both the sooty oystercatcher (Haematopus fuliginosus) and the eastern curlew (Numenius madagascariensis) were sighted along the beach and associated mud flats. Although not strictly within the buffer zone, these two species would be affected by activities "within the zone such as vehicle activity, dogs and fishing. they both roost above the high tide mark and so are within the buffer zone. , EVANS, JOHNSTONE, MELZERAND WADE: NATURE ICONSERVATION WITHIN THE INDUSTRIAL LANDSCAPE The conservation status and regional significance of the local fauna cannot be fully assessed in isolation from the plant communities and environment within which they live. So, although the majority of animals identified here are not considered to have any current conservation significance, the fauna is an essential component of the plant communities they occupy. Clearly Boyne Smelters Ltd has a very good opportunity to make a contribution to nature conservation outside of reserves which would be significant at all levels of.the community. Operating philosophy Boyne Smelters has adopted an environmental policy which requires it to minimise the impact of operations on the air, water, and land through responsible management and control of plant processes. Tlie company recognises the impact of its emissions on the surrounding environment and has established a comprehensive monitoring programme which exceeds the requirements of the licences granted by the Queensland Department of Environment. The land surrounding the smelter was originally retained as a buffer zone. While appropriate environmental management requires that a buffer zone is maintained to minimise the impact of an equipment malfunction, the limiting of impacts on plant communities by emission reduction has provided the opportunity for the land to be managed for secondary roles. These secondary roles are consistent with the corporate environmental policy. In exploring the way in which these opportunities may be realised, Boyne Smelters has commenced the preparation , of a land management plan. The steps taken in developing the land management plan have been identifying: the spatial limits of the land reserve, key stakeholders in the management of the land, and the physical and biological attributes of the land. The environmental values and land-use constraints of the buffer zone were then determined and, in the light of this determination, the land was divided into four functional zones. These zones are: Zone I -Industrial. This land is the footprint of the smelter and adjacent highly disturbed areas. This area will primarily b e managed to minimise the transport of pollutants, control weeds and prevent erosion. The management of this area will be undertaken in accordance with the standards and procedures documented in the Environmental Management Plan. Zone 2 - Neighbourhood. This is the land between Zone 1-Industrial and the residential area of BoyneIsland and some adjacent land. The area is required to be managed within the context that the key stake holders are the residents living adjacent to Boyne Smelters Ltd land and the users of the bikelpedestrian way. This zone is a key area in the management of the vulnerable lizard Paradel'ma orientalis. Zone 3 -Conservation A. This is land which is north of Zones 1 and 2. It contains biological attributes worthy 121 of conservation but is moderately to highly impacted by smelter emissions and to some extent recreational activity from the nearby residential areas. Zone 4 - Conservation B. This land is north of Zone 3 and, like Zone 3, it has biological attributes worthy of conservation. This zone contains the lands furthest from the smelter and consequently is minimally impacted by smelter emissions. Recreational activity impacts on the coastal portions of this zone. By dividing the land area into four zones and managing each for its potential benefits while addressing the constraints existing on it, it is believed that it will be possible to achieve the primary requirements of smelter operation while simultaneously providing a valuable environmental asset to the community. A key aspect of this asset will be its conservation values including the ability to ensure the retention of the low microphyll vine thickets and the provision of habitat for a vulnerable species. The management of this land, in conjunction with the land of key neighbouring landholders, has potential to provide a "green-belt" from the beach strand and mangrove communities at the north of Boyne island to the open woodlands of the drv rockv "Lillv Hills" in the south. If achieved this would provide a green-belt along the southern entry of Port Curtis and the industrial City of Gladstone. Boyne Smelters Ltd has freehold title over most of the land under its control. So, if the company retains its current environmental position there should be no constraints on conservation practice during the life of the smelter. However, the conservation status of this land is not guaranteed at the end of smelter !ife or if there is a change of ownership. These three case studies indicate clearly the conservation value of some industrial landscapes. Each organisation provides defacto habitat protection for some species and ecosystems under threat elsewhere and they provide refuges for plants and animals of lesser conservation significance - allowing their persistence in highly alienated environments. Currently the philosophy operating within each organisation favours active management to maintain existing conservation values or to create new conservation opportunities on rehabilitated lands. So- what is the future fo; nature conservation within the industrial landscape? These three case studies illustrate the problems for long term conservation on industrial lands. Both AUSTA Electric and Boyne Smelters Ltd have freehold title over their 1and.The threats tothe continuity of the conservation ethos on these lands come with a move tosecond generation industry or a change in owners. One solution is to have the conservation ethos written into the land title by negotiating a conservation agreement with the QDoE and having the land in question declared a protected area (e.g. a nature refuge) under the Queensland Nature Conservation Act 1992. If the process is protracted, as in the AUSTAElectric - 122 EVANS, JOHNSTONE, MELZER AND WADE: NATURE COIVSERVATTON WITHIN THE INDUSTRIAL LANDSCAPE case discussed previously, such an option is likely to be unattractive to most organisations. Furthermore, the provisions of the complex and conflicting legislation will discourage industry from entering into nature conservation agreements. An alternate strategy is evolving on Boyne Island. Consideration is being given to incorporating the buffer zone into a Boyne Island "Green-belt". This belt would incorporate the Boyne Smelters Ltd buffer zone, Queensland Alumina Ltd land, crown land currently controlled by the Queensland Lands Department, a conservation park controlled by the Queensland Department of Environment and Heritage and esplanades and recreation reserves controlled by Calliope Shire Council. How such a belt would be managed is yet to be considered. Once established, however, any secondary land user would inherit a community agreement with an unofficial, but public, duty of care to maintain the corridor. The case of the open-cut coal mine provides other problems. Where these mines are on leasehold land the Queensland Department of Minerals and Energy determines the post-mining land use.Traditionally the mine has been required to return the land to a state capable of supportingthe pre-mine land use.This is difficult to achieve in areasonable time frame-and if successful would negate the conservation benefits gained from re-establishing "natural systems" on the mine site. Currently the Queensland Department of Minerals and Energy is discussing allowing mines to establish "new natural systems" on rehabilitated sites. For such a change to be implemented, however, the Queensland Lands Department must be willing to accept the loss of revenue from these leases and must develop a policy to transform the title from lease-hold to some form of protected lands. In May 1995 there were 20 open-cut coal mines within Central Queensland. More mines are being developed. Each of these will leave a "mountain" of revegetation surrounded by a slim border of unmined land. If they are excluded from secondary use after mine life ends they will provide refugia for a variety of plants and animals within the intensively developed brigalow belt. Together these rcfugia could form an archipelago of at least 20 "islands" stretching from Theodore to Collinsville and west from Biloela to Clermont (Figure 1).The assemblages within each refuge would vary and, although containing a few species of contemporary consewation significance, would probably be dominated by species considered common today. It should not he assumed that any current conservation status is fixed. In time such refugia may be valuable repositories of regional biodiversity. Perhaps, after final decommissioning of the mine, the land should be managed by the QDoE under the National Parks and Wildlife Service, with some operating funds provided by the mine as part of the decommissioning process. Alternatively a RehabilitatedLands ManagementAuthority could be established (again funded by industry and government) with responsibility for ongoing management of the environmental and conservation aspects of the postindustrial landscapes throughout Queensland. REFERENCES Anon, 1992. Scientific aspects of major environmental issues: biodiversity.Off~ceoftheChiefScientis1, Department of lhe Prime Minister and Cabinet, Australian Government Printing Service, Canberra. Doley, D., 1986. Plant Melbourne. - fluoride relationships. lnkata Press, Doley, D., 1994. Vegetation responses to seasonal and operational conditions at an aluminium smelter. in Clean Air '94-Proceedings of the Clean Air Society of Australia and New Zealand 12th InternationalConfercnce, Promaco Conventions, Perlh. Gillison, A.N., 1987. The 'dry' rainforests of Terra Australis. in The rainforest legacy. Australian National Rainforest Study, Vol. 1, The nature, distribution and status of rainforest types. Pp. 305 321. Special Australian Heritage Publication Series 7 (1) , Australian Heritage Commission, Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra. - Melzer, A,, 1994. Evaluation of the proposed Slanwell Power Station nature refuge. Unpublished report by Central Queensland Environmental Surveys, Rockhampton Qld, for the Qld Department of Environment and Heritage. Melzer, A. I., Brushe, 1. and Rey, P., 1995. Vegetation of the Boyne Smelters Lld Buffer Zone. Areport to Boyne Smelters Ltd. Centre for Land arid Water Resource Development, Faculty of Applied Science, Central Queensland University, Rockhampton. Melzec,A., Houston, W., Clancy, N. Childs, L. and Rey, P., 1995. Fauna of the Boyne Smelters Ltd buffer zone. Centre for Land and Water Resource Development, Faculty of Applied Science, Central Queensland University, Rockhampton. Melzcr, R., 1993. Rainforests of the Central Coast Region. Unpublished report, Queensland Department of Environment and Heritage. Nix, H., 1994The Brigalow. inAustralian Environmental History: essays and cases. ed. by S. Dovers. Oxford University Press, Melbourne. QDEH, 1996. Conservation status of Queensland's bioregional ecosystems: draft summary. Queensland Department of Environment and Heritage, Brisbane, Qld. QEC, 1985. Stanwell Power Station-environmental impact assessment. Queensland Electricity Commission, Brisbane, Qld. Tibbs H., 1993. Industrial ~ c o l -o an ~ environmental ~ agenda for industry. Published report, Global Business Network (copy lodged with the library of Central Queensland University). Young, P.A.R., & McDonald, W.J.F., 1987.Thediitributio~composition and status of the rainforests of southern Queensland. in: The rainforest legacy. Australian National Rainforest Study, Vol. 1, The nature, distribution and status of rainforest types. Pp. 119 141. Special Australian Heritage Publication Series 7 (1) , Australian Heritage Commission, Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra. ,