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History 101: Final Exam Study Guide
A. The importance of rivers, land distribution, and agriculture to civilizations.
-Tigris and Euphrates: The two rivers located in modern day Iraq that form the Fertile
Crescent. Allowed the Mesopotamian culture to thrive by providing a stable water
source for agriculture. These two rivers shared similar values as the Nile did for the
Egyptian society and the Yellow and Yangzi rivers did for the Chinese.
-Equal Field System: Reallocation of land in China based on family size and land
productivity. Ensured fair family rights and gave little reason for peasant revolts or
uprisings due to starvation. Helped the government maintain order and provided
religious relief by offering a fifth of the land for the veneration of ancestors.
-Inca Terrace Farming: Technique developed by the Incan civilization where sections
of mountains were cut away to make areas of land ready for productive farming.
Great example of a civilizations ability to use available resources to provide for the
masses and use centralization to complete the public work.
-Nile: River that runs south to north in Egypt and forms the fertile Nile River Valley.
Provided a stable basis for the Egyptian civilization through somewhat predictable
flooding for a means of agriculture. The soil that remained after the annual floods
was easy to work without the need for metal tools; this made large crop production
manageable and dependable. The centralized government also used the Nile to
facilitate river trade.
-Fast Ripening Rice: Strain of rice acquired by the Chinese from Vietnamese
farmers. Allowed the Chinese farmers to double the quantity of crop harvests and
provide for the ever growing population. Procured by the strong dynastic families
Song and Tang.
-Theme System: Created within the Byzantine Empire where areas of land were
governed by generals who controlled military and civil responsibilities in their area.
Allowed the Byzantines to manage a large empire and repel threats form invaders.
Provided for a strong form of centralized government.
-Yellow River: River running East to West in China that is known for horrible and
unpredictable flooding which earned the nick-name “China’s Sorrow”. This river
provides a rich loess soil that makes agriculture very productive and manageable with
simple tools.
-Cocoa: Agricultural product of the Mayan Civilization. Precious commodity among
the noble class and even used as money. Example of a civilization using available
natural resources as a monetary unit compared to other civilizations using paper
money to help trade and centralization.
-Maize: Agricultural product of the Mayan Civilization. Important staple crop that
provided food for the masses, encourage new farming techniques to increase surplus,
and create a basis for religious unity. Terraces were developed to retain silt and
improve production.
-Engenho: Portuguese sugar mill of colonial Brazil. All life of this area centered on
these complex business operations that combined agricultural and industrial
enterprises. Reflection of the global importance of the sugar trade.
-Latifunda: Conquered lands of Rome that were organized into large plantations and
managed by wealthy elites. These plantations used economies of scale to push
smaller farms out of business, widening the divide between the wealthy and poor.
-Manors: Large faming estates consisting of serfs, domestic animals, forests, and
fields. These medieval manors were ruled by heavy handed lords and often acted as
self sufficient communities in the absence of large cities. Result of the disorganized
political structure of Medieval Europe.
C. The importance of trade and transportation to civilizations.
-Trans-Sahara Trade Route: Spanned Africa’s mainland from East to West following
the Sahara desert. This trade route allowed for Africa to grow and prosper. Large
cities like Timbuktu came into existence as a result and served as trade and religious
centers. The Islamic faith also followed the trade route and spread by word-of-mouth
via Muslim traders.
-Grand Canal: built by the Chinese to connect the Yellow and Yangzi rivers.
Provided a north to south trade route for mainland China as both rivers flowed East to
West; also allowed the Fast-Ripening rice produced from the more fertile Yangzi
river in the south to reach those in need in the north.
-Silk Roads: Trade route that spanned almost the entire Eurasian mainland.
Originated as a means of transporting silk from China but eventually incorporated
many different aspects of trade and religion. This route helped later empires assert
force and influence.
-Swahili Coast: trade “capital” that centered on the city of Kilwa in Africa. Goods
from the interior of Africa, China, and India were traded here; also served as a
starting point for commercial trade and the origins of Islam in Africa.
-Inca Roads: System of roads built by the Incan empire that stretched over 16000
miles. These roads made long distance trade, travel and communication possible.
Helped to maintain a centralized authority throughout the controlled lands.
-Seven Years War: Global war fought over new world commercial goods and trade
route territory. Each major country was involved in shipping and trade and
recognized the benefits of controlling natural resources and the wealth provided.
Britain eventually came out on top which set the stage for the British empire of the
19th century.
-Fur Trade: Systematic exploitation of the animals in Canada and North America to
provide fur for commercial goods. Incorporated the use of the Natives expertise to
find more animals and build forts throughout the Hudson Bay area. Fur was so
lucrative that fighting ensued between the Hudson Bay Company and the French.
Influenced the settlement of North America and the decimation of native peoples.
-Joint-stock Companies: Privately owned companies that enabled investors to realize
profits while limiting risks to their investments. These companies, used by the
English and Dutch, had government support to buy, sell, and build trading posts. The
relentless pursuit of profit allowed these companied to form a global trade network.
-Gold Trade: This precious metal made the kingdoms of Ghana and Mali rich and
was supported by the trans-Sahara trade route. Both kingdoms exploited the taxation
and trade advantages of gold. Religion and world goods were also introduced to
Africa under the Gold Trade.
-Global Trade: the exchange of goods and commodities (i.e. sugar, slaves and silk)
from every part of the world for profit. Each major country had a part in trading
goods from their own territory, newly discovered areas, and developed new routes to
quicken the process. Globalization connected the world through trade and financial
prosperity.
-Royal Roads: Built by Darius for the Persian empire; this road stretched 1600 miles
from Ephesus to Persepolis. The route effectively facilitated trade and
communication and was policed for safety. The Royal Road helped Darius assert a
strong centralized government.
D. The Rise of the West:
-de Gama: Reached India in 1498 by sailing around the Cape of Good Hope from
Portugal. Opened up maritime trade between Europe and Asia that formed permanent
links for these two areas. This led to the eventual collapse of the Silk Roads.
-Smallpox: Epidemic introduced into Mexico by Cortes and his men. Aided in the
conquest of this area by debilitating the large population of Tenochtitlan. On a larger
scale, smallpox effected almost all natives of North, Central and South America
greatly reducing the total population which, in turn, made conquest much simpler.
-Renaissance: French for rebirth. Incorporation of many new ideals for economics,
art, and the sciences in Western Europe. Great thinkers were encouraged and
underwritten by the wealthy to create new works and ways of thinking. Provided the
basis for modern Western thought and governmental structures.
-Columbian Exchange: Trade of New World products facilitated by Columbus’
exploration of the America’s. Greatly changed the face of modern trade throughout
Europe and Asia. The influx of new agricultural goods and products encourages
many countries to fund explorations of their own.
-Conquistadors: “conquerors” Spanish explorers that attempted to find gold and
resources in North and South America. Exploited the native cultures in an attempt to
earn wealth. These Spanish conquerors helped to inspire other countries and make
the New World a global enterprise.
-Treaty of Tordesillas: Signed by the Spain and Portugal in 1494 and divided the
world along an imaginary north to south line. This treaty helped to facilitate an
efficient exploration of unclaimed lands that hastened global trade.
-Viceroys: “governors” of Spanish controlled territory in Mexico (New Spain) and
Peru (New Castile). Each viceroy was responsible for ensuring a productive outcome
form the New World and were checked by the king’s audiencias. Viceroys,
however, grew very powerful due to the amount of time required to message the
central government of Spain.
-Motives for European explorations: Three main reasons- Search for basic resources
and lands suitable for the cultivation of cash crops, Desire to establish new trade
routes to Asian markets, Desire to expand the influence of Christianity. Europeans
possessed the means to exploit all possible resources, including people, worldwide
which led to the expanse of the known world by financial and military measures.
-State Building: States in Italy, Spain, France, and England devised techniques of
government that vastly enhanced their power. Each state used new sources of finance
and standing armies to assert power. The introduction of these states helped to
facilitate the ideals necessary for the development of the Modern West.