Download Our lord and king, it is true that unknown people have come

The Fall of Two Empires
Our lord and king, it is true that unknown people have come. They have
arrived
at the shores of the great
sea. . . . Their weapons and equipment are all made
of iron. Their bodies are
covered everywhere; only their faces can be seen.
They are very white, as if made of lime.
An Aztec messenger delivered this message to his emperor, Montezuma in his
palace at Tenochtitlán in 1519. For some time, the Aztec had heard rumors that
there were strangers to the east, along the shores of the “great sea,” or presentday Gulf of Mexico. The messenger had been sent to find out if the rumors were
true.
Strangers on Coast
Montezuma heard the news with a deepening sense of fear. If Aztec legend was
correct, the god Quetzalcoatl, the Feathered Serpent, had returned to the Aztec
empire to reclaim his throne. “If he comes he strikes at kings,” the legend
warned. The emperor had many doubts. Was the ancient pale-skinned god of
legend truly among the strangers on the coast? On the other hand, could these
be humans who had come to harm the Aztec?
Montezuma decided to treat the strangers and their leader as if they were gods.
He sent five men to the coast with gifts and an invitation to visit him at
Tenochtitlán. His gifts included golden masks inlaid with turquoise, headdresses
made of brightly colored feathers, gold jewelry, and shields.
Cortés the Conqueror
When the Aztec messengers arrived at the coast, they presented Montezuma’s
gifts to the leader of the pale-faced strangers. He was Hernán Cortés. Instead of
a god, Cortés was a Spanish a Spanish term for conqueror. Cortés was not
pleased with Montezuma’s messengers. He looked at the gifts with scorn and
asked, “And is this all? Is this your gift of welcome?” He placed Montezuma’s
messengers in chains and fired a cannon nearby to frighten them. He told the
messengers, “I and my friends suffer from a disease of the heart which can be
cured only by gold.”
Cortés Arrives in Mexico
Cortés had been in the Caribbean since 1511 managing his estate. As a reward
for helping Spain conquer Cuba, he had received a large land grant on the
island. Like other Spaniards, Cortés had heard tales about magnificent cities of
gold on the mainland of North America across the Gulf of Mexico. He was eager
to find those riches. In 1518 the governor of Spain’s colony in Cuba asked
Cortés to set up a post on the Mexican mainland to claim land, look for gold, and
begin trading with the Native Americans. Sensing the ambitions of Cortés, the
governor changed his mind at the last minute. Cortés decided to disobey the
governor and go anyway. He had outfitted 11 ships for his trip and enlisted the
help of 600 Spanish soldiers and 200 Cubans. He loaded the ships with horses,
cannons, muskets, and specially trained war dogs dressed in their own armor.
Cortés had crossed the Gulf of Mexico and landed on the Yucatan Peninsula by
March of 1519. He spent a few weeks sailing along the coast and learning as
much as he could from the Maya. Although the great Mayan civilization was
gone, Maya descendants still lived and farmed in the region. One Mayan
chieftain introduced Cortés to a Native American princess named Malintzin. As a
child, Malintzin had been sold into slavery during a time of famine. She spoke
both (NAH•wAH.tuhl), the language of the Aztec, and the Mayan language.
Before long, she also learned Spanish. Malintzin became Cortés’s interpreter,
translating Native American languages into Spanish.
Like many people in the coastal areas, Malintzin hated the Aztec. She told Cortés
about their wealth and their belief in the pale-skinned god Quetzalcoatl.
Cortés Marches Inland
By April, Cortés decided to journey inland toward the Aztec capital. Before
leaving the coast, however, he founded a colony and named it Veracruz. In so
doing, he claimed Mexico for Spain and the Roman Catholic Church. Sensing
that the march would be dangerous and difficult, Cortés also destroyed his ships.
He wanted to prevent his soldiers from retreating to Cuba. Meanwhile,
Montezuma became more and more fearful. He sent sacks of gold to the
approaching Spaniards, hoping to satisfy them and convince them to turn back.
The gifts, however, only made the Spaniards more eager to reach the Aztec
capital and its riches.
Cortés in Tenochtitlán
Cortés arrived at the entrance to Tenochtitlán on November 8, 1519. There
Montezuma, perhaps still uncertain about who the Spaniards were, gave him a
grand welcome. That same day he gave the Spaniards their own quarters in the
palace and presented them with many precious gifts. Finally, speaking through
Malintzin, he offered Cortés the Aztec empire to command. Cortés sensed that
Montezuma feared him. He also saw that he and his troops were in a dangerous
position. Montezuma could be leading him into a trap. Aztec warriors were
everywhere. If they drew up the bridges leading into the city the Spaniards would
have no escape. Cortés decided that the best way to control the Aztec would be
to seize Montezuma and hold him captive. Montezuma remained a prisoner of
the Spaniards in his own palace for months. Meanwhile, the Spaniards
ransacked all the gold or other treasures they could find in the capital. They piled
gold jewelry and other items into large heaps and started fires to melt them into
gold bars. The bars were easier to carry away. Today the gold that Cortés took
from the Aztec would be worth more than $8 million.
A New Spanish Ally: Disease
During the months that Montezuma was held captive by the Spaniards, he
became unpopular among the Aztec people. He was killed by a stone thrown by
an Aztec during a revolt against the Spanish. After Montezuma’s death,
however, the Aztec united and drove the Spaniards from Tenochtitlán. Fleeing
Spaniards— many slowed down with the weight of the treasure they carried—
were hunted down and killed. The Aztec had little chance to enjoy their victory,
however. One Aztec account told that:
“After the Spaniards had left the city of Mexico, and before they had made any
preparations to attack us again, there came amongst us a great sickness, a
general plague.”
The “great sickness” the Aztec wrote about was probably smallpox or measles.
These diseases were deadly because the Aztec had never been exposed to
them before. The diseases brought by the Spaniards turned into a deadly
weapon.
The Final Conquest
Cortés returned to Tenochtitlán 10 months later. With mounted soldiers in lead,
thousands of Native Americans and at least 1,000 Spanish soldiers attacked the
capital. The Aztec fought on foot without horses or guns. Their stone knives,
copper shields, and cloth armor were no match for the iron weapons and heavy
cannons of the Spaniards. The Aztec surrendered to Cortés on August 13, 1521.
It had taken only two years for the Spaniards to destroy the mighty Aztec empire.
Tenochtitlán lay in ruins and the golden treasures of the Aztec now belonged to
Cortés and to Spain.
Cortés ordered that a new city be built on the site of Tenochtitlán. It would be the
new Spanish capital, renamed Mexico City.
Pizarro and the Inca
Thirteen years after the conquest of the Aztec, the Inca also faced the strength of
the Spaniards. The leader of the attack against the Inca was the Spanish
conquistador Francisco Pizarro. Like Cortés, Pizarro had heard many stories of
the great wealth in the lands of South America. He made several expeditions
along the coast to look for the treasure. It was not until 1526, however, when one
of his ships spotted an Incan trading boat loaded with silver and gold, that he
believed the stories were true. Pizarro ordered his men to capture the ship. He
trained some of the Incan crew to be interpreters, then planned his assault on the
Incan empire.
A Broken Promise
In 1531 Pizarro led 180 soldiers across the Isthmus of Panama and then sailed
southward along the west coast of South America. When Pizarro’s small Spanish
army landed in the coastal city of Cajamarco, it learned that the Incan ruler
Atahualpa (AH • tuh • WAHL • puh) was resting after a bitter civil war with his
half-brother. After killing thousands of Inca, the Spaniards marched to
Atahualpa’s summer home. Like Cortés among the Aztec, Pizarro thought the
best way to control the Inca was through their emperor. He took Atahualpa
captive. To gain their leader’s freedom, the Inca were ordered to pay a ransom.
They collected enough gold and silver to fill the room where their emperor was
kept prisoner. At today’s prices the roomful of precious metals would be worth
more than $65 million. Pizarro promised to free Atahualpa when the ransom was
paid, but instead had the Incan leader killed. Pizarro then sent soldiers up the
mountains to capture the Incan capital of Cuzco. By 1535 most of the Irican
Empire had fallen. Pizarro set up his capital in Lima, Peru. From there he sent
expeditions to take control of most of the rest of South America outside
Portuguese-held Brazil. The Portuguese had held claim to Brazil since 1494.
Unlike the Aztec, who fell to Cortés in only 2 years, parts of the Incan empire
held out against the Spaniards for 40 years. The Inca’s system of rule
encouraged loyalty among its many subjects and the empire was much better
unified than the Aztec Empire. The Spaniards found far more gold in South
America than in Mexico. The former Incan empire became Spain’s richest colony.
Spain Builds a Vast Empire
In 1523 three barefoot men in tattered brown robes got off a Spanish ship at the
newly built port of Veracruz on the Gulf of Mexico. Then they walked more than
200 miles (320 km) over rugged trails to reach Mexico City Outside the city
Cortés—now ruler of Mexico—met the three men. Thousands of Native
Americans watched in amazement as Cortés knelt down before the men and
begged forgiveness for his treatment of the Native Americans. Who were these
simply dressed, barefoot men? Why did they have such power over the mighty
Hernán Cortés? The men were friars, members of a Catholic religious order.
Their influence over Cortés was just one sign of the important role religion played
as Spain went on to strengthen and enlarge its empire in the Americas.
Spain’s American Empire
Spain used the wealth gained from its conquest of the Aztec and Inca to enlarge
its army and navy. It was able to finance more explorations and settlements in
the Americas. As the most powerful nation in Europe, Spain faced little
interference from other European countries. Spain divided its American empire
into two parts. The southern part was made up of its claims in South America and
was called Peru. The northern part, named New Spain, took in all the land north
of South America. It included the Caribbean Islands, Central America, Mexico,
and all the lands bordering Mexico and the Gulf of Mexico. These lands along the
northern edges of Spanish territory were the Spanish
Spain put a governing official called a in charge of each part of its empire, one in
New Spain and one in Peru. The main responsibility of the viceroy was to
produce wealth for Spain. For many years, this was not difficult to do. New, rich
deposits of silver were found northwest of Mexico City. These mines produced
tons of silver for shipment to Spain. Cotton, sugarcane, and other crops grown on
plantations were also shipped to Spain. Despite the distance across the Atlantic,
rulers in Spain succeeded in keeping tight control over their American colonies.
Viceroys and lesser officials sent regular, lengthy reports back to Spain. Likewise
officials in Spain sent many rules and regulations to the colonies.
3 Kinds of Settlements
Spanish law called for three kinds of settlements in the Americas—pueblos,
missions, and presidios. Pueblos, or towns, were established as centers of trade.
Most pueblos were built around a central square that included a church and
government buildings. Many towns in Mexico and South America still reflect the
style of the Spanish pueblos.
Missions were religious communities that usually included a small town,
surrounding farmland, and a church. They were started by Catholic religious
workers called missionaries.
Life in a mission centered around the church. Priests taught Native Americans
about the Roman Catholic religion and various crafts and skills. Usually a
presidio, or fort, was built near a mission. Spanish soldiers stationed at a presidio
protected the missions from invaders.
Sor Juana Writes Poetry
The life of Juana Inés de la Cruz reflects how opportunities for women were
limited in New Spain. Men held all the important positions. Women had two
choices: to marry and put themselves under the control of their husbands, or to
join a convent and put themselves under the control of the church. Juana Inés
de la Cruz was born in a tiny village near Mexico City in 1651. At 17 Juana chose
to enter a convent to become a nun, or religious sister. She believed the convent
would allow her the time and opportunity to write poetry and study. Religious
leaders soon became angry that Juana wrote poetry about such worldly subjects
as love and the rights of women. A Catholic bishop wrote her a letter of warning.
Inside the convent other nuns shunned Sor Juana. Few people from the outside
dared to visit her. Finally in 1694 Juana gave in. She reaffirmed her vows as a
nun. Her library was removed from her room. A year later when an epidemic
swept through Mexico City, Juana insisted on staying in the convent to tend to
the nuns who were ill. At age 43 she died of cholera. Today, many scholars
regard Sor Juana as the Americas’ first great poet.
Social Classes in New Spain
The people of Spain’s American colonies formed a structured society where
position was determined mostly by birth.
Peninsulares and creoles
or people born in Spain, had the highest positions in Spanish colonial society.
Peninsulares held the best jobs in government and in the church. They also
owned much of the land and ran the large estates on which the Native Americans
worked. They controlled most of the wealth and power.were below the
peninsulares on the social ladder. These colonists had Spanish parents but had
been born in New Spain. Although they could not rise as high as the
peninsulares, they still held important positions in the government, church, army,
and business.
By the late 1500s, there were about 60,000 peninsulares and creoles in New
Spain. They were greatly outnumbered, however, by people of mixed Spanish
and Native American descent. Most mestizos worked on farms and ranches. In
towns they worked as carpenters, bakers, tailors, and soldiers. Native Americans
made up the largest group of people in Spain’s empire. They were forced to work
in the mines and on plantations under cruel conditions. Most were paid so little
that they had to borrow from landowners just to buy food. They could not change
jobs until all their debts were paid. As a result, they were trapped in a system that
was close to slavery. Bartolomé de Las Casas devoted his life to trying to
change the Spaniards’ abuse of the Native Americans. Las Casas first came to
the Caribbean Islands with Columbus in 1502 and later became a priest. In 1542,
Spain passed laws meant to end the system of forced labor altogether. Las
Casas often found the laws impossible to enforce, however.
The Spanish Borderlands
Even before the conquest of the Aztec, Spanish explorers had turned their
attention to the borderlands. Their first goal was always to find gold.
Settlement in Florida
As early as 1513, explorer Juan Ponce de Leon visited Florida, searching for
riches—and according to legend—a fountain that promised eternal youth. He
found neither, and in 1521 lost his life in a conflict with Native Americans.
In 1565, a group of French people landed in Florida intending to start a
settlement. To keep out the French, the Spaniards built a fort and settlement of
their own along the east coast of Florida. They called their settlement St.
Augustine. Founded in 1565, St. Augustine today is the oldest city in the United
States started by Europeans.
In 1528 a large Spanish expedition went to Florida looking for gold. The
Spaniards lost their way, however, and retreated to Florida’s west coast.
The men built rafts and tried to sail across the Gulf of Mexico. Of the 300 men
who started the trip, only 4 survived. Those 4 were washed ashore near presentday Galveston, Texas. One of them was a noble named Alvar Nüfiez Cabeza de
Vaca (kuh.BAY.zuh duh VAH•kuh). Another was an African who had been
enslaved, named Esteban (ehs.TAY.bahn). For nearly nine years the men
wandered through the borderlands of southwest North America trying to find their
way to Mexico. When they finally reached Spanish territory in 1536, they had
walked halfway across the continent.
De Vaca claimed that Native Americans had told him of seven cities in a land
called Cibola that had huge stockpiles of gold, silver, and precious jewels.
Francisco Vásquez de Coronado organized a large expedition to the Southwest
to find the fabled Seven Cities of Cibola in 1540.
Coronado traveled for almost three years through lands of the present-day
southwestern United States. He passed cliff dwellings abandoned by the ancient
Anasazi and explored settlements of the Zuni, Hopi, Apache, and Navajo. To his
disappointment Coronado found no splendid cities of gold. From the European
point of view, however, his expedition gave Spain claim to lands far to the north
of Mexico.
De Soto and the Mississippi River
In 1539 another Spanish expedition— led by Hernando de Soto—went in search
of the seven cities of gold. De Soto started his journey in Florida. For the next 2
years, he and 600 men made their way through present-day South Carolina,
Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Tennessee.
De Soto died of a fever while his group traveled south along the Mississippi
River. His men lowered his body into the Mississippi River for burial. Although he
had failed to find gold, he gave Spain a claim to all the land he had explored.
* Borderland Missions
For many years Spanish settlers paid little attention to the northern borderlands.
The Spanish government, however, wanted to attract settlers to the area to
discourage other countries from making claims. Instead of soldiers, the
government sent missionaries to start new settlements.
Knowing how badly the Native Americans of the Caribbean and Mexico had been
treated, government officials in Spain thought that missionaries would be able to
develop kinder relationships with the people who lived in the borderlands. From
the 1560s to the 1820s, Spain set up hundreds of missions in present-day New
Mexico, Arizona, Texas, California, Florida, and Georgia.
Life on a Mission
Spanish missions met many of the Native Americans’ basic needs. In return, the
Native Americans were expected to accept the Catholic religion, practice Spanish
customs, and work at the mission.
Most of the missions were made up of one-story, adobe buildings that
surrounded a courtyard. Missions usually provided dining areas, schools,
workshops, and a church. Some had living quarters where the Native Americans
could stay with their families. In the workshops, Native Americans could learn
needlework, carpentry, and metalworking skills.
Native American Responses
Some Native Americans enjoyed the benefits that missions provided. Others did
not like the restrictions placed on them by the missions. They could not leave
without permission, and each day they had scheduled activities that they were
forced to attend. The new religion also required them to give up their own
religious beliefs and traditions.
Many Native Americans rebelled. Some attacked the missions, killing
missionaries and tearing down the mission buildings. Others simply left the
missions to go back to their own lives.
Stopping tile Russians in calilornia
Upper California was the last borderland Spain settled. The Spaniards had
claimed this territory in 1542 when they sailed along the Pacific Coast and
explored the site of present-day San Diego. However, they ignored Upper
California until the 1 760s, when they became alarmed at the activities of traders
from Russian-held Alaska. From time to time, the Russians went ashore to hunt
and gather furs.
Spanish officials sent an expedition to California in 1769. Their first goal was to
establish a chain of missions and military posts along the California coast. The
Spaniards began a settlement they called San Diego. This was the first of 21
missions built between San Diego and San Francisco.