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Certificate in Human Biology There are three modules in this certificate. Human Biology 1 A (Anatomy and Physiology) There are 6 lessons in this course: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Cells & Tissues Explains the human body at a microscopic level, including the structure and function of cells, tissues and membranes. Includes: the cell; human tissues; cell division; cell process; nutrient and waste exchange in cells. The Skeleton Examines features of the human skeletal system. Includes: bone anatomy; bone types; number of bones in adult human body; joints of bone; bone movements; the skeleton; fractures and fracture healing; osteoporosis. The Muscular System Describes the human muscular system, in terms of structure and basic function. Includes: tendons; movement; muscle fibre types; skeletal muscle types; summary. The Nervous System Looks at the human nervous system, in terms of structure and basic functions. Includes: nerve cells; sensory neurons, motor neurons; nerve terminology; the nervous system; central and peripheral nervous system; main parts of the nervous system; the spinal cord; crainial nerves; the autonomic nervous system; reflex actions. Digestion & Excretion Explains different physiological systems of digestion and excretion in the body. Includes: alimentary canal; mouth; oesophagus; stomach; small intestine; large intestine; accessory digestive organs; tongue, teeth, salivary glands; liver; pancreas, nutrient digestion disorders; selected digestive system disorders; vomiting; peptic ulcer, jaundice; haemorrhoids; cirrhosis; excretion; urinary system. Physiological Systems Focuses on the different physiological systems of the body. Includes: endocrine system. Each lesson culminates in an assignment which is submitted to the school, marked by the school's tutors and returned to you with any relevant suggestions, comments, and if necessary, extra reading. Aims To explain the human body at a microscopic level, including the structure and function of cells, tissues and membranes. Explain features of the human skeletal system. Describe the human muscular system, in terms of structure and basic function. Explain the human nervous system, in terms of structure and basic functions. Explain different physiological systems of digestion and excretion in the body. Explain different physiological systems of the body. What You Will Do Observe parts of the and identify parts of the human body Dissect an animal heart (obtained from a butcher) Observe different types of animal tissues (obtained from a butcher) Prepare a summary explaining the function of the main types of human body tissues. Explain, in your own words, different problems that can occur with different human tissues. Explain cellular division (mitosis and meiosis) Explain problems that can occur with different bones Explain the purpose of different structural components of muscle tissue, in an human muscle of your choice. Explain the function of a typical nerve cell, using words and illustrations. Explain the function of the central nervous system, using words and illustrations Describe different physiological process which occur in the digestive system. Describe different physiological process which occur in a properly functioning excretory system. Broadly classify the effects of hormones Explain different processes which occur in a properly functioning endocrine system. Describe the anatomy of the lung List the parts of the respiratory system Define inspiration and expiration Discuss the trachea Explain processes that occur in a properly functioning respiratory system. Draw and label diagrams of the parts of respiratory system Research further information relevant to human anatomy and physiology, using resources available to you (which may be different for different students) Extract from the course: "There are several different types of bone which will be discussed later in this section. A typical bone is made up of a shaft and two ends (known as extremities). The outer shell of a typical bone is known as compact bone. This layer is hard and covers most of the surface of the bone. The two extremities consist of spongy bone. This is made up of plates that form a porous network. The spaces within this network are usually filled with bone marrow which is a soft, fatty substance. Inside the shaft is the medullary cavity which is a hollow that is filled with bone marrow. Some bone ends are involved in joint movement. Where this occurs the extremity is covered with a thin layer of smooth cartilage. This cartilage is called the articular cartilage and its job is to provide a friction-free surface to aid movement. Around the entire surface of the bone (except where there is articular cartilage) is a thin, fibrous membrane called the periosteum. Bone-forming cells are located here and are responsible for laying down bone to increase the width of long bones. It also lays down bone in response to healing at places where fractures have occurred. Between the shaft and extremity is a disc of cartilage called the epiphysial cartilage. Osteoblasts (bone forming cells) are located in this disc and lay down bone which makes the bone longer. This disc is only active in the human until mature size is reached. After this, the disc ossifies. In humans this happens in the late teens or early twenties. About one third of the weight of bone consists of fibrous tissues and cells which make a framework. Two thirds consists of the inorganic salts which are deposited within the framework to make bone tissue hard. These salts are chiefly calcium and phosphorus (in fact, calcium phosphate accounts for some 80% of salts deposited in bone). Other salts include calcium carbonate and magnesium phosphate." Each lesson culminates in an assignment which is submitted to the school, marked by the school's tutors and returned to you with any relevant suggestions, comments, and if necessary, extra reading. Anatomy 2 There are 7 lessons in this course: 1. Cytology Common Organelles & Structures such as Plasma Membrane, Cytoplasm, Cytosol, Cytoskeleton, Nucleus, Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER), Mitochondria, Golgi Apparatus, Ribosomes, Lysosome and Peroxisome Specialised Organelles & Structures - Sarcolemma, Sarcoplasmic Reticulum, T-Tubules, Undulipodia and Microvilli The Anatomy of Cellular Division - Review, Characteristic Interphase Structures, Characteristic Mitosis Structures 2. Surface Anatomy Anatomy Terminology - Regions and Positions of the Body, Planes and Views of the Body, Locational and Directional Terminology, Descriptive Terms, Numerical Terms 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Surface Anatomy Superficial Structures, Features and Markings - the Head, the Neck, the Back, the Anterior Torso, the Upper Extremities and the Lower Extremities. Practical Use of Surface Anatomy - Inspection, Palpation, Auscultation, Percussion, Measuring Vital Signs, Blood Testing and Signs versus Symptoms Systemic Anatomy I Systemic Anatomy - Integumentary, Nervous, Endocrine, Immune etc. Organisation of the Body The integumentary System - Anatomy of the Skin and Anatomy of other Integumentary System Components The Nervous System - the Brain, the Spinal Cord, Spinal Nerve Anatomy, Divisions of the Nervous System The Cardiovascular System - the Heart and the Vasculature The Renal System - the Kidneys, the Ureters, the Bladder and the Urethra. Systemic Anatomy II The Endocrine System - the Pineal Gland, the Pituitary Gland, the Hypothalamus, Thyroid, Parathyroids, Thymus, Pancreas, Adrenal Glands and Ovaries and Testes. The Immune System - Thymus, Spleen, Bone Marrow and Lymphatic System The Male Reproductive System - External Components and Spermatogenesis in the Seminiferous Tubules of the Testes. The Female Reproductive System - the Uterus, the Vagina, the External Genitalia, the Ovaries and Fallopian Tubes, Accessory Glands and the Breast and Mammary Tissue. Regional Anatomy I Regional Anatomy - Integument, Peripheral Nervous System, Vasculature, Skeleton, Musculature Musculature - Brevi, Extensor, Indicis, Longus, Palmar etc. Bone - Girdle, Notch, Spine, Tuberosity etc. Vasculature and Miscellaneous - Axilla, Cubital, Palpate etc. The Cranial Cavity - Bones of the Skull and Facial Bones Thoracic Cavity - the Oral and Nasal Cavities, the Paranasal Sinuses, the Nasopharynx, the Oropharynx, the Laryngopharynx, the Larynx, Laryngeal Membranes, Ligaments and Muscles, the Trachea, the Bronchial Tree, the Lungs and the Diaphragm The Abdominopelvic Cavity - the Oesophagus, the Stomach, the Small Intestine and the Large Intestine. Regional Anatomy II The Upper Extremities - Anatomical features of - the Humerus, the Ulna, the Radius, the Carpals, the Metacarpals, the Phalanges; Musculature of the Upper Extremities, Innervation of the Upper Extremity, Vasculature of the Upper Extremity. The Lower Extremities - Anatomical Features of - the Pelvis, the Femur, the Tibia, the Fibula, the Tarsals, the Metatarsals, the Phalanges, Innervation of the Upper Extremity and Vasculature of the Lower Extremities. Radiographic and Diagnostic Anatomy Medical Imaging - X-Ray, CAT scan, MRI, PET Scan and Ultrasound Diagnostic Anatomy - Abdominopelvic Cavity, Abdominopelvic Quadrants. Each lesson culminates in an assignment which is submitted to the school, marked by the school's tutors and returned to you with any relevant suggestions, comments, and if necessary, extra reading. Aims Describe and understand the microscopic anatomical features of human cells Review basic structure and form markings of the body and be able to name them. Describe the significant systems and the structure of those systems of the body. Integumentary, Nervous, Cardiovascular and Renal Systems. Describe the significant systems and the structure of those systems of the body. Endocrine, Immune and Reproductive Systems. Describe the significant structures in specific compartments or parts of the body - body cavities. Investigate the anatomy of the extremities - the arms and legs. This includes the bone, musculature and nervous tissue of the regions. Describe the study of the structure of the body and the application of various forms of medical imaging. What You Will Do Describe the importance of the following structures of the eye: eyelids, eyelashes, and eyebrows. What structures form the oral cavity? Briefly describe their importance. Using the internet or other reference material, outline and describe otitis media and its causes. Besides the eyes, ear, and mouth - what other structures can be studied without a microscope ? List at least ten. Using the internet or other reference material, describe the three basic functions of the nervous system that are necessary to maintain homeostasis. Using reference materials or the internet, distinguish between grey and white matter and describe where they are found and their differences. Using the internet or other reference material define the following: resting membrane potential, depolarization, repolarization, polarized membrane, nerve impulse, depolarized membrane, repolarized membrane, and refractory period. List and describe the structure of the four principle parts of the brain. Compare and contrast neurons and neuroglia, describing both structure and function List the names and locations of the principal body cavities and their major organs. List the names and locations of the abdominopelvic quadrants and regions. In which quadrant would you feel the pain from appendicitis? From an inflamed liver or gallbladder problems? Problems with the sigmoid colon? Problems with the spleen? Using the internet or other reference materials find a sample image of the listed medical imaging techniques. The study of the human body can be divided into specific fields, one of which is anatomy. Anatomy is the study of structure, how parts of the body are sized and shaped and how they interact with each other, as well as the tissues that form them. It does not consider how parts of the body function; what they do, this is the field of physiology. Anatomy is and was the starting point of scientific investigation of the human body. Without an understanding of structure we cannot fully understand function, for it is the structure and interrelation of body parts that permits their function. In order to study anatomy, it is important to understand the different medical/scientific terms that are used to indicate location, relationship, components, numbers and so on. Key terms are listed in the following tables, some will be familiar, but should be reviewed along with new terms, to ensure you are able to fully understand this course. Extract from Course Notes THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM The endocrine system is a composed of a set of discrete organs that are connected by the blood stream. The organs include: Pineal Gland Hypothalamus Pituitary Thyroid Parathyroids Thymus Adrenals Pancreas Ovaries Testes The Pineal Gland A tiny gland located in the middle of the brain, inferior to the corpus callosum and intermediate to the two thalamic bodies. It is roughly oval in shape and measures about 8mm across. It is composed of both endocrine cells (pinealocytes) that produce the pigment melatonin and neurons. The Pituitary Gland A small gland located in the base of the brain, inferior and anterior to the pineal gland and immediately superior to the pons. It is level with the bridge of the nose. It sits in a cavity of sphenoid bone called the sella turcica, and is overlain by a layer of the dura mater, known as the sella diaphragm. The gland itself is suspended by the pituitary or infundibular stalk (also known as the infundibulum) which runs superiorly to the hypothalamus. The pituitary has two lobes, anterior and posterior. The anterior lobe, also known as the adenohypophysis has three anatomic regions: Pars tuberalis The most superior portion, wraps around the infundibular stalk. Pars intermedia narrow band. Pars distalis Intermidate between the pars distalis and the posterior lobe, forms a The outermost and largest region of the lobe. The anterior lobe is the main endocrine portion of the pituitary gland. It secretes an array of hormones under the control of the hypothalamus. Neurons run between the hypothalamus and the pituitary via the infundibular stalk. The posterior lobe is made up of nervous tissue, but is still considered part of the endocrine system. This is because the nerves secrete peptide hormones. It is also known as the neurohypophysis. It can be divided into anatomical regions, like the anterior lobe: Pars nervosa Forms the remainder of the pituitary. Contain pituitocytes that are supporting cells for the nerve tissue of the pituitary. Also contain nerve endings that store hormones known as Herring bodies. Infundibular stalk The stalk from which the pituitary is suspended, contains the neurological tract that connects the pituitary and the hypothalamus. The Hypothalamus This is the primary control gland in the endocrine system. It also forms the connection between the endocrine and nervous systems. It is located superior to the pituitary gland and brain stem and inferior to the thalamus. It can be divided into a range of regions of nuclei, as described in the previous lesson. Neurons monitor hormone levels in the blood and also secrete a number of different hormones. Physiology 2 There are 9 lessons in this course: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Cell Physiology Histophysiology Systems Physiology Neurophysiology Endocrinology Cardiovascular Physiology 7. 8. 9. Immunology Respiratory Physiology Renal Physiology Each lesson culminates in an assignment which is submitted to the school, marked by the school's tutors and returned to you with any relevant suggestions, comments, and if necessary, extra reading. Aims Review basic functions occurring in the cells of the human body Review basic functioning of the tissues within the body such as bone and muscle. Describe the significant systems and the functions of those systems of the body. Describe the functional characteristics of the nerve cells and nervous system. Describe the functioning of hormones and how they control body functions. Describe the functioning of the heart, blood, and blood vessels in the cardiovascular system. Describe the significant functions of the body’s defence system and the cells of the immune system. Describe the significant functions of the respiratory system and the air passages and lungs. Describe the function of the kidneys and the renal system in the human body. What You Will Do Cell Physiology Study of the functions of cells Chemical reactions Homeostasis, feedback systems, homeostatic imbalances Cellular Metabolism Membrane Transport Histophysiology - Study of the functions of tissues Muscle filaments and fibres Bone Ossification and Growth Varieties of Dense Connective Tissue Functions of Epithilial Tissue Systems Physiology - Study of the significant systems and functions of organs Autonomic Nervous System Dual Innervation and neurotransmitters Actions of the Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Nervous System Peripheral Nervous System General senses and their integrative function Study of the sensory modalities - smell, taste, vision, hearing and equilibrium Neurophysiology - Study of the functional characteristics of nerve cells Structure of the Nervous System Myelination Resting membrane potentions, ion channels, repolarization Classification of different neurons Grey/White matter Reflexes, relex arcs and homeostasis Action potentials and synapses Functions of the cerebral cortex Endocrinology - Study of hormones and how they control body functions Principle functions of the endocrine system Physiology of hormones Actions of the Anterior and Posterior Pituitary Glands Hormone receptors Mechanisms of homeostatic action Cardiovascular Physiology - Study of the heart and blood vessels The Cardiac Cycle Heart-Muscle cell contraction Hemodynamics of blood - volume, BP, capillary exchange The Arterial-Alveolar Gradient Cardiac Output Oxygen Transport Immunology - Study of the body defence mechanisms Non specific cellular and Chemical Defenses Functions of White Blood Cells The Inflammatory Response The Physiology of Fever Specific Defense Mechanisms Immunity and Antibodise Respiratory Physiology - Study the functions of the air passageways and lungs Pulmonary Ventilation - pulmonary capacity Gas Exchange Lung Volumes and Capacity The Respiratory Epithelium Renal Physiology - Study of the function of the kidneys Structure and Functions of the kidneys Nephrons Glomerular Filtration Renal control of Electrolytes and Acid Base Balance Active and Passive Tubular Reabsorption Tubular Secretion The process of Micturition Extract from Course SYSTEMS PHYSIOLOGY A group of tissues make up an organ and a group of organs that work in a specific way together make up the organisation of a system. The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) includes both cranial and spinal nerves and is divided into a Somatic Nervous System (SNS), Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) and Enteric Nervous System (ENS) Both the somatic and autonomic nervous systems operate via reflex arches and the somatic nervous system comprises both sensory and motor neurons. Sensory neurons convey input from nerve receptors for the special senses which are vision, hearing, taste, smell and equilibrium. The function of motor neurons is to stimulate skeletal muscle. Some other significant systems are the digestive, integumentary, endocrine, cardiovascular, respiratory, urinary, reproductive, and immune system as well as the special senses, sensory, motor, and integrative systems. Some of these systems will be covered in later lessons. Autonomic Nervous System The Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) regulates the activity of smooth muscle, cardiac muscle and some glands help to maintain homeostasis. It is part of the nervous system that maintains internal organs, which include the stomach, liver, kidney, blood vessels, bladder, pupils and eye muscles, heart, digestive glands, sweat and saliva. The ANS operates without conscious control or sensation, meaning that the response cannot be changed or suppressed and the main input to it is assisted by autonomic sensory neurons. These neurons regulate different activities by either increasing (exciting) or decreasing (inhibiting) ongoing activities (cardiac, smooth muscles and glands). The main purpose of the ANS is to be related with other systems and in fact, it is also interdependent with them. An example of the ANS in action is in the flight or flight response in the General Adaptation Syndrome. The ANS is made up of the Parasympathetic and Sympathetic divisions which balance activity and tone of certain organs such as genitals, heart and digestive system – both of these divisions receive impulses from both sympathetic and parasympathetic neurons to be able to function adequately. When the autonomic nervous system receives information about the body from the outside environment and body, it then responds by either stimulating body processes, which is usually processed through the sympathetic division, or inhibiting responses, which is generally done through the parasympathetic division. The neurons of the autonomic nervous system are also based on the type of neurotransmitter they produce: Cholinergic which release acetylcholine (Ach) and Adrenergic which release noradrenalin or adrenalin.