Download Synopses of US Presidents

Synopses of the U. S. Presidents
George Washington
It was almost inevitable that George Washington, one of the most respected men in the colonies
and the hero of the Revolutionary War, would be unanimously elected the first president of the
United States. Washington was well aware of the importance of the example he was setting for all
presidents to come, and performed his duties with this is mind. It was Washington who decided
that the president should live in the same place where he worked, his New York lodgings
becoming the precursor to the White House; he created the presidential cabinet, with whom he
met regularly to go over matters of state; and he helped to select the site and design the city that
would become the capital of the new nation. Washington's courage in battle, dignified bearing,
and universally admired strength of character earned him the name "Father of His Country," and
to this day we recognize the importance of his contributions to the United States.
John Adams
John Adams was one of the most fervent proponents in the colonies of independence from
Britain, and used his eloquent writing and speaking style to persuade other members of the
Continental Congresses to move with determination toward freedom. Adams helped draft the
Declaration of Independence and negotiate the treaty that ended the Revolutionary War, and in
1789 he was elected vice president under George Washington. Eight years later he succeeded
him as the second U.S. President. During his presidency, Adams came under fire from his
countrymen for his attempts to protect the shipping rights of the United States and keep the
country out of the growing hostilities between France and Britain. But by establishing a naval
department during this period, he was honored as the "Father of the Navy." At the beginning of
his presidency, Adams and his family moved into the unfinished residence in the new federal city,
Washington, DC. His wish for the future of what was later to be known as the White House was
"May none but honest and wise Men ever rule under the roof."
Thomas Jefferson
Thomas Jefferson was truly a Renaissance man. A brilliant scholar, inventor, naturalist, and
architect, Jefferson played the violin, spoke six languages, conducted archeological investigations
of Native American mounds, founded the University of Virginia, and assembled a 10,000-book
library which became the foundation of the Library of Congress. His writing talent produced the
historic Declaration of Independence, the document that boldly told King George that the colonies
would no longer accept his rule. Jefferson's political savvy led him to hold a number of
governmental positions before becoming president: he was elected to the Virginia House of
Burgesses when he was only 25, served in the Continental Congress, became governor of
Virginia, a diplomat in Europe where he helped negotiate the treaties that ended the
Revolutionary War, secretary of state under Washington, and vice president under John Adams.
During his presidency, Jefferson doubled the size of the country by purchasing the territory of
Louisiana.
James Madison
Nicknamed "The Father of the Constitution" for his work on the document, James Madison was
also a framer of the Bill of Rights, the first ten amendments to the Constitution. After eight years
as secretary of state under Jefferson, Madison and his popular wife Dolley moved into the White
House. In 1812, Madison reluctantly asked Congress to declare war on Britain; this unpopular
decision led to the British invasion and burning of Washington two years later. If not for General
Andrew Jackson's brilliant victory over the British at the Battle of New Orleans in 1815, "Mr.
Madison's War" might be all the fourth President is remembered for.
James Monroe
The last patriot of the Revolutionary era to become president, Monroe was elected at a time when
the nation was at peace. His presidency was called the "Era of Good Feelings," yet the economic
depression of 1819 and ongoing debates about the extension of slavery to new states and
territories belied the name. Monroe is best remembered for his declaration that the United States
would behave unfavorably toward European countries that tried to interfere with North and South
American affairs, warning against any attempts by European powers to establish colonies in
America. This pronouncement is now known as "The Monroe Doctrine."
John Quincy Adams
The son of John Adams, the illustrious patriot and second President of the United States, John
Quincy Adams had been an outstanding diplomat, member of the U.S. Congress, and secretary
of state before becoming president. However, his election in 1824 was mired in controversy. In
that contest, no candidate received a majority of either the popular or electoral votes, and the
race was decided by the House of Representatives. The House, led by Speaker Henry Clay,
chose Adams, even though Andrew Jackson had received the most votes. When Adams in turn
selected Clay as his Secretary of State, Jackson supporters decried the "Corrupt Bargain."
As president, Adams' ideas for using taxes for public works projects and scientific exploration
were not popular with the public, and he was not reelected. After his presidency, Adams spent a
long and distinguished career in the House of Representatives, where he was a tireless opponent
of slavery
Andrew Jackson
The first president to be born in a log cabin (although hardly the last to claim to be!), Andrew
Jackson was also the first man elected to the House of Representatives from the state of
Tennessee. As a military leader, his role in the defeat of the British at the Battle of New Orleans
made Jackson a national hero, and in 1824 he seemed destined to ride into the White House on
his popularity. While Jackson did, indeed, receive the most popular and electoral votes, he did not
receive a majority, and the race was decided by the House of Representatives. Jackson's
supporters were outraged when the House chose opponent John Quincy Adams, resulting in
reforms of the American party system and the electoral process. Jackson returned in 1828 to win
the presidency.
Cultivating the image of a feisty frontiersman, Jackson felt that it was his responsibility to
represent the average American citizen. He fought with Congress over any legislation that
appeared to favor the rich, a philosophy known as "Jacksonian Democracy." He also continued to
fight the war on the frontier by signing the Indian Removal Act of 1830, which allowed the
American government to forcibly relocate Native Americans to territories west of the Mississippi
River. His opponents dubbed him "King Andrew," suggesting abuses of power in the name of the
people. The voters didn't seem to mind, handily reelecting Jackson to a second term.
Martin Van Buren
Martin Van Buren was hand-picked by his friend Andrew Jackson to follow him into the White
House. But, even the support of the ever-popular Jackson could not protect Van Buren from the ill
will of the people as the result of the severe economic depression that followed him into office
and eventually led to his defeat in 1840. Van Buren was also responsible for forcing 15,000
Cherokee from their Georgia homeland to what is now Oklahoma. Without adequate food and
supplies, the Indians marched for 116 days, escorted by federal troops who did not allow them to
rest or tend to the ill. As a result, some 4,000 Indians died on the treacherous journey known as
"The Trail of Tears."
William Henry Harrison
William Henry Harrison was the son of a signer of the Declaration of Independence, and his
grandson, Benjamin Harrison, would later become president. A hero of the battle of Tippecanoe,
where he defeated Shawnee warriors and their chief Tecumseh, Harrison would unfortunately not
have the opportunity to savor the popularity that got him elected president. After delivering the
longest ever inaugural address on a very cold and windy March day, Harrison developed
pneumonia and died exactly a month after his inauguration.
John Tyler
With the death of President William Henry Harrison, John Tyler was the first vice president to
assume the presidency, a precedent that did not sit well with some members of Congress-particularly his own party, the Whigs. Tyler's general disregard of their agenda eventually caused
the resignation of all but one member of his cabinet, and ultimately he was expelled from the
party. Yet, despite challenges to his authority, and nicknames like "His Accidency," Tyler refused
to open mail addressed to the "Acting President," taking on all the powers and privileges of the
presidency. Among Tyler's acts as president were bringing an end to the Seminole War, working
on the Webster-Ashburn Treaty of 1842 to resolve the Maine boundary dispute, arranging for the
first American trade mission to China, and expanding the Monroe Doctrine to include Hawaii.
Another first for Tyler--he was the first president to be married in office.
James K. Polk
Early in his presidency, James K. Polk declared that he would not seek reelection, thus freeing
himself to proceed without an eye to the reaction of the voting public. Polk succeeded in his
primary goals: to reduce the tariff, create an independent treasury, settle the long-standing
dispute with Britain over the northern Oregon boundary, and expand the nation. In a move
towards expansion, Polk tried unsuccessfully to buy territory from Mexico. This refusal set off the
Mexican War of 1846, which was won by American forces under the brilliant leadership of
General Zachary Taylor. The spoils of war included California and New Mexico, and Polk could
claim success in his plan to expand the western border of the United States all the way to the
Pacific Ocean.
Zachary Taylor
Zachary Taylor, "Old Rough and Ready," was a veteran of the war of 1812 and two Indian wars of
the 1830s, but it was his stunning defeat of General Antonio López de Santa Anna's superior
forces in the Mexican War of 1846 that made Taylor a national hero. The truest definition of a
"political outsider," when he agreed to run as the Whig party's candidate Taylor had no
knowledge of the political process and had never so much as voted in a presidential election! The
most pressing issue of Taylor's presidency was the question of extending slavery into the new
southwestern territories. Taylor was opposed to having the territories become slave states, yet he
was faced with the chasm between the Northern states, which opposed the expansion of slavery,
and the Southern states, where the economy rested on the backs of slaves. The Compromise of
1850 was still under debate when Taylor died unexpectedly during his second year in office.
Millard Fillmore
Millard Fillmore was Zachary Taylor's vice president, and so became president in 1850 after
Taylor's sudden death. Although he personally opposed slavery, Fillmore signed the Compromise
of 1850, which he felt would temporarily pacify both North and South. But the Fugitive Slave Act,
a resolution which promised federal support for capturing runaway slaves and allowing slaves to
be hunted in anti-slave states, infuriated Northern abolitionists and lost Fillmore any hope of
reelection. Two of Fillmore's more positive acts in office were sending Commodore Matthew
Parry on a trade mission to Japan in 1853 and allocating federal aid for the construction of
railroads.
Franklin Pierce
Franklin Pierce tried hard to keep the peace between the North and South, but his support of the
Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854 brought the country one step closer to civil war. The act called for
settlers to decide among themselves whether or not to allow slavery in their territories, but the
result of the act was a bloody border war between pro and antislavery factions as each side tried
to bring in enough supporters to win the vote.
Under Pierce's watch, Commodore Perry concluded a treaty with Japan allowing American trade
with that country, and the Gadsden Purchase secured the border between the United States and
Mexico. But it was for the Kansas-Nebraska Act that Pierce was remembered, and he was not
nominated for a second term.
James Buchanan
James Buchanan entered the White House at a time when the fight between North and South
over slavery was spinning out of control, and both sides ignored his calls for compromise. During
Buchanan's presidency, abolitionist John Brown attempted to capture the federal arsenal at
Harper's Ferry, Virginia, as a base from which slave rebellions could be mounted. Although
Brown was caught and hanged, his raid frightened slave owners--as well as the government.
Fearing another action, Buchanan sent federal agents to arrest influential abolitionist Frederick
Douglass, a former slave. Douglass eluded arrest by fleeing the country, but he soon returned to
continue the fight through public speaking and his antislavery newspaper, the North Star.
Abraham Lincoln
Abraham Lincoln was well known for his opposition to the expansion of slavery, and his election
as president in 1860 triggered the secession of eleven southern states from the Union to form the
Confederate States of America. Lincoln viewed the Southern action as unconstitutional, and he
was well aware that a civil war would be a very likely result of any attempt to reunite the country.
When Confederate soldiers fired on Fort Sumter in April of 1861, war did break out; resulting in
the four bloodiest years the United States has ever seen. In the second year of the raging war,
Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, freeing all slaves in the Confederate states.
Eleven months later, Lincoln delivered his most famous speech, the Gettysburg Address, on the
site where over 50,000 men had lost their lives in the war's deadliest battle.
In 1865, with Confederate resources dwindling and ever more soldiers deserting, the Union army
was able to force a surrender at Appommatox court house in Virginia on April 9. Just five days
later, Lincoln was shot by actor John Wilkes Booth at Ford's Theater in Washington, D.C. The
president died the following morning, throwing the nation into intense mourning. Lincoln had plans
for bringing the country back together again, but without his leadership, the country was plunged
into confusion that would take many years to resolve.
Andrew Johnson
Nominated vice president for Lincoln's second term, Andrew Johnson was the only U.S. Senator
from the South to stay loyal to the Union. On becoming president after Lincoln's assassination,
Johnson worked hard to bring the country together again using Lincoln's policies of leniency
towards the defeated Southern states. But the wounds of the war were too fresh, and not
everyone was willing to give power back to those who had broken away from the Union. Johnson
lost the support of the Republican party when he refused to sign a bill protecting the rights of
freed Southern slaves. When he persisted in following Lincoln's plans for reconstruction of the
South, Johnson was put on trial by the Senate. In 1868 Johnson became the first president to be
impeached; he was spared removal from office by one vote.
Ulysses S. Grant
Like Zachary Taylor, Ulysses S. Grant was elected to the presidency in honor of his heroic deeds
on the battlefield, even though he had absolutely no political background. Not only was Grant
lacking in political experience, he also had no particular interest in using the powers of the
presidency, and was taken advantage of by dishonest associates. One of Grant's few
accomplishments was approval of the Specie Resumption Act, which made it legal to redeem
"greenbacks" issued during the Civil War for gold or silver coins. However, the country was more
likely to remember Grant's administration for the fraud, graft, scandal, and corruption of his
second term. Grant was happy to leave office after eight years.
Rutherford B. Hayes
Rutherford B. Hayes had been a Union general in the Civil War, and he won a controversial
election by just one electoral vote. His first important act in office was to end Reconstruction by
removing the last of the federal troops from the South, which won over his Democratic critics, but
alienated many within his own party. Hayes attacked the corrupt patronage system, personally
firing future 21st president Chester A. Arthur from a powerful position he had been rewarded with.
In 1879, Hayes vetoed Congress's first ban on Chinese immigration.
James Garfield
James A. Garfield was the third Civil War general to become president. In his short time in office,
Garfield moved against the patronage system, with plans to reform the civil service system and
purge the post office of corruption. But an assassin shot Garfield only four months into his term-he was the second president to be killed in office.
Chester A. Arthur
Chester A. Arthur, James A. Garfield's vice president, had received all his political jobs--including
the vice presidency--in return for his loyalty to the Republican Party. When he became president
after Garfield's assassination, Arthur surprised his party in 1883 by signing the Pendleton Act,
which established the Civil Service Commission. Under the Act, those seeking jobs in the civil
service had to pass exams pertinent to the position. This did not please the Republicans who had
previously supported Arthur up the political ladder, and he was not nominated for a second term.
Grover Cleveland
Grover Cleveland was the only president to be elected to two non-consecutive terms. A staunch
political and social conservative, Grover Cleveland was known for his integrity and reformist
activities. When he was elected governor of New York in 1882, he went after the corrupt
Democratic political machine of Tammany Hall, courageously defying the "Bosses" who
controlled the party. Nominated on the second ballot at the 1884 Democratic convention,
Cleveland won election by the smallest popular margin in American history.
The first Democratic president since the Civil War, Cleveland appointed Southerners to a number
of posts. For the most part, he believed in a "hands off" presidency, avoiding involvement in
proposed legislation, but quickly rejecting congressional actions he disapproved of. In fact,
Cleveland vetoed more legislation than any president before him, gaining him the nickname "Old
Veto." During his first term in office, Cleveland married 21-year old Francis Folsom. Twenty-eight
years his junior, the young and beautiful First Lady became very popular with the public.
Cleveland lost the 1888 election over his proposal to reduce tariffs on foreign goods, but was
reelected in 1893 on a platform of economy in government--and tariff reduction. Soon after his
reelection, the country suffered a severe economic depression, the Panic of 1893; despite the
suffering of the unemployed, Cleveland stayed true to his "hands off" government policy and
would not intervene. However, when Pullman railroad workers went on strike over a pay cut in
1894, interfering with the delivery of the U.S. mail, Cleveland sent in federal troops to break it up.
Cleveland did better with foreign affairs, citing the Monroe Doctrine to force arbitration of a
boundary between Venezuela and British Guiana.
Benjamin Harrison
Grandson of President William Henry Harrison and great-grandson of a signer of the Declaration
of Independence, Benjamin Harrison was a colonel in the Civil War and a Senator from Indiana
prior to becoming president. A gifted public speaker, Harrison was so cold on a personal level-obsessed with germs, he wore gloves when shaking hands--that he was nicknamed the "Human
Iceberg." During Harrison's administration, six states were admitted to the Union. He approved
the Dependent Pension Act establishing funds for disabled Civil War veterans that Grover
Cleveland had vetoed, set aside large appropriations for rivers and harbors, laid the groundwork
for trade agreements with Latin America, and saw Congress pass the Sherman Silver Bill of
1890. The bill committed the U.S. Treasury to buy 4.5 million ounces of silver per month which
triggered the Panic of 1893--just in time for Grover Cleveland's second administration.
William McKinley
In the Civil War, William McKinley served admirably under future president Rutherford B. Hayes.
When McKinley was elected president in 1896, he emulated his predecessor Grover Cleveland's
"hands off" approach, allowing big business to run amok. But when he passed the Dingley Tariff
Act, establishing higher tariffs on imports, the American economy finally turned around for
everyone. It was at foreign policy that McKinley excelled. In 1898, McKinley tried to help Cuba
declare independence from Spain. When the American battleship Maine was blown up in Havana
harbor, the U.S. declared war on Spain and won in four short months. Also in 1898, the United
States annexed Hawaii, acquired Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines Islands through the
Treaty of Paris. Meanwhile, Secretary of State John Hays negotiated a trade policy with China,
and arranged for the treaty under which the U.S. would build and own the Panama Canal.
Winning reelection in 1900, McKinley was shot by a Polish anarchist in Buffalo the following year.
Theodore Roosevelt
When McKinley was shot, Theodore Roosevelt became the youngest ever president of the United
States, at the age of forty-two. A popular war hero from the Spanish-American War in which he
led the famous Rough Rider Regiment on the charge up Cuba's San Juan Hill, Roosevelt had a
reputation for courage, boundless energy, and idealism, which he amply demonstrated as
president. Despite his wealthy origins, Roosevelt felt that it was his duty to protect American
workers from the power of wealthy business interests. When Pennsylvania coal miners went on
strike for higher wages in 1902, Roosevelt supported the workers and threatened to close down
the mines unless the owners agreed to negotiate; he brought both sides to Washington, where
the miners won many of their demands. A strong believer in racial equality, Roosevelt was the
first president to dine with an African American in the White House. His guest was Booker T.
Washington, renowned educator and principal of the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama.
In 1904 Roosevelt was decisively reelected to his second term, during which he continued to
support workers and average Americans by crusading as a "Trust Buster" against the unfair
price-setting practices of big business. He went after railroad corruption with the Elkins Act,
endorsed the Pure Food and Drug Act, and encouraged the vigorous lifestyle he and his large
family so enjoyed by doubling the number of national parks and adding 150 million acres to the
nation's forest reserve. Although Roosevelt was fond of hunting wild game, his refusal to shoot a
captured bear cub on a hunting trip in Mississippi inspired the stuffed toy known today as the
teddy bear. Roosevelt's mediation of the Russo-Japanese War won him a 1906 Nobel Peace
Prize.
William Taft
Friendly and good-natured, William Howard Taft pursued the White House with the
encouragement of Theodore Roosevelt. The energetic former president was a hard act to follow,
but Taft's administration turned out to be an active one. Along with the continued prosecution of
unfair business practices under the Sherman Antitrust Act, the country saw the establishment of
the postal savings bank, the parcel-post system, and the adoption of the Sixteenth Amendment
calling for the collection of income tax. Taft was the first president to buy automobiles for the
White House, and he created the presidential tradition of throwing out the first ball on opening day
of the baseball season. After facing a rough reelection campaign in 1912, Taft declared himself
happy to leave the White House. In 1921, he was appointed chief justice of the Supreme Court
and subsequently swore presidents Calvin Coolidge and Herbert Hoover into office.
Woodrow Wilson
Woodrow Wilson brought a brilliant intellect, strong moral convictions, and a passion for reform to
his two terms as president. The ideas he brought with him had been developed during an earlier
career as professor of political economy, president of Princeton University, and governor of New
Jersey. On the domestic front, Wilson established economic reforms and presided over two
Constitutional amendments: the 18th, which instituted the prohibition of alcohol, and the 19th,
which granted women the right to vote. His strong belief in peace and international cooperation
could not keep the United States from entering World War I, and though Wilson provided effective
wartime leadership, he put equal effort into crafting the postwar peace agreement and providing
the vision for a new League of Nations. Though his efforts won him a Nobel Peace Prize, his
dogged pursuit of an idealistic moral vision was not universally popular and was thwarted by
Congress. After suffering a debilitating stroke in 1919, Wilson relied heavily on his wife, Edith, to
help run the White House for the remainder of his term.
Warren G. Harding
Campaigning on the theme "Back to Normalcy," Warren G. Harding promised the American
people a rest from the policies of war. Harding did not use the power of his office well, ceding
much to the will of Congress, who passed legislation to limit immigration, raised tariffs to their
highest rate ever, and--with the assistance of Secretary of the Treasury Andrew Mellon--reduced
income taxes and the national debt. It was Harding's trusted advisors, however, members with
whom he regularly played poker and drank boot legged liquor, who turned his term in office into a
scandal-ridden mess. The most well-known was the Teapot Dome Affair, in which the Secretary
of the Interior took a large payoff in return for drilling rights to federal land. There was also
corruption in the Office of the Alien Property Custodian, the Veteran's Bureau, and elsewhere in
the administration. Harding was never directly implicated in any of these scandals, and before
being fully investigated, he died suddenly in San Francisco in his last year in office. The truth
about Harding's involvement in the graft that marred his administration may never be known-after the president's death, his wife hurried back to the White House and burned all of his official
correspondence.
Calvin Coolidge
Calvin Coolidge took office after Warren G. Harding's sudden--and some say mysterious--death.
"Silent Cal" was reserved and honest, and his incorruptible presence was such a relief after the
sordid goings-on of the previous administration that he easily won the 1924 election. The
American economy was in the midst of "The Roaring Twenties," with a booming stock market and
easy credit, and Coolidge felt that a "hands off" government would keep the economy going
strong. Even the murmerings of an agricultural depression causing farm foreclosures in the last
years of his presidency did not cause Coolidge to involve the government in financial matters,
and he remained popular to the end of his term in office.
Herbert Hoover
History might have a very different opinion of Herbert Hoover if he hadn't happened to preside
over one of America's worst financial disasters. Hoover began his term at the tail end of a decade
of unprecedented prosperity. However, rampant speculation led to the stock market crash of
1929, ushering in an era of severe economic depression. Though Hoover, a self-made millionaire
and engineering magnate, attempted to bring some relief to the country's ailing financial
institutions, he felt it was not the government's place to directly assist the individuals and families
who were adversely affected by the hard times. Fairly or unfairly, he was blamed for the
worsening depression and voted out of office after one term. Ironically, Hoover is also
remembered for his brilliant administration of food and other types of aid during World War I, and
again after World War II.
Franklin D. Roosevelt
Franklin D. Roosevelt was the product of a powerful political family that had already sent one of
its members, Theodore, to the White House. Bred for public service, his career began early with
forays into New York State politics. In 1921, a bout with polio paralyzed his lower body, a
condition with which Roosevelt would struggle, mentally and physically, for the rest of his life.
Despite this setback, his political star continued to rise with his election to governor of New York
in 1928 and president in 1932. Roosevelt's immediate task upon entering the White House was to
grapple with the Great Depression, which, to the relief of American citizens, he tackled
enthusiastically, if not always effectively. Together with his "Brain Trust" of top policymakers and
his influential wife Eleanor Roosevelt, he enacted a multitude of government programs designed
to shore up the economy and provide relief to millions of destitute Americans. One controversial
result of this activism was a much-enlarged and empowered federal government. Though not
universally liked, Roosevelt nevertheless proved popular enough to be elected to an
unprecedented four terms.
By 1941, early in Roosevelt's third term, the looming world war was commanding more attention;
but the United States was caught flat-footed by Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor. Roosevelt rallied
the country once again, creating a wartime industrial machine that helped clinch the war for the
Allies, revive the American economy, and thrust the United States into a new status as a world
superpower. By the war's end, Roosevelt's health was failing, and he died in 1945. He will long be
remembered as one of the country--and the world's--most powerful and influential statesmen.
Harry Truman
When Franklin D. Roosevelt died suddenly in 1945, the war in Europe was nearing its close; but
as Vice President Harry Truman moved into the White House, he found himself facing the war in
the Pacific, where the Japanese were refusing to surrender. Rather than risk the lives of more
U.S. servicemen, Truman made the agonizing decision to drop atomic bombs on the Japanese
cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. At least 100,000 people were killed instantly, and the war was
over within days.
Truman then faced the job of dealing with millions of returning service-people with the GI Bill,
offering education and training for a peacetime economy. His Fair Deal initiative also included
proposals for national medical insurance and civil rights legislation, but both were defeated in
Congress and it would be long time before either were discussed again.
Truman went against the odds to win a second term in 1948, surprising everyone with his upset
of popular New York Governor Thomas Dewey. With Europe rebuilding itself and Stalin
establishing communist governments in Eastern Europe, Truman proposed to stop the spread of
communism by promising American support to any country fighting communists, the Truman
Doctrine. Later that year, secretary of state George Marshall proposed the Marshall Plan, which
would provide grants to rebuild war-torn European countries. Stalin criticized these plans, and the
seeds of the Cold War were sown.
When communist North Korea attempted to take over South Korea in 1950, the Truman Doctrine
was called into play; American troops were once again sent overseas, this time under the
command of General Douglas MacArthur, with orders to liberate South Korea. But the general
went a step beyond his orders, invading the border of North Korea, which prompted the
Communist Chinese to send their troops into the action. Truman angrily relieved MacArthur of his
command for disobeying orders, an unpopular move which ultimately led to Truman's decision to
decline his party's nomination in 1952.
Dwight D. Eisenhower
Dwight D. Eisenhower's success in the European Theater of Operations during World War II led
to his appointment as Supreme Allied Commander in Europe--the organizer of the D-Day
invasion of Normandy that helped bring about Germany's surrender. When the genial war hero
ran for president on a promise to end the Korean War, the voting public made it clear that they
did, in fact, like Ike. The eight years Eisenhower spent in office were for the most part calm,
prosperous years for the country, with the healthiest economy since the 1920s. But there were
volatile issues for the president to deal with, as well. Senator Joseph McCarthy of Wisconsin, was
so intent on ferreting out supposed communists within the State Department that he ruined the
careers of many innocent people. The president also had to handle intensifying civil rights issues,
such as the South's defiant reaction to the Supreme Court-ordered desegregation of schools,
causing him to send federal troops to escort the African American students to school. The space
race began on Eisenhower's watch when the Soviet Union beat America into space with Sputnik
I, the first satellite into space. In order to bring the American space program up to speed, the
president approved a new congressional program to bring talented young scientists into the field
of space technology.
John F. Kennedy
When an assassin's bullet cut short John Kennedy's presidency in November 1963, the country
experienced a collective sense of loss that it had not known since the death of Lincoln. But the
grief was not so much inspired by a long litany of presidential accomplishments as it was an
expression of what Kennedy had come to represent. To be sure, his administration could claim
notable triumphs in foreign policy, including its successful face-off with the Soviets over the
presence of missiles in Cuba. Its support for the civil rights movement had, moreover, contributed
significantly to a climate that would soon give birth to landmark legislation promoting racial
equality. The main source of grief over Kennedy's death, however, was the eloquence and
vigorous idealism that he had brought to his presidency and that made him, in the eyes of many,
the embodiment of this country's finest aspirations.
Lyndon B. Johnson
Few individuals have managed to harness the forces of American politics to better advantage or
with greater relish than Lyndon B. Johnson. Thus, when he surrendered his position as Senate
majority leader to become John Kennedy's Vice President in 1961, it was inevitable that Johnson
should bridle at the political limbo of his new office. Johnson's instincts for power, however,
survived that limbo. When Kennedy's death put him in the White House in 1963, his ability to get
what he wanted was soon yielding a string of landmark legislation that included a far-reaching
civil rights act, health insurance for the elderly, and a federally funded "war on poverty."
Unfortunately, his administration's war against Communist aggression in Vietnam overshadowed
those successes. By the end of his presidency, anger over the war was inspiring protests across
the country, and Johnson had gone from being one of the most successful Presidents in history to
being one of the most maligned.
Richard Nixon
Richard Nixon owed his early prominence and election as Dwight Eisenhower's Vice President to
his reputation as an anti-Communist militant. By the time he became President in 1968, however,
his thinking about relationships between the Communist and free worlds had shifted considerably.
As a result, under his leadership, the confrontational strategies that had long dominated this
country's response to Communism gave way to a historic d‚tente, marked by American
recognition of Communist China and warmer relations with the Soviet Union. Unfortunately, these
diplomatic achievements were eventually overshadowed by disclosure of the Watergate scandals
a web of illegal activity involving scores of Nixon's advisers. Though never implicated in the
original crimes themselves, Nixon did become party to attempts to cover them up. Following
irrefutable disclosure of that fact, he became the only President ever to resign from office.
Gerald Ford
Gerald Ford was perfectly happy with his lot as a Michigan congressman and House minority
leader. When revelations of misconduct forced Spiro Agnew to resign the vice presidency in
1973, however, Ford's congressional career abruptly ended with his appointment by President
Richard Nixon to succeed Agnew. Within a year, Ford's political fortunes took yet another sharp
turn. On August 9, 1974, with Nixon himself forced to resign from office amid charges of
wrongdoing, Ford became the only unelected Vice President to succeed to the White House.
Ford's pardoning of Nixon shortly thereafter drew angry criticism. Nevertheless, Ford's
conciliatory leadership succeeded in restoring a much-eroded confidence in the presidency.
Summarizing the orderly way he came to office despite the unsettling events that put him there,
he had said at his swearing-in: "Our Constitution works." In large measure, it was Ford who
insured that it did.
Jimmy Carter
In the early stages of the 1976 presidential campaign, the experts hardly gave a second thought
to Jimmy Carter's chances of winning the Democratic nomination, much less the White House.
But the former Georgia governor's can-do, Washington outsider's image, along with his
conservative populism, had great voter appeal, and in the final poll he emerged triumphant.
Unfortunately, Carter did not prove as effective in the presidency as he had on the stump. He
was, moreover, blamed for problems, such as runaway inflation, that were mostly beyond his
control. Nevertheless, his administration had some unalloyed successes, including the landmark
peace agreement between Egypt and Israel that would probably never have been reached
without Carter's own dogged determination to make it happen.
Ronald Reagan
When ex-California governor Ronald Reagan began his presidency in 1981, his warmth and skill
in handling the media had already planted the seeds of his reputation as the "great
communicator." More significant, however, was how those traits were made to work on behalf of
his conservative agenda. By the end of his second term, despite widespread concern over budget
deficits and several administration scandals, Reagan's presidency had wrought many significant
changes, heartily endorsed by the public at large. Under his leadership, the nation had undergone
major tax reforms, witnessed a significant easing of relations with the Communist world, and
experienced a sharp upturn in prosperity. In the wake of these developments, Reagan left office
enjoying a popularity that only a few of his outgoing predecessors had ever experienced.
George H. W. Bush
In the early 1960s, George Bush presided over a thriving oil business in Houston, Texas. Had he
continued with that enterprise, his then-modest fortune might have grown immense. Instead, he
turned to politics. By 1980, when he was elected Ronald Reagan's Vice President, he had served
as ambassador to the United Nations, envoy to China, and director of the Central Intelligence
Agency. In the process, White House aspirations had taken hold, and in 1988, thanks largely to
his identification with the popular Reagan, he claimed the presidency. Bush proved most surefooted in foreign policy, where, according to one observer, he proved a master of both "timing and
substance." More widely traveled than any other President, he managed the policy transitions
prompted by the collapse of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War. Perhaps his greatest
success was the alliance he crafted to thwart Iraq's forceful takeover of Kuwait in 1990.
Bill Clinton
William Clinton, then governor of Arkansas, was elected to the presidency in 1992 and went on to
help create an unprecedented time of peace and economic prosperity in the United States.
Among the successes of his presidency were achieving the lowest unemployment rate in modern
times, managing an overhaul of the economic system, and proposing the first balanced budget in
decades. In his second year, after the failure of his health care reform program, Clinton displayed
a marked shift in focus announcing that "the era of big government is over." In the international
arena, Clinton defended an expanded NATO, successfully sent peace-keeping forces to war-torn
Bosnia, and responded with attacks on Iraq when Saddam Hussein halted U.N. inspections for
nuclear, biological, and chemical weapons.
The only Democratic president since Franklin D. Roosevelt to win a second term, Clinton's
administration was plagued by investigations and personal scandals. On December 18, 1998, the
House of Representatives voted to impeach William J. Clinton on charges of perjury and
obstruction of justice stemming from the president's testimony in a civil suit and his statements
regarding his relationship with a White House intern. The debate largely focused on whether his
crimes, if real, rose to the level of an impeachable offense. The Senate found him not guilty of the
charges brought against him.
George W. Bush
The son of former President and Mrs. George Bush, George W. Bush grew up in Midland and
Houston, Texas. After earning degrees at Yale and the Harvard Business School, he returned to
his home state to lead a Midland, Texas-based oil and gas company from the mid-1970s through
the 1980s. In 1989, Bush led a group of partners to purchase the Texas Rangers, a major league
baseball team, and served as managing general partner of the Rangers before embarking on a
political career with a successful bid for the Texas governorship in 1994. Reelected as governor
in 1998, he decided to seek the Republican party's presidential nomination in 2000. Bush proved
an instant hit with Republican voters, easily defeating his opponents in a well-run primary race.
The fall election campaign proved unusually tight, with his Democratic opponent Vice President
Albert Gore winning the popular vote by a small margin but Bush edging him out in the electoral
college to win the presidency. Disputes over ballot-counting in Florida delayed resolution of the
election until December 12, when the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Bush's favor and ended
further appeals. With his election, Bush and his father became only the second father and son to
hold the nation's highest office--preceded only by John Adams and John Quincy Adams.