Download Certificate in Human Biology

Certificate in Human Biology
There are three modules in this certificate.
Human Biology 1 A (Anatomy and Physiology)
There are 6 lessons in this course:
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Cells & Tissues Explains the human body at a microscopic level, including the structure and function of cells,
tissues and membranes.
 Includes: the cell; human tissues; cell division; cell process; nutrient and waste exchange in cells.
The Skeleton  Examines features of the human skeletal system.
 Includes: bone anatomy; bone types; number of bones in adult human body; joints of bone; bone
movements; the skeleton; fractures and fracture healing; osteoporosis.
The Muscular System  Describes the human muscular system, in terms of structure and basic function.
 Includes: tendons; movement; muscle fibre types; skeletal muscle types; summary.
The Nervous System
 Looks at the human nervous system, in terms of structure and basic functions.
 Includes: nerve cells; sensory neurons, motor neurons; nerve terminology; the nervous system;
central and peripheral nervous system; main parts of the nervous system; the spinal cord; crainial
nerves; the autonomic nervous system; reflex actions.
Digestion & Excretion  Explains different physiological systems of digestion and excretion in the body.
 Includes: alimentary canal; mouth; oesophagus; stomach; small intestine; large intestine;
accessory digestive organs; tongue, teeth, salivary glands; liver; pancreas, nutrient digestion
disorders; selected digestive system disorders; vomiting; peptic ulcer, jaundice; haemorrhoids;
cirrhosis; excretion; urinary system.
Physiological Systems
 Focuses on the different physiological systems of the body.
 Includes: endocrine system.
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Each lesson culminates in an assignment which is submitted to the school, marked by the school's tutors and
returned to you with any relevant suggestions, comments, and if necessary, extra reading.
Aims
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To explain the human body at a microscopic level, including the structure and function of cells, tissues
and membranes.
Explain features of the human skeletal system.
Describe the human muscular system, in terms of structure and basic function.
Explain the human nervous system, in terms of structure and basic functions.
Explain different physiological systems of digestion and excretion in the body.
Explain different physiological systems of the body.
What You Will Do
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Observe parts of the and identify parts of the human body
Dissect an animal heart (obtained from a butcher)
Observe different types of animal tissues (obtained from a butcher)
Prepare a summary explaining the function of the main types of human body tissues.
Explain, in your own words, different problems that can occur with different human tissues.
Explain cellular division (mitosis and meiosis)
Explain problems that can occur with different bones
Explain the purpose of different structural components of muscle tissue, in an human muscle of your
choice.
Explain the function of a typical nerve cell, using words and illustrations.
Explain the function of the central nervous system, using words and illustrations
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Describe different physiological process which occur in the digestive system.
Describe different physiological process which occur in a properly functioning excretory system.
Broadly classify the effects of hormones
Explain different processes which occur in a properly functioning endocrine system.
Describe the anatomy of the lung
List the parts of the respiratory system
Define inspiration and expiration
Discuss the trachea
Explain processes that occur in a properly functioning respiratory system.
Draw and label diagrams of the parts of respiratory system
Research further information relevant to human anatomy and physiology, using resources available to
you (which may be different for different students)
Extract from the course:
"There are several different types of bone which will be discussed later in this section. A typical bone is made
up of a shaft and two ends (known as extremities). The outer shell of a typical bone is known as compact
bone. This layer is hard and covers most of the surface of the bone. The two extremities consist of spongy
bone. This is made up of plates that form a porous network.
The spaces within this network are usually filled with bone marrow which is a soft, fatty substance. Inside the
shaft is the medullary cavity which is a hollow that is filled with bone marrow. Some bone ends are involved in
joint movement. Where this occurs the extremity is covered with a thin layer of smooth cartilage. This cartilage
is called the articular cartilage and its job is to provide a friction-free surface to aid movement.
Around the entire surface of the bone (except where there is articular cartilage) is a thin, fibrous membrane
called the periosteum. Bone-forming cells are located here and are responsible for laying down bone to
increase the width of long bones. It also lays down bone in response to healing at places where fractures have
occurred.
Between the shaft and extremity is a disc of cartilage called the epiphysial cartilage. Osteoblasts (bone forming
cells) are located in this disc and lay down bone which makes the bone longer. This disc is only active in the
human until mature size is reached. After this, the disc ossifies. In humans this happens in the late teens or
early twenties.
About one third of the weight of bone consists of fibrous tissues and cells which make a framework. Two thirds
consists of the inorganic salts which are deposited within the framework to make bone tissue hard. These salts
are chiefly calcium and phosphorus (in fact, calcium phosphate accounts for some 80% of salts deposited in
bone). Other salts include calcium carbonate and magnesium phosphate."
Each lesson culminates in an assignment which is submitted to the school, marked by the school's tutors and
returned to you with any relevant suggestions, comments, and if necessary, extra reading.
Anatomy 2
There are 7 lessons in this course:
1.
Cytology
Common Organelles & Structures such as Plasma Membrane, Cytoplasm, Cytosol, Cytoskeleton,
Nucleus, Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER), Mitochondria, Golgi Apparatus, Ribosomes, Lysosome and
Peroxisome
 Specialised Organelles & Structures - Sarcolemma, Sarcoplasmic Reticulum, T-Tubules,
Undulipodia and Microvilli
 The Anatomy of Cellular Division - Review, Characteristic Interphase Structures, Characteristic
Mitosis Structures
2. Surface Anatomy
 Anatomy
 Terminology - Regions and Positions of the Body, Planes and Views of the Body, Locational and
Directional Terminology, Descriptive Terms, Numerical Terms
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Surface Anatomy
Superficial Structures, Features and Markings - the Head, the Neck, the Back, the Anterior Torso,
the Upper Extremities and the Lower Extremities.
 Practical Use of Surface Anatomy - Inspection, Palpation, Auscultation, Percussion, Measuring Vital
Signs, Blood Testing and Signs versus Symptoms
Systemic Anatomy I
 Systemic Anatomy - Integumentary, Nervous, Endocrine, Immune etc.
 Organisation of the Body
 The integumentary System - Anatomy of the Skin and Anatomy of other Integumentary System
Components
 The Nervous System - the Brain, the Spinal Cord, Spinal Nerve Anatomy, Divisions of the Nervous
System
 The Cardiovascular System - the Heart and the Vasculature
 The Renal System - the Kidneys, the Ureters, the Bladder and the Urethra.
Systemic Anatomy II
 The Endocrine System - the Pineal Gland, the Pituitary Gland, the Hypothalamus, Thyroid,
Parathyroids, Thymus, Pancreas, Adrenal Glands and Ovaries and Testes.
 The Immune System - Thymus, Spleen, Bone Marrow and Lymphatic System
 The Male Reproductive System - External Components and Spermatogenesis in the Seminiferous
Tubules of the Testes.
 The Female Reproductive System - the Uterus, the Vagina, the External Genitalia, the Ovaries and
Fallopian Tubes, Accessory Glands and the Breast and Mammary Tissue.
Regional Anatomy I
 Regional Anatomy - Integument, Peripheral Nervous System, Vasculature, Skeleton, Musculature
 Musculature - Brevi, Extensor, Indicis, Longus, Palmar etc.
 Bone - Girdle, Notch, Spine, Tuberosity etc.
 Vasculature and Miscellaneous - Axilla, Cubital, Palpate etc.
 The Cranial Cavity - Bones of the Skull and Facial Bones
 Thoracic Cavity - the Oral and Nasal Cavities, the Paranasal Sinuses, the Nasopharynx, the
Oropharynx, the Laryngopharynx, the Larynx, Laryngeal Membranes, Ligaments and Muscles, the
Trachea, the Bronchial Tree, the Lungs and the Diaphragm
 The Abdominopelvic Cavity - the Oesophagus, the Stomach, the Small Intestine and the Large
Intestine.
Regional Anatomy II
 The Upper Extremities - Anatomical features of - the Humerus, the Ulna, the Radius, the Carpals,
the Metacarpals, the Phalanges; Musculature of the Upper Extremities, Innervation of the Upper
Extremity, Vasculature of the Upper Extremity.
 The Lower Extremities - Anatomical Features of - the Pelvis, the Femur, the Tibia, the Fibula, the
Tarsals, the Metatarsals, the Phalanges, Innervation of the Upper Extremity and Vasculature of the
Lower Extremities.
Radiographic and Diagnostic Anatomy
 Medical Imaging - X-Ray, CAT scan, MRI, PET Scan and Ultrasound
 Diagnostic Anatomy - Abdominopelvic Cavity, Abdominopelvic Quadrants.
Each lesson culminates in an assignment which is submitted to the school, marked by the school's tutors and
returned to you with any relevant suggestions, comments, and if necessary, extra reading.
Aims
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Describe and understand the microscopic anatomical features of human cells
Review basic structure and form markings of the body and be able to name them.
Describe the significant systems and the structure of those systems of the body.
 Integumentary, Nervous, Cardiovascular and Renal Systems.
Describe the significant systems and the structure of those systems of the body.
 Endocrine, Immune and Reproductive Systems.
Describe the significant structures in specific compartments or parts of the body - body cavities.
Investigate the anatomy of the extremities - the arms and legs. This includes the bone, musculature and
nervous tissue of the regions.
Describe the study of the structure of the body and the application of various forms of medical imaging.
What You Will Do
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Describe the importance of the following structures of the eye: eyelids, eyelashes, and eyebrows.
What structures form the oral cavity? Briefly describe their importance.
Using the internet or other reference material, outline and describe otitis media and its causes.
Besides the eyes, ear, and mouth - what other structures can be studied without a microscope ? List at
least ten.
Using the internet or other reference material, describe the three basic functions of the nervous system
that are necessary to maintain homeostasis.
Using reference materials or the internet, distinguish between grey and white matter and describe where
they are found and their differences.
Using the internet or other reference material define the following: resting membrane potential,
depolarization, repolarization, polarized membrane, nerve impulse, depolarized membrane, repolarized
membrane, and refractory period.
List and describe the structure of the four principle parts of the brain.
Compare and contrast neurons and neuroglia, describing both structure and function
List the names and locations of the principal body cavities and their major organs.
List the names and locations of the abdominopelvic quadrants and regions.
In which quadrant would you feel the pain from appendicitis? From an inflamed liver or gallbladder
problems? Problems with the sigmoid colon? Problems with the spleen?
Using the internet or other reference materials find a sample image of the listed medical imaging
techniques.
The study of the human body can be divided into specific fields, one of which is
anatomy. Anatomy is the study of structure, how parts of the body are sized and shaped and
how they interact with each other, as well as the tissues that form them. It does not consider
how parts of the body function; what they do, this is the field of physiology.
Anatomy is and was the starting point of scientific investigation of the human body. Without
an understanding of structure we cannot fully understand function, for it is the structure and
interrelation of body parts that permits their function. In order to study anatomy, it is
important to understand the different medical/scientific terms that are used to indicate
location, relationship, components, numbers and so on. Key terms are listed in the following
tables, some will be familiar, but should be reviewed along with new terms, to ensure you are
able to fully understand this course.
Extract from Course Notes
THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
The endocrine system is a composed of a set of discrete organs that are connected by the blood stream. The
organs include:
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Pineal Gland
Hypothalamus
Pituitary
Thyroid
Parathyroids
Thymus
Adrenals
Pancreas
Ovaries
Testes
The Pineal Gland
A tiny gland located in the middle of the brain, inferior to the corpus callosum and intermediate to the two
thalamic bodies. It is roughly oval in shape and measures about 8mm across. It is composed of both endocrine
cells (pinealocytes) that produce the pigment melatonin and neurons.
The Pituitary Gland
A small gland located in the base of the brain, inferior and anterior to the pineal gland and immediately
superior to the pons. It is level with the bridge of the nose. It sits in a cavity of sphenoid bone called the sella
turcica, and is overlain by a layer of the dura mater, known as the sella diaphragm.
The gland itself is suspended by the pituitary or infundibular stalk (also known as the
infundibulum) which runs superiorly to the hypothalamus. The pituitary has two lobes,
anterior and posterior. The anterior lobe, also known as the adenohypophysis has three
anatomic regions:
Pars tuberalis
The most superior portion, wraps around the infundibular stalk.
Pars intermedia
narrow band.
Pars distalis
Intermidate between the pars distalis and the posterior lobe, forms a
The outermost and largest region of the lobe.
The anterior lobe is the main endocrine portion of the pituitary gland. It secretes an array of hormones under
the control of the hypothalamus. Neurons run between the hypothalamus and the pituitary via the infundibular
stalk.
The posterior lobe is made up of nervous tissue, but is still considered part of the endocrine
system. This is because the nerves secrete peptide hormones. It is also known as the
neurohypophysis. It can be divided into anatomical regions, like the anterior lobe:
Pars nervosa
Forms the remainder of the pituitary. Contain pituitocytes that are supporting cells for the
nerve tissue of the pituitary. Also contain nerve endings that store hormones known as Herring bodies.
Infundibular stalk
The stalk from which the pituitary is suspended, contains the
neurological tract that connects the pituitary and the hypothalamus.
The Hypothalamus
This is the primary control gland in the endocrine system. It also forms the connection between the endocrine
and nervous systems. It is located superior to the pituitary gland and brain stem and inferior to the thalamus.
It can be divided into a range of regions of nuclei, as described in the previous lesson. Neurons monitor
hormone levels in the blood and also secrete a number of different hormones.
Physiology 2
There are 9 lessons in this course:
1.
2.
3.
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6.
Cell Physiology
Histophysiology
Systems Physiology
Neurophysiology
Endocrinology
Cardiovascular Physiology
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Immunology
Respiratory Physiology
Renal Physiology
Each lesson culminates in an assignment which is submitted to the school, marked by the school's tutors and
returned to you with any relevant suggestions, comments, and if necessary, extra reading.
Aims
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Review basic functions occurring in the cells of the human body
Review basic functioning of the tissues within the body such as bone and muscle.
Describe the significant systems and the functions of those systems of the body.
Describe the functional characteristics of the nerve cells and nervous system.
Describe the functioning of hormones and how they control body functions.
Describe the functioning of the heart, blood, and blood vessels in the cardiovascular system.
Describe the significant functions of the body’s defence system and the cells of the immune system.
Describe the significant functions of the respiratory system and the air passages and lungs.
Describe the function of the kidneys and the renal system in the human body.
What You Will Do
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Cell Physiology
 Study of the functions of cells
Chemical reactions
 Homeostasis, feedback systems, homeostatic imbalances
 Cellular Metabolism
 Membrane Transport
 Histophysiology - Study of the functions of tissues
Muscle filaments and fibres
 Bone Ossification and Growth
 Varieties of Dense Connective Tissue
 Functions of Epithilial Tissue
 Systems Physiology - Study of the significant systems and functions of organs
Autonomic Nervous System
 Dual Innervation and neurotransmitters
 Actions of the Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Nervous System
 Peripheral Nervous System
 General senses and their integrative function
 Study of the sensory modalities - smell, taste, vision, hearing and equilibrium
 Neurophysiology - Study of the functional characteristics of nerve cells
Structure of the Nervous System
 Myelination
 Resting membrane potentions, ion channels, repolarization
 Classification of different neurons
 Grey/White matter
 Reflexes, relex arcs and homeostasis
 Action potentials and synapses
 Functions of the cerebral cortex
 Endocrinology - Study of hormones and how they control body functions
Principle functions of the endocrine system
 Physiology of hormones
 Actions of the Anterior and Posterior Pituitary Glands
 Hormone receptors
 Mechanisms of homeostatic action
 Cardiovascular Physiology - Study of the heart and blood vessels
The Cardiac Cycle
 Heart-Muscle cell contraction
 Hemodynamics of blood - volume, BP, capillary exchange
 The Arterial-Alveolar Gradient
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Cardiac Output
Oxygen Transport
Immunology - Study of the body defence mechanisms
Non specific cellular and Chemical Defenses
 Functions of White Blood Cells
 The Inflammatory Response
 The Physiology of Fever
 Specific Defense Mechanisms
 Immunity and Antibodise
 Respiratory Physiology - Study the functions of the air passageways and lungs
Pulmonary Ventilation - pulmonary capacity
 Gas Exchange
 Lung Volumes and Capacity
 The Respiratory Epithelium
 Renal Physiology - Study of the function of the kidneys
Structure and Functions of the kidneys
 Nephrons
 Glomerular Filtration
 Renal control of Electrolytes and Acid Base Balance
 Active and Passive Tubular Reabsorption
 Tubular Secretion
 The process of Micturition
Extract from Course
SYSTEMS PHYSIOLOGY
A group of tissues make up an organ and a group of organs that work in a specific way together make up the
organisation of a system.
The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) includes both cranial and spinal nerves and is divided into a Somatic
Nervous System (SNS), Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) and Enteric Nervous System (ENS)
Both the somatic and autonomic nervous systems operate via reflex arches and the somatic nervous system
comprises both sensory and motor neurons. Sensory neurons convey input from nerve receptors for the special
senses which are vision, hearing, taste, smell and equilibrium. The function of motor neurons is to stimulate
skeletal muscle.
Some other significant systems are the digestive, integumentary, endocrine, cardiovascular, respiratory,
urinary, reproductive, and immune system as well as the special senses, sensory, motor, and integrative
systems. Some of these systems will be covered in later lessons.
Autonomic Nervous System
The Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) regulates the activity of smooth muscle, cardiac muscle and some
glands help to maintain homeostasis. It is part of the nervous system that maintains internal organs, which
include the stomach, liver, kidney, blood vessels, bladder, pupils and eye muscles, heart, digestive glands,
sweat and saliva.
The ANS operates without conscious control or sensation, meaning that the response cannot be changed or
suppressed and the main input to it is assisted by autonomic sensory neurons. These neurons regulate
different activities by either increasing (exciting) or decreasing (inhibiting) ongoing activities (cardiac, smooth
muscles and glands).
The main purpose of the ANS is to be related with other systems and in fact, it is also interdependent with
them. An example of the ANS in action is in the flight or flight response in the General Adaptation Syndrome.
The ANS is made up of the Parasympathetic and Sympathetic divisions which balance activity and tone of
certain organs such as genitals, heart and digestive system – both of these divisions receive impulses from
both sympathetic and parasympathetic neurons to be able to function adequately.
When the autonomic nervous system receives information about the body from the outside environment and
body, it then responds by either stimulating body processes, which is usually processed through the
sympathetic division, or inhibiting responses, which is generally done through the parasympathetic
division. The neurons of the autonomic nervous system are also based on the type of neurotransmitter they
produce: Cholinergic which release acetylcholine (Ach) and Adrenergic which release noradrenalin or adrenalin.