Download Wildlife Habitat Requirements overview INSTRUCTOR: UNIT

Wildlife Habitat Requirements
OVERVIEW
INSTRUCTOR:
UNIT: Wildlife, Fisheries, and Ecology Management
LESSON: Wildlife Habitat Requirements
IMS REFERENCE: #8986-A
TOPIC NOTES
INTRODUCTION
The management of wildlife is a complicated science. Wildlife management is to
establish a healthy, diverse wild population of plants and animals. In nature, plants and
animals form a symbiotic relationship. Plants provide food and cover for the animals.
Animals control the growth of plants and return nutrients from the plants back to the soil.
Rainfall fills rivers and lakes providing water for plants and animals. The vastness of the
countryside provides space for plants and animals to live. The same vast expanse
provides for the proper arrangement of food, cover, water, and space.
Food, water, cover, space, and arrangement are all essential for the survival of wildlife.
Human destruction of habitat breaks down these elements. Agriculture, roads, homes, and
industry requires land. It is impossible to use land for these purposes without destroying
wildlife habitat.
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Wildlife Habitat Requirements
Habitat management is the attention to the needs of wildlife. When properly conducted, it
will provide the food, water, cover, space, and arrangement required by wildlife. Where
humans need land for their own survival, they can also provide for the needs of all
wildlife.
FOOD
When caring for livestock, a rancher provides food in the form of prepared feeds or
pasture. To attract deer to a site, a hunter will usually feed corn. Homeowners will hang
feeders on their porches to attract hummingbirds. Birdseed is available for homeowners
to attract and feed birds. Where these are ways to feed wildlife, they are impractical or
ineffective on a large scale.
A game manager understands that there is a diversity of wildlife and each has its own
food preferences. Plants (primary producers) take nutrients from the soil, energy from the
sun, and sufficient water. Plants are the largest group in the food chain. Plants provide the
base of the food chain. Herbivores (songbirds, squirrel, deer) will eat only plants and
seeds. Carnivores (coyotes, mountain lions, snakes) prey on other animals. Omnivores
(raccoons, skunks, opossums) will feed on vegetation and prey on other animals. All
forms of wildlife serve a specific function in the ecosystem.
Species have selective tastes even within their classification. Some herbivores prefer
forbs while others prefer grasses. Some herbivores feed on succulents such as cactus
while others feed on berries and seeds. Each species has their preference for food. Even
plants are selective where they grow. Some plants only grow in an aquatic area while
others thrive only in drier climates.
A successful game manager will know what wildlife is present and the type of food the
animals prefer. Plants adapt to certain climates and weather conditions. A game manager
will know the plants native to the targeted area as well as those plants that can adapt to
the area.
Plant cover protects the soil from erosion and helps keep
the soil moisture stable in a natural ecosystem. In that
system, a balance of plants supports a community of
animals. Those animals in turn provide a food supply to
the predators. Predators prevent the herbivores from over
populating and consuming all of the plants. This prevents
soil erosion, maintains soil nutrients, and prevents loss of
soil moisture. The soil provides plants and the plants feed
the herbivores. This continuous cycle of plants and
animals feeding on and being fed on by other members of
the ecosystem is the food chain (see Figure 1).
Figure 1. Food Chain
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Wildlife Habitat Requirements
Destruction of habitat breaks the cycle. This destruction kills plants, exposes the ground,
and displaces animals. There is not enough vegetation for food or cover. The herbivores
do not have enough food to produce healthy litters nor do they have the cover for natal
activities. In the absence of enough wild prey, carnivores will prey on domestic animals.
This causes the rancher to begin predator control activity.
Predator control and a decreased food supply will reduce the number of predators.
Invader plants replace the preferred plants of the area. Herbivores adapt to the new plant
growth and begin to increase in numbers. Without predators to keep them in balance, they
soon overpopulate. This again reduces the plant population. The animals look for new
food sources generally cultivated crops. The farmer now has crop damage from
herbivores.
It is easy to understand the need for a balanced ecosystem. Each level of the food chain
depends on the health and size of the other levels. A skilled wildlife manager understands
this relationship and works to maintain a balanced ecosystem. A diversity of preferred
plants promotes a strong population of plant eaters. This in turn provides a plentiful food
supply for the predators.
Managing food sources for wildlife can be simple or complex. The more elements in an
ecosystem, the more complex it is to manage. An ecosystem with a wetland, timber, and
grassland is more diverse and complex than a prairie. Within each type of system exists a
food web (see Figure 2). In the food web, one stage of an animal’s life cycle may expose
it as prey to animals that they may hunt when they are adults.
Figure 2. Food Web
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A game manager should understand the concept of “good” or “bad” years, competitors,
seasons, and available shelter. Plant nutrient value varies; rainfall affects plant growth,
length of seasons affect plant growth. A rancher knows how many head of cattle are in a
pasture. The rancher also knows how many cattle the grass can support and for how long.
These are two major factors in managing the wildlife food supply. A game manager must
know the population of all species in the area under management. It is also necessary to
know the food source of each species. With these two items of information, a wildlife
manager can effectively control populations to meet the food supply available or work to
increase the volume of preferred plants.
Food Requirements for Selected Game Species
Managing food for wildlife requires an understanding and knowledge of the food
requirements for various species. The following are selected game species often targeted
by landowners and wildlife managers for development. Providing food for these species
often have residual effects for other wildlife species. Consult other references for specific
food needs of wildlife species not listed in this topic.
White-tailed Deer
Plants eaten by deer fall into one of three general categories: (1) browse or woody plants,
(2) forbs or weeds (herbaceous broadleaf plants), and (3) grasses. The percentage these
three types of food comprise in the diet of deer varies between seasons, vegetative areas,
soils, individuals, and competition. Deer are very selective if they have a choice of foods
and select foods because of their palatability, succulence, availability, and nutritive value.
A good deer diet consists of three to seven pounds of dry matter per day and contains 14
to 18 percent protein. The leaves, twigs, and fruit of woody brush species, along with
weeds and forbs, make up the bulk of the diet. Increased use of grass may indicate over
population, poor conditions, or too much competition. A listing of preferred food items is
at the end of this section. In addition to native plants, deer also like many agricultural
crops such as peanuts, corn, peas, clover, oats, ryegrass, and wheat. In some areas, deer
will eat the tender parts of cotton plants. Deer will eat available salt, but it is not essential.
Mule Deer
Browse is the staple item in the yearlong diet of the mule deer. Mule deer will eat
succulent grasses and forbs when available.
Pronghorn Antelope
The diet of the pronghorn antelope consists primarily of forbs, browse, and a few grasses,
varying with the seasons and the habitat types. Generally, their diet will be 65 percent
forbs, 30 percent browse, and less than 10 percent grasses. When available and
accessible, small grains such as wheat, barley, and oats may make up as high as 70
percent of the winter diet of pronghorns.
Pronghorns are unique in that they can eat several forbs that are poisonous to domestic
livestock. On poor condition and overgrazed ranges, and during periodic droughts,
pronghorns have suffered losses from browsing woolly locoweed, creosote bush, and
tarbush.
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Wildlife Habitat Requirements
Javelina
Javelina is chiefly an herbivore and will feed on various cacti, especially prickly pear,
mesquite beans, sotol, lechuguilla, and other succulent vegetation. Food studies have
shown that prickly pear makes up 80 to 95 percent of the daily diet of javelinas. Javelinas
also root for tubers, rhizomes, and bulbs. Most food studies found that javelina also eat
certain animals such as rats, snakes, grubs, and carrion. Javelinas eat seasonal mast
(acorns), grapes, hackberries, persimmons, and agarito berries when available.
Squirrel
The daily food requirement of squirrel is 0.2 pounds. Acorns are the main stay food of
squirrel and makes up about 60 percent by weight of the total amount of food consumed.
Squirrels eat acorns to some extent 12 months out of the year. Most hardwood trees must
be at least 25 years old before acorn production begins. Antlers, bones, seeds, and fruit
provide calcium when eaten by squirrels. Pecans and other nuts are taken in considerable
quantities in spring, summer, and fall by squirrels. Pecans are preferred over all other
foods. Squirrels begin to feed on pecans when blooms occur and continues through the
nut stage.
Quail
The quail’s food consists of about 15 percent animal matter and 85 percent plant matter.
The animal food is predominantly insects such as beetles, weevils, caterpillars, and
crickets. Young birds feed almost exclusively on insects. The plant matter is composed
mainly of seeds and fruits, although quail eat some green vegetation. Plants that produce
a smooth, hard seed such as ragweed, croton, and partridge pea are important food plants.
Quail use agricultural crops including corn, grain sorghum, legumes, soybeans, and other
small grains.
Pheasant
Pheasants are basically seedeaters. Domestic grains (corn, grain sorghum, wheat, barley,
soybeans) provide the bulk of a pheasant’s diet. In the spring and summer, insects
provide a significant amount of the animal matter in the diet. Pheasant chicks subsist
entirely on insects for the first five weeks of their life. Seeds such as ragweed, careless
weed, smartweed, and crotons make up a significant amount of the winter diet. Gravel
and calcium (in the form of snail shells) is an important part of the pheasants’ diets. This
is especially important during the breeding and egg laying period.
Turkey
The turkey is opportunistic and uses a wide range of food. During the spring and summer,
food items are green grasses and forbs, buds, flowers, seed, and insects. Poults’ diet
during their first two weeks of life is 90 percent insects found primarily in openings and
on the edge of pastures. Fall and winter foods include seed, green grass and forb shoots,
acorns, and agriculture crops such as corn, grain sorghum, and wheat.
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Mourning Dove
A mourning dove’s main diet consists of seeds from native grasses, cultivated grains, and
forbs such as croton and sunflower. Insects are a minor item in their diet. Gravel or grit
aid in digesting seed. The most popular feeding areas of mourning dove are recently
harvested crop fields where waste grain and bare ground are present.
WATER
Water is basic to all living organisms, both domestic and wild. All plants and animals
require water. How much, how often, and by what species is the problem faced by
wildlife managers. Plants adapt to the amount of rainfall. Dense ground cover will
conserve soil moisture for plant growth. Some animals get water from the dew or the
plants they eat. Most animals have to travel to their water source.
A wildlife manager sees the importance of plants in an ecosystem. Reduction of plants
may be due to overgrazing or drought. It may be necessary to replant to strengthen a plant
community. Native plants should be the first choice of the wildlife manager. They
already have adapted to the type of weather conditions in the area.
Water needs for animals vary, often within species. Turkeys can travel to get water.
However, nesting hens need nearby water. The bobwhite quail will use no free water.
Amphibians live, travel, find food, locate shelter, and often reproduce in water.
Large animals will travel longer distances to water than will smaller animals. Smaller
birds (quail and dove) can travel longer distances than larger birds (turkey and pheasant).
Nesting or nurturing females need closer water than males or females not caring for
young. Some animals (javelina) can meet their water needs from plants. Other animals
(frogs, turtles) need a constant water source for survival.
Water Sources
Water sources for wildlife consumption include surface water, snow; dew, succulent
plants, insects and other animal life; and metabolic water. Good wildlife water
management involves developing and maintaining surface water.
Rainfall and groundwater cares for the plants. In the absence of rain, there is little the
wildlife manager can do to remedy the situation. Rivers, streams, creeks, ponds, and lakes
provide water for most wild animals. Sometimes these sources are unavailable or drought
affects the supply. It is often necessary for the wildlife manager to provide water for the
animals. Understanding the needs of the species is the first step in providing water.
Design and development of water sources depend on the needs of the target species.
Design and Development
Pond construction must take place on a suitable site. The site should contain a soil high in
clay content. Clay reduces seepage and provides a stable embankment. Some pond
construction provides for only seasonal water. Seasonally flooded areas do not require a
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soil with high clay content. Soils with low clay content should have a wide top and less
slope. This provides a more stable structure.
A pond should have an emergency spillway with a flat, grass bottom. A spillway will
divert water away from the top of the embankment. It will also reduce erosion on site and
downstream. Pond design will vary according to the type of facility. Four factors affect
spillway design. They are watershed soil type, slope, vegetative cover, and the number of
acres supplying the watershed.
Constructed Permanent Impoundments
There are two types of ponds that provide drinking water for wildlife. A pit-type pond is
usually excavated on flat or level ground. Rainfall or a groundwater pump will fill this
structure. Earthen dams are larger structures that collect water from a watershed. The
depth of these structures should allow for normal evaporation loss and seepage.
Design can include shallow areas and islands. These structures can enhance the food and
habitat value of these structures for wildlife. Location is the critical element in
construction of either type of pond. Proper placement ensures use by wildlife. Watering
facilities should be no more than one-half mile apart. As a rule of thumb, there should be
one pond for each 100 acres. This will benefit both large and small animals.
Seasonal water structures meet the water needs of many wild species. One design of a
shallow pond can provide a small area of permanent water. Another design will allow for
larger areas of seasonal water. Both designs benefit the needs of waterfowl and other
species that prefer water.
Flat, poorly drained soils are excellent for shallow water impoundments. These areas are
subject to shallow flooding during the winter. Areas that have deep seasonal flooding are
hard to manage. They are also expensive to maintain and construct. Ideal sites are
accessible by farm equipment to allow for food planting and maintenance of structures.
Waterfowl prefer sites away from actively traveled roads.
Design of any impoundment should include flooding and draining structures. Pipes and
drains meet these needs. Drainage systems should allow for rapid removal of water
during the growing season. Flooding begins in October and ends in mid-March. Drains
should be open during the growing season to allow for food production. It also prevents
damage to trees in the area. The preferred depth for these areas ranges from 6 to 18
inches of water.
Natural Occurring Water Supplies
Springs, perennial streams, and potholes are natural water supplies. They are important to
all wildlife for drinking water and habitat. A wildlife manager should make resource
decisions adjacent to and in these areas. Livestock exclusion, streamside management
zones, and pest management are only three practices that can affect wildlife water. Their
use can affect sediment load, water quality, improved nesting habitat, food supplies, and
wildlife travel corridors.
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Wildlife Habitat Requirements
Water has one requirement for a good wildlife habitat. It must accompany good food and
cover. Water is not enough to improve wildlife populations. For example, quail will not
leave protective cover to get to water. Improved water quality and quantity can increase
wildlife populations with good food and cover.
Water Requirements for Selected Game Species
A person must understand and know the water needs for many species of wildlife to
manage it correctly. This section will identify water needs for selected game species.
Water for one species will often benefit other species. Still, each species has its own
needs. Consult other references for specific water needs of wildlife species not in this
topic.
White-tailed Deer
White-tailed deer need available water for drinking and their needs are greatest during
hot weather. Deer consume one-half to one gallon of water daily. In dry portions of the
state, water may limit deer densities and distribution. Reliable available water from
ponds, wells, springs, or creeks should supply the managed area. Water would be near
cover and a water source should be located within one to three miles from the next
available source.
Mule Deer
Mule deer should have water that is no further than three miles apart with a preferred
range of one to three miles. Adequate cover should be adjacent to the water supply.
Poorly spaced water supplies may concentrate the deer herds around available water. This
can cause an overuse of forage species.
Pronghorn Antelope
Pronghorn antelope do not need a close water supply in their habitat but it is helpful. The
pronghorn is able to conserve body water for a long time. Pronghorns will drink from
livestock water troughs or ponds with livestock.
Javelina
Javelinas live in the Southwest United States. Much of this area contains plants known as
succulents. Succulents (prickly pear cactus, lechuguilla) make up a large part of their diet.
This food source makes javelinas less dependent on free water. Not all areas contain this
type of succulent growth. When this occurs, javelinas will seek out streams, livestock
ponds, and water troughs. Normally, absence of succulents either naturally or from brush
control will cause javelina to leave the area.
Squirrel
Good squirrel habitat should have an available water source. Water is not a daily
requirement for squirrel. Succulent plants will provide water in the absence of a surface
water source. Ponds and creeks are common sources of water for squirrels. They even
drink from tree hollows that collect water. Squirrels can survive for several weeks
without free water. If water is absent for long periods, squirrels will leave the area.
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Quail
Water requirements are generally met from the food consumed, dew, or surface water.
Pheasant
Water does not appear to be a critical habitat element for pheasant. Irrigated cropland and
insects make up the pheasants’ habitat. This seems to meet the water needs of this
species.
Turkey
Turkeys need water daily. They can get the water from food or from free water. Turkeys
will nest and roost close to a water source. A nesting hen should have drinking water
within 400 feet of her nest.
Mourning Dove
Mourning doves have a high need for water. Water is very important during the nesting
season. The mourning dove is very mobile and can fly long distances to water. Because
of this, water sources that meet the needs of other species will serve doves.
COVER
Cover is any material used by animals for protection from predators or shelter for nesting
or natal activities. Animals can travel in it, use it for bedding, or seek protection from the
weather in it. Animals can use cover to hide from predators or hide when stalking prey.
There is a misconception that habitat is cover. While cover is a part of the animals’
habitat, habitat is not just cover. An animal can find cover in plants, rocks, caves,
crevices, or ravines.
Cover requirements of any wildlife species include several vegetation types. For
example, a sage grouse requires open and bare areas for breeding seasons in addition to
dense sage areas for feeding. A mule deer finds food in a sagebrush flat during winter but
requires juniper groves for shelter during the same season.
Factors that influence the amount of food also influence the amount of cover. The annual
cycle of plant growth influences cover. For example, dense grassland is suitable for
shelter in the spring but often loses its usefulness as the grass dies in the fall. Soil
conditions, weather changes, and artificial conditions influence plant growth. Any change
in the natural surroundings eventually has an effect upon the wildlife of the area. A single
production operation, such as harvesting a grain crop, produces both favorable and
unfavorable changes in the habitat. For example, harvesting corn destroys valuable cover
for wildlife but at the same time waste kernels of grain are available for food.
Agricultural practices used to promote wildlife cover include rotating crops, liming and
fertilizing soils, planting winter cover crops, strip cropping, and applying other soil and
water conservation practices. There are some innovative practices used to promote cover
in urban areas. One is the use of multi-flora roses for living fences rather than ordinary
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wire fences. This presents cover for birds and small mammals while serving as a property
barrier. Seeding ditches with wildlife plants will provide cover and food. Trails built
under a highway provide cover and safe corridors for wildlife in urban areas.
Cover Requirements for Selected Game Species
A person must understand and know the cover needs for many species of wildlife to
manage it correctly. This section will identify cover needs for selected game species.
Cover for one species will often benefit for other species. Still, each species has its own
needs. Consult other references for specific cover needs of wildlife species not in this
topic.
White-tailed Deer
White-tailed deer require some type of woody cover. Cover may take many forms such as
trees and brush in draws and along slopes, rough topography, or large, solid tracts of
timber and brush. It may be motts or thickets in open areas, or along streams in prairie
areas. Cover must be adequate to provide shelter from weather, predators, and man.
A mixed cover type with a diverse plant community is more desirable than one with one
species. The ideal percentages of cover would vary from 40 to 50 percent of an area and
would depend on the brush species, deer densities, and hunting pressures. Does
frequently hide fawns in areas of tall grass.
The manager should protect good cover from overgrazing and wildfire. Habitat lacking in
cover may need protection or there may be a need for a change in the native woody
plants. Tall leafy plants can connect brushy areas and function as a temporary cover.
Mule Deer
Mule deer require shrubs, trees, and tall grasses for shelter and cover. The amount of
woody cover needed by mule deer depends on the type and quality of the cover,
topography, soils, and grazing pressure by domestic animals. Land with 25 to 35 percent
of brush cover can maintain high populations of deer. It can cause grass production to
increase.
Pronghorn Antelope
The pronghorn antelope is a Plains animal that prefers open, rolling landscapes. This
habitat will allow for early detection of intruders. It requires no protective vegetative
cover, but it will use draws and headers for protection from the elements during the
winter months.
Javelina
Javelinas prefer the dry conditions in the southwestern United States. The most preferred
habitat is dense thicket of prickly pear, scrub oak, guajillo, whitebrush, and mesquite.
They take advantage of rough canyons and gullies for travelways and protection during
bad weather. Javelinas are most active during the cooler hours of the day and at night.
They rest in the denser thickets, under rock ledges, or shaded and cooler areas.
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Squirrel
Fox squirrels adapt to a variety of forest habitats. Open upland forests with mixed trees
support the largest populations. Mature oak and hickory woodlands provide the best
habitat. The trees should be irregular shaped tracts of 5 to 20 acres. Strips of woodland
connecting the tracts serve as corridors. Pine, elm, beech, pecan, maple, and other foodproducing trees will enhance the habitat. River valleys make up the western part of their
range. This area supports pecans, walnuts, oaks, and other required trees.
Gray squirrels prefer tree cover along streams. They prefer dense hammocks of live oak,
willow oak, water oak, white oak, cypress, blackgum, and magnolia. Bottomland tracts
with strong oak and pecan populations produce high populations of gray squirrels.
Swamps and uplands are less productive.
Squirrels prefer hollow trees for offspring to be born and for nurseries. They use leaf
nests to some extent, especially in the spring and summer. Leaf nests also serve as refuge,
resting, and feeding stations and occasionally as nurseries. Production is 2½ times more
successful in tree cavities than in leaf nests. On an average, hardwood trees must be 40
years old to provide den cavities. An area must contain 5 to 10 percent mature hardwood
trees to maintain good habitat. Gray squirrel den trees must have vines and heavy cover
around the tree.
Quail
Quail are edge animals and prefer early successional stage vegetation. They inhabit idle
fields, open woodland, crop fields with weedy edges, and pastures. Nesting, loafing,
escape, and protective cover near dusting and feeding areas are necessary. Loafing or
resting cover is used during the middle of the day between feeding periods. Low growing
woody plants will provide loafing cover and should not be over 200 to 300 feet apart.
Last year’s growth of herbaceous cover provides ideal nesting sites. Location of the nest
is often near the edge of rough grass. This permits the hen to lead her chicks to thinner
cover for feeding. Therefore, the edge of roads, fencerows, or firelanes is favorite spots
selected for nesting. Shrub thickets provide escape cover and should be available on
about every 15 acres. Roosting cover must provide warmth at the ground level and not
restrict flight in any direction. Quail roost in a circle, heads looking outward with their
tails toward the center.
Pheasant
Pheasant need several types of cover. Loafing cover, travel lanes, roosting cover, nesting
cover, and winter cover meet these needs. Of these, nesting cover and winter cover are
the most critical. Winter cover such as weedy fencerows and windbreaks provide
protection from the elements.
Turkey
Mature timber provides good roosting sites and shelter from the weather. Large brush or
timbered stands, dense grassy fields, and thickets offer good escape cover. The best
habitat is diversity land use types with half in mature brush or timber with random
openings. Interspersion of trees or brush and openings is the key. Good habitat will
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include a range of plants. It should have a variety of mast-producing hardwood trees.
There should be a moderate to open understory cover with a variety of mast-producing
plants such as sand shinoak. It should also have an abundant ground cover that provides
green forage and seeds. Open areas are grasslands, fallow fields, roadways, power lines,
and pipelines.
Mourning Dove
The mourning dove is one of the most adaptable of all species as indicated by its wide
range. However, they do not inhabit forests, plains, vast open fields, marshes, or prairies.
The broken topography of trees and openings brought about by agriculture seem to be
more desirable. Trees, hedgerows, shrubs, and wires between utility poles furnish the
dove nesting and roosting sites. Doves prefer to feed on the ground where the vegetation
is sparse rather than on dense perennial grasses.
SPACE
Space requirements for wildlife allow room to move about, avoid predators, locate a
mate, seek food and water, and rest. Home range is the term describing the native habitat
of a species. Size of the home range will vary with the species. Still, quality and quantity
of food, cover, and water will determine the amount of space required. Space
requirements also depend on the size of the animal. In general, larger animals need more
space but can live in a variety of habitats. Dietary preferences affect space requirements.
For example, carnivores have larger territories and need more space than herbivores.
Another factor is the species ability to tolerate crowded conditions. If the quality and
quantity of a habitat is sufficient, crowding can occur with limited negative results.
Wild animals have different space requirements based on the type of movement. Two
types of space apply to wildlife movement. Internal movement will include migration and
home range. Migration is the seasonal travel of a species from one habitat to another then
back again. For example, geese leave their northern habitat and fly thousands of miles to
their southern habitat. The following spring, they leave their winter habitat and return to
their northern home range. Home range is the area where a species spends all or most of
its time. Home range will vary in size with each species. A mountain lion may defend a
150-mile territory. On the other hand, a nestling wren may have a territory of only 150
square feet.
There is also movement outside the population range. This movement includes dispersal
of the target species. Dispersal will include emigration and immigration activities.
Emigration is movement out of an area. Immigration is movement into an area. Habitat
destruction by land development projects is the cause for movements of this type.
Space Requirements for Selected Game Species
A person must understand and know the space needs for many species of wildlife to
manage it correctly. This section will identify space needs for selected game species.
Space for one species will often benefit for other species. Still, each species has its own
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needs. Consult other references for specific space needs of wildlife species not in this
topic.
White-tailed Deer
The area to maintain a deer herd link directly to the arrangement of food, cover, and
water. Several hundred acres of food, cover, and water is needed for good quality habitat.
Deer densities of one deer to three acres are very unusual and typically seasonal.
Carrying capacity of the land for deer will depend on the potential of the site. Site
potential depends on the soil type, vegetation, and current rainfall.
Mule Deer
Space is seldom a limiting factor in the natural range of mule deer. Quality of the habitat
is often the limiting factor for mule deer numbers. There is approximately one mule deer
per 100 acres in the Trans-Pecos area. The Panhandle will have a density of one animal
per 300 acres. Good range should support about 10 to 15 deer per section.
Pronghorn Antelope
A free-ranging herd of pronghorns can cover great distances. The distance they travel will
depend on the forage available. On fenced rangelands, three or four section pastures are a
minimum size for a small herd of 8 to 12 pronghorns. Males with harems defend their
territory during the breeding season. During this time, larger pastures provide less
conflict between breeding males. The conflict is between breeding males defending their
harem against bachelor males.
Javelina
Javelinas usually travel in herds of 5 to 15 animals. The herd has no particular leadership
or hierarchy. The home range of a herd relates directly to the density of brush on that
range. In South Texas, herd home ranges vary from 180 to 975 acres. Dense brushy cover
and the abundance of prickly pear are the main criteria that determine the home range
size. There is a herd boundary overlap of about 200 yards. When herds meet on this
common ground a fight ensues with much chasing and loud popping of the tusks.
Squirrel
Fox squirrel may range up to 40 acres over a period of a year. The average range is about
10 acres with the minimum range being about two acres. The gray squirrel may range up
to 20 acres over a period of a year. The average range is about eight acres with the
minimum range being about two acres.
Quail
The home range of a covey is normally ¼-square mile and rarely exceeds a square mile.
When cover and food are close together, quail generally have a smaller annual range.
Research by F. Guthery shows the carrying capacity for quail can exceed three birds per
acre. This is only with intense management and favorable weather conditions.
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Wildlife Habitat Requirements
Pheasant
Pheasants will roam widely to fulfill its life needs. If adequate food and cover are
available throughout the year, it will spend most of its time on a square mile or less.
Turkey
Annual range of a turkey is frequently 8 to 10 miles from winter roost sites to summer
nesting sites (about 20,000 acres). Birds are very sensitive to human disturbance. People
should not hunt or disturb them within a quarter mile of their roost or nest.
Morning Dove
Space is not a limiting factor for mourning dove except during the nesting season.
ARRANGEMENT
The welfare factors for wildlife are food, cover, and water. The space relationship
between these factors and their abundance will determine what species can survive in the
habitat. Arrangement unites the four needs of wildlife. Spatial heterogeneity is the diverse
nature of the space available to the wildlife in a given area. That is, how much and what
quality of food, cover, and water exist in the area. There is food, cover, and water
available inside each area that may go unused. This is because they are outside the travel
lanes of the animals. Arrangement brings food, cover, and water into the space used by
the animals.
An ecotone is the area where two edges or boundaries of adjoining habitats meet. The
ecotone contains components of both habitats. Animals from each habitat move in and
out of the ecotone. This creates an area with a greater diversity of wildlife species that
each habitat individually. Species such as the cottontail rabbit, white-tailed deer, and the
bobwhite quail are common inhabitants of ecotones, living on the edge and inside the
adjoining habitat.
Management to maximize the edge will increase the horizontal diversity. Horizontal
diversity is the variety of plants along the ground. This will increase the number of
species present. Establishing ecotones will not benefit all species. Some species such as
migratory birds depend on large, unbroken tracts of habitat. Predation and parasitic
infection of songbirds increases in ecotones. Creating an edge effect by bisecting the
habitat into smaller units can reduce populations. Some individuals refer to edges as
ecological traps for this reason.
Two types of edge or ecotone systems are available as management practices. Inherent
edge is a result of natural features. Soil, topography, or water creates the edge effect
naturally. The result is ecotones that last longer and are relatively stable. It is possible to
create induced edges artificially or naturally. They are the result of fire, wind, logging,
planting, seeding, or other disturbances to the area. This edge is very unstable and may
last as little as 2 years or no more than 10 years.
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Wildlife Habitat Requirements
Where induced edges are present, corridors between habitats will allow for movement
between them without excessive predation. Corridors can be effective if they meet three
criteria. They must protect known travel routes. They should follow areas of least
resistance to movement. Finally, they should connect seeps, springs, and riparian areas.
Proper arrangement of dissimilar habitats can support a greater diversity of wildlife. This
mean food should be adjacent to cover. Nesting cover should be near brood feeding areas.
Under these conditions, two or more different habitats preferred by a species can
maximize energy loss and reduce exposure to predatory animals. The greater the diversity
in habitat types, the better the opportunity for more abundant wildlife.
It is also necessary to consider vertical diversity. Vertical diversity is the arrangement of
plants from the ground upwards. At the lowest level are grasses and forbs. The understory
is the next level and is composed of shrubs and young trees. The upper part of vertical
diversity is the canopy. This is the cover produced by mature trees. Arrangement of these
three units is related directly to the successional stage of development by the plant
community. A diverse wild animal population is often associated with the number and
density of vertical layers in the habitat.
SUMMARY
Food, cover, water, space, and arrangement are the five needs of wildlife. Each is critical
to a healthy, diverse population of wild animals in a habitat. The successful wildlife
manager is aware of the individual needs of the species and works to stimulate population
growth by meeting their essential needs. Although all are important, close attention to
arrangement can greatly enhance the use of the first four needs. This in turn will
maximize the diversity and numbers of both game and non-game animals.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Dr. Joe Dettling, Associate Professor, Instructional Materials Service,
Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas researched and developed this topic.
Tamara Trail, Director of Education and Special Events, Texas Wildlife Association,
and Dr. Terry Blankenship, Wildlife Biologist, Welder Wildlife Foundation,
Sinton, Texas, reviewed this topic.
Vickie Marriott, Office Software Associate, Instructional Materials Service,
Texas A&M University, prepared the layout and design for this topic.
Christine Stetter, Artist, Instructional Materials Service,
Texas A&M University, prepared the illustrations for this topic.
REFERENCES
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Wildlife Habitat Requirements
Demers, Chris, Leslie Hawkins, Alan Long, and Chuck McKelvy. 2001. “Providing
Wildlife Cover.” SS-FOR-15, School of Forest Resources and Conservation,
Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural
Sciences, University of Florida. [On-line]. Available:
http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/BODY_FR124
“Habitat Improvement for Wildlife.” 1998. Virginia Department of Forestry. [On-line].
Available: http://www.dof.state.va.us/mgt/wildlife/habimp.htm
Miller, G. Tyler. 1996. Living in the Environment: Principles, Concepts, and Solutions.
Wadsworth Publishing Company: Washington.
“USDA Farm Bill Conservation Provisions – Wildlife Habitat Incentive Programs.”
United States Department of Agriculture, Natural Resource Conservation Service.
2001. [On-line]. Available:
http://www.nhq.nrcs.usda.gov/CCS/FB96OPA/WhipQ%26A.html
“Wildlife and Recreation Management – State Study Guide.” 2001. Instructional
Materials Service, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, Catalog
Number 4400.
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Competitors – Plants or animals that compete for the same food, space, territory.
Food web – The interlocking food chains within an ecological community.
Mast – Nuts (i.e., acorns, hickory, pecan).
Metabolic – Related to the ongoing interrelated chemical actions that take place in living
organisms that provide the energy and nutrients needed to sustain life.
Natal – Relating to birth or to the time and place of birth.
Poults – A young turkey.
Riparian – Situated or taking place along or near the bank of a river.
Section – Area of one square mile.
Seep – Small pool or spring where liquid escapes from the ground.
Succulent – With thick fleshy leaves and stems that can store water.
Symbiotic – A close association of animals or plants of different species that is often, but
not always, of mutual benefit.
Watershed – The land area that drains into a particular area.
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
Reproduction prohibited without written permission.
Instructional Materials Service
Texas A&M University
2588 TAMUS
College Station, Texas 77843-2588
http://www-ims.tamu.edu
2002
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