Download Unit 3 Part II PowerPoint- PM Class

*
What helps food
/Macromolecules
Digested?
•
Enzymes which
act as a catalyst
*
What is a catalyst?
• Catalysts help a reaction happen
faster but do not change
themselves during the reaction.
• A catalyst lowers the amount of
energy needed so that a reaction
can happen more easily. A catalyst
is all about energy.
*
 Carbohydrate
 Lipids
 Proteins
 Nucleic Acids
*
•
What is the monomer/building blocks of
Macromolecules
•
•
•
•
Carbohydrates-monosaccharides (simple sugars)
Lipids- glycerol and fatty acids
Proteins- amino acids
Nucleic Acids- nucleotides
*The Digestive System
http://www.rsc.org/education/teachers/learnnet/cfb/enzymes.htm
*
5. How do factors such as temperature,
pH, and concentration of enzymes or
substrate affect the rate of enzymecatalyzed reaction?
*
 Enzymes are globular proteins.
 Their folds creates areas known as the active site.
 The nature and arrangement of amino acids in the
active site make it specific for only one type of
substrate
 Left unchanged after the reaction
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ok9esggzN18
*
*Hydrogen peroxide is a
waste product of
metabolism.
*It is toxic to most living
organisms
*It must be quickly converted
into other, less dangerous,
chemicals.
*Catalase is the enzyme
found in living organisms
that changes hydrogen
peroxide to water and
oxygen.
*
Thousands of different chemical reactions must occur
in the cells to make life possible.
Each reaction requires its own specialized enzyme in
order to proceed efficiently.
H2O
H2O2
Catalase
H2O2
Catalase
Note the Catalase is UNCHANGED
Catalase
O2
*
*What effects the
rates of the enzymecatalyzed reaction?
*Does the environment
make a difference?
*Does temperature,
pH, or concentration
change the rate of
reaction?
*
1. Identify the Problem or Question
2. Predict a solution to the problem or an answer
to the question.
3. Design the experiment to be used to test your
hypothesis.
4. Carry out the experiment.
5. Analyze the data and observations.
6. State the conclusion.
7. Summary Paragraph
*
*Independent variable
*is the variable that is varied or
manipulated or controlled by the
researcher. It is the presumed
cause.
*Dependent Variable
*is the presumed effect. It is not
manipulated but instead is
observed or measured for
variations as a presumed result .
graphed results
are the
variables on the
axes of the
graph
*Variables in Experiments
Independent Variable -the variable that is varied, controlled,
or manipulated by the researcher-the independent variable is
the presumed cause.
For example, in a study of the effect of nursing intervention
on postoperative vomiting, nursing intervention is the
independent variable evaluated by its effect on the
dependent variable, the incidence of postoperative vomiting
Dependent Variable - is the measurable effect, outcome, or
response in which the researcher is interested- the
dependent variable is what is observed or measured for
variation.
For example, in the above study, postoperative vomiting is
the dependent variable measured.
*
*ALL RESEARCH STARTS WITH A QUESTION
* One way to write your Research Question is a PICOT Question
* P= population
* I= Intervention or variable of interest
* C= Comparison
* O= Outcome, Rate of Occurrence
* T= Time it take to achieve an outcome or how long observed
Examples:
*In catalyzing H2O2(P) does increased temperature(I) or
room temperature(c) speed the rate of catalyzed
reaction(O) over 200 sec. observation time(T).
* Experiments have controls that can be manipulated which allow for
comparison.
* NOTE: Not all question will have every part of the PICOT
*
* SIMPLE RESEARCH QUESTION
*•
How does temperature affect catalase activity?
*•
How does pH affect catalase activity?
*•
How does enzyme concentration affect catalase activity?
*•
How does hydrogen peroxide concentration affect catalase activity?
* MORE DETAILED RESEARCH QUESTIONS;
*•
What is the optimal temperature for the catalase catalyzed decomposition
*•
*•
*•
of hydrogen peroxide?
What is the optimal pH for the catalase catalyzed decomposition of H2O2?
How does boiling the catalase affect catalase activity?
How effectively does ethanol inhibit the catalase catalyzed decomposition
of H2O2?
*
Table 1: Temperature Effect
Volume
3% H2O2
(mL)
1.0
5.0
10.0
20.0
30.0
40.0
50.0
Temperature
(ºC)
Mean rate
(kPa/s)
5
0.0586
15
0.0805
25
0.1003
35
0.1469
45
0.1202
55
0.1026
Table 5: Effect of H2O2 Concentration
Volume
Percent
H2O2
Water
H2O2
Concentrati
(mL)
(%)
on
(mol/L)
49.0
45.0
40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0
0.06
0.3
0.6
1.2
1.8
2.4
3.0
0.018
0.088
0.176
0.352
0.528
0.704
0.880
Table 2: The Effect of pH
pH
Catalase
Activity
(kPa/s)
0.0018
0.0274
0.0436
0.0802
0.0843
0.0864
0.0695
Mean rate
(kPa/s)
4
0.0778
7
0.1118
10
0.1033
Table 3: A Closer Look at the Effect of pH
pH
Catalase Activity Rate
(kPa/s)
5.1
0.0654
6.1
0.0826
7.2
0.0859
8.1
0.0739
8.7
0.0726
*
*
* Hydrogen peroxide, Is a skin irritant. It deserves the special
handling and storage attention. Hazard code: C—Somewhat
hazardous.
*
Hydrochloric acid, : Toxic if ingestion or inhalation;
severely corrosive to eyes and skin. Hazard code: C—
Somewhat hazardous.
*
Sodium hydroxide solution: Corrosive liquid; skin burns are
possible; very dangerous to eyes; wear gloves and eye
protection. Hazard code: B—Hazardous
*Always Follow Lab Safety
Precautions
*
* Scientific research follows a logical progression of steps that
define the focus the work.
* These steps are guided by a specific question or a problem.
* 1st Identify your Problem or Question
* Design an Experiment following steps outline in BioMed
Experimental Design.
* Outline your experiment answers the experiment questions on the
Biomedical Sciences Experimental Design activity in your lab
journal.
* Perform the experiment. Consider using graphs and table to record
your data.
* Then using the Lab Report outline and the Lab Report Rubric, you
will write a formal paper to report your findings.
* Finally present you findings to the class in a pp. presentation .
*
Part I-Standard Reaction
http://www.vernier.com/products/sensors/gps-bta/
Part II- we will have 4 groups. One group will test
1. Effects of PH
2. Effects of Temperature
3. Effects of Enzyme Concentration
4. Effects of Substrate Concentration
*
*Metabolism-
A Balancing Act
*
*Metabolism- The totality of an organism’s
chemical reactions, consisting of catabolic and
anabolic pathways
 Catabolism- Chemical reactions that break down
complex organic compounds into simple ones, with
the net release of energy (ex: digestion)
Anabolism-Reactions requiring energy whereby
small molecules are built up into larger ones (ex:
muscle building)
*
*What is a calorie?
*A unit of measure of energy.
*In nutrition a calorie is the amount of energy
needed to raise the temperature of 1 Gm of water
by 1 degree Celsius.
1) When you eat, you are consuming energy stored
within the protein, carbohydrate, and fat
molecules, represented by the calorie content
on the nutritional label.
2) Ex. 100 calories = the amount of energy your
body could gain from eating or drinking it
*
*Do we all require the same amount of
energy and what factors determine a
person’s energy needs?
*Age
*Gender
*Weight
*Level of physical activity
*
*How many calories do we need each
day?
*What happens when we have too
few or to many calories?
*
*You are either a registered dietician or a
nutrition counselor.
*Your client is either Jeremy Brown, Trisha
Knowles, or Hans Spielman.
*
*6. What are BMI and BMR?
*7. How can BMI and BMR help assess healthy diet
and weight?
*8. What are the health risks associated with being
overweight or underweight?
*9. What body systems are affected when a person is
overweight or underweight?
*
The energy currency
of all life.
ATP is high-energy
molecules that
stores usable energy
needed to carry out
every bodily
10 million molecules of ATP are used and functions
regenerated per second per cell!
Now that’s a lot of energy.
*
* ATP is a nucleic acid.
* The basic structure of
nucleic acids such as
DNA consists of a
*
nitrogenous base,
a sugar and
a phosphate group.
* The building block of ATP
takes this same structure
*
*Is formed from adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic
phosphate (Pi),
*The production of an ATP molecule is the addition of the third
phosphate group.
*ADP + Pi → ATP, where ADP and Pi are joined together by ATP
synthase
*
* We build it from the macromolecules we ingest in our diet.
* Using cellular respiration- set of metabolic reactions that take
place in the cell.
* ATP is constantly recycled.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5GMLIMIVUvo
ATP Adenosine Triphosphate Bozeman Science video
*
*Occurs in 3 steps:
*1. Glycolysis
*2. Krebs's Cycle
*3. Electron Transport
*Together, these steps can make 36 ATP molecules
from one glucose molecule
http://www.fitday.com/fitness-articles/nutrition/vitamins-minerals/theimportance-of-adenosine-triphosphate.html#b
*
*Glycolysis is the breakdown of glucose
into pyruvic acid.
*The whole process of glycolysis generates
two ATP's. Not a lot, but enough to keep
you going when you need it.
*None of the reactions in glycolysis
require oxygen,
* So it's an anaerobic process.
*
*Krebs Cycle is an aerobic process of
breaking down glucose, other sugars,
amino acids and fatty acids.
*Krebs Cycle is a series of eight
reactions that occur in mitochondrial
matrix from the oxidation of
pyruvate, the end product of
glycolysis.
*
*Electron transport chain (ETC) is a
process in which the high energy
molecules (NADH and [FADH2])
produced during glycolysis, and other
catabolic processes are oxidized thus
releasing energy in the form of ATP.
*The mechanism by which ATP is
formed in the ETC is called
chemiosmotic phosphorylation.
*
11. How is energy released from ATP and used
to do work in the body?
*
ATP releases energy by losing a phosphate group
and reverting back into ADP (adenine diphosphate).
The breaking of the bond gives off energy.
*
*Active transport- the movement of a substance against its
concentration gradient. An example is= The Na K Pump pumps Na out of the cell and k into the cell for continuous
neuron function . Approximately 20% of all our energy goes to
run Na K pump
*Muscle Contractions- phosphate released binds to myosin
protein attracted to actin causing the muscle to contract.
*Polymer synthesis-
easiest way is to add a Phosphate to bind
to enzymes to allow amino acids to attach on the tRNA to
Build Polymers. RNA is built using ATP
*
Complete Activity 3.2.6
Partner Up
Need:
CellZone Molecular Puzzles kit
*
12. How does the air you breathe and the food you
eat relate directly to the production of energy in the
form of ATP?
The release of energy occurs in 3 steps:
1. Glycolysis
2. Krebs's Cycle
3. Electron Transport
Together, these steps can make 36 ATP molecules from one
glucose molecule (taken in through food) that is in the
presence of oxygen (aerobic). If there’s no oxygen
(anaerobic), the process is 15x less efficient!
*
Adenosine
triphosphate
(ATP)
Anabolism
Basal metabolic
rate (BMR)
Body mass index
(BMI)
Bolus
Calorie
Catabolism
Catalyst
Digestion
Digestive system
Enzyme
Esophagus
Gallbladder
Gastrointestinal
tract
An adenine-containing nucleoside triphosphate that releases
free energy when its phosphate bonds are hydrolyzed. This
energy is used to drive endergonic reactions in the cell.
Synthetic, energy-requiring reactions whereby small molecules
are built up into larger ones.
The rate at which heat is given off by an organism at complete
rest.
A measure of body fat that is the ratio of the weight of the body
in kilograms to the square of its height in meters.
A soft mass of chewed food.
The amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature
of 1 g of water by 1°C. The Calorie (with a capital C), usually
used to indicate the energy content of food, is a kilocalorie.
Chemical reactions that break down complex organic
compounds into simple ones, with the net release of energy.
A substance that enables a chemical reaction to proceed
under different conditions (as at a lower temperature) than
otherwise possible.
The process of making food absorbable by mechanically and
enzymatically breaking it down into simpler chemical
compounds in the alimentary canal.
The bodily system concerned with the ingestion, digestion, and
absorption of food.
A protein serving as a catalyst, a chemical agent that changes
the rate of reaction without being consumed by the reaction.
A muscular tube that in adult humans is about nine inches (23
centimeters) long and passes from the pharynx down the neck
between the trachea and the spinal column and behind the left
bronchus where it pierces the diaphragm slightly to the left of
the middle line and joins the cardiac end of the stomach.
A membranous muscular sac in which bile from the liver is
stored.
The stomach and intestine as a functional unit.
*
Large intestine
Liver
The more terminal division of the vertebrate intestine that is wider and shorter than the small
intestine, typically divided into cecum, colon, and rectum, and concerned especially with the
reabsorption of water and the formation of feces.
The largest internal organ in the vertebrate body; performs diverse functions such as producing
bile, preparing nitrogenous wastes for disposal, and detoxifying poisonous chemicals in the blood.
Metabolism
The totality of an organism’s chemical reactions, consisting of catabolic and anabolic pathways.
Monomer
Oral cavity
A molecule that can combine with others to form a polymer.
The part of the mouth behind the gums and teeth that is bounded above by the hard and soft
palates and below by the tongue and by the mucous membrane connecting it with the inner part of
the mandible.
Pancreas
A gland with dual functions: The nonendocrine portion secretes digestive enzymes and an alkaline
solution into the small intestine via a duct; the endocrine portion secretes the hormones insulin
and glucagon into the blood.
Peristalsis
Successive muscular contractions along the wall of a hollow muscular structure.
Pharynx
An area in the vertebrate throat where air and food passages cross.
Polymer
A large molecule composed of repeating structural units or monomers.
Salivary amylase
Salivary glands
A salivary gland enzyme that hydrolyzes starch.
Exocrine glands associated with the oral cavity. The secretions of salivary glands contain
substances to lubricate food, adhere together chewed pieces into a bolus, and begin the process
of chemical digestion.
Small intestine
The part of the intestine that lies between the stomach and colon, consists of duodenum, jejunum,
and ileum, secretes digestive enzymes, and is the chief site of the absorption of digested nutrients.
Stomach
A saclike expansion of the alimentary canal of a vertebrate communicating anteriorly with the
esophagus and posteriorly with the duodenum and being typically a simple often curved sac with
an outer serous coat, a strong complex muscular wall that contracts rhythmically, and a mucous
lining membrane that contains gastric glands.
Substrate
A substance acted upon by an enzyme.
Oxygen
*
*How often do you think
about your breathing?”
*
1. Why do we need oxygen?
2. How do we breathe?
3. How does the oxygen we inhale
get to all of our cells?
*
Oxygen is essential for human life
because it is necessary for the
production of ATP, the primary source
of cellular energy.
The release of energy occurs in 3 steps:
1. Glycolysis
2. Krebs's Cycle
3. Electron Transport
Together, these steps can make 36 ATP molecules from one
glucose molecule (taken in through food) that is in the presence
of oxygen (aerobic). If there’s no oxygen (anaerobic), the
process is 15x less efficient!
*
 We take in air through our nasal
cavity that passes through the
pharynx
 Then through the larynx (voice
box) into the trachea (wind pipe).
 The trachea branches into a left
and right bronchus, which enter
the left and right lung.
 The 2 bronchi branch into smaller
bronchioles, much like the
branches of a tree get smaller as
the extend away from the trunk.
 The bronchioles get smaller and
smaller, ending in the alveoli (the
“hollow” sites of gas exchange).
*
*Alveoli= tiny air sacs
where gas exchange
takes place.
*The average adult's
lungs contain about 600
million of these spongy,
air-filled structures.
*There are enough
alveoli in just one lung
to cover an area
roughly the size of a
tennis court.
*
* Occurs within the lungs
* Alveoli are surrounded by
capillaries which exchange O2 and
CO2
* Gas exchange occurs by simple
diffusion
* O2 diffuses into deoxygenated blood
* CO2 diffuses into the alveoli
*
* Diffusion – the movement of particles through random
motion from regions of higher concentration to regions of
lower concentration
* Occurs between Lungs and Blood Vessels
* Occurs between Blood Vessels and Cells
*
*Respiration is a complex and coordinated effort
of many systems working together.
*Breathing is controlled by the brain, which is
quick to sense changes in gas concentration. This
is certainly in the brain's interests—it's the body's
biggest user of oxygen and the first organ to
suffer if there's a shortage .
*We breathe in between 8,000 to 9,000 liters of air
each day—the amount needed to oxygenate 9,000
liters or so of blood that is pumped through the
heart daily.
*
*In order for ATP to be produced, oxygen must be available.
* Without oxygen, the addition of the third phosphate group
does not occur,
* If ATP is not consequently produced the body’s cells do not
have a source of energy. Once a cell’s ATP reserves are used
up cells die.
*The carbon dioxide is produced as a by-product and disposed
of when we exhale.
*Without this vital exchange our cells would quickly die and
leave the body to suffocate.
*
Complete only Part 1
You will need Medical History 1- Visit #1
Resource Sheet found under you resource
tab.
Then we will discuss Melissa’s Problem
*
*4.
How do muscles assist in the
movement of air in and out of the
respiratory system?
*5.
What changes in the respiratory
system contribute to asthma?
*
* Height: 52 inches
* Blood Pressure: 110/72
* Case History- Melissa is an 11 year-old girl who has been having coughing fits for
the past 6 days. Her mom is concerned as her school reports that she has been
reluctant to participate in gym class. Melissa states that she is embarrassed that she
can’t keep up with her friends. She has also been having trouble lasting her entire
ballet class without feeling tired or starting to cough. Melissa’s records report five
upper respiratory infections and associated coughing in the past 18 months. Mild
wheezing is reported at each of these appointments. Melissa describes the cough as
“dry” and says during these times of infection, she wakes up coughing more than
once a night.
* Patient’s pulse is normal. Pulse ox = 91%
* No wheezing is appreciated on this appointment.
* Patient said she has no ear pain or a sore throat. Upon inspection, her ears, nose,
and throat all look normal.
* Patient’s glands are not swollen.
* Patient’s speech, hearing, and vision appear normal.
* Explanation of Symptoms
*
* Recommendations
*
Asthma is airway
inflammation and
airway
constriction.
Both components
affect the
airways of your
lungs, making it
more difficult for
you to breathe
* http://www.asthma.com/about-
asthma.html?cc=p1113c00145:e1:d1:w1:p20&pid=332944&goo
gle=e_&rotation=71700000006603709&banner=5870000027531
4185&kw=4641381463
*
http://science.nationalgeographic.com/science/health-andhuman-body/human-body/lungsarticle.html?source=G4103&kwid=ContentNetwork|929422825.
*
*
6. Why is it valuable to measure lung capacity?
Lung functioning tests determine how much air your lungs
can hold, how quickly you can move air in and out of your lungs, and
how well your lungs put oxygen into and remove carbon dioxide from
your blood. The tests can diagnose lung disease, measure the
severity of lung problems, and check to see how well treatment for
a lung disease is working
*
7. Why might some people be more efficient at capturing
oxygen than others?
Efficiency is increased by:
1) Regular cardiovascular exercise
2) Daily deep breathing
3) Avoiding cleaners, pollution & smoke
4) Eating fruits/veggies with antioxidants
8. What are examples of diseases or medical conditions
that would affect breathing or lung capacity?
*
*
9. How does a doctor decide which drug to
prescribe to a patient?
*
Todd Gallo - Respiratory Therapist https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tR56Ppjn-10
*
10. How does a respiratory therapist assist
patients with ventilation and utilization
of oxygen?
Respiratory therapists help diagnose
respiratory problems and council patients and
provide treatment (supplemental oxygen,
inhalers, removal of mucus from lungs,
artificial respiration, etc)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tR56Ppj
n-10&feature=player_detailpage- Video
Discussing a career in Respiratory Therapy
*
*Creating a Resume
*Asthma Action Plan
*When You think of the water,
what human body system comes
to mind?
*
Essential Question 1.
What are the functions of the
urinary system?
*
1.Dissolves other materials & allows them to flow in blood
2. Gives cells structure (right amount prevents shrinking or exploding)
3. Aids in digestion & food passing through intestinal walls into
bloodstream
4. Carries waste products out of body as in urine
5. Helps in sending electrical messages
6. Regulates homeostasis of body temperature (evaporation/sweating)
7. Lubricates structures (i.e. allows fecal matter to pass through large
intestine)
8. Protective barrier around organs
*What human body system
comes to mind when they think
of the water?
Renal
*
*1. What are the functions of the
urinary system?
*The function of the urinary system is to
help maintain homeostasis in the body
by:
*filtering the blood,
*regulating water and electrolyte
concentration
*maintaining the pH balance of the blood
*rids the body of liquid waste called urine
*
Also acts as an Endocrine
Organ by
*producing renin, that helps regulates
blood pressure by converting
angiotensin (produced by the liver) to
angiotensin II.
* producing erythropoietin that
simulates red blood cell production in
the bone marrow.
*Essential Questions
*
*
*The kidneys are a pair
of organs located in the
back of the abdomen.
*Each about 4 or 5
inches long, about the
size of a fist.
*Each contains around a
million units called
nephrons,
that
are a microscopic filter
for blood.
*
* The ureters are 2 thin tubes
about 8 to 10 inches long that
connect the kidneys to the
bladder.
* Muscles in the ureter walls
tighten and relax to force urine
down and away from the kidneys.
* If a ureters become blocked or
injured, restriction of the flow of
urine into the bladder could
result.
* If urine stands still in the kidney,
or backs up the ureter, it could
cause a UTI .
*
*A muscular sac in the pelvis, just
above the pubic bone.
*An empty bladder is about the
size and shape of a pear.
*Stores urine, allowing urination
to be infrequent and voluntary.
*Lined with layers of muscle
tissue that stretch to
accommodate urine. The normal
capacity of the bladder is 400 to
600 ml.
*During urination, the bladder
muscles contract, and two
sphincters open to allow urine
to flow out.
*Urine exits the bladder through
the urethra.
*
* The urethra is a tube that
connects the urinary bladder to
the outside of the body.
* Because it passes through the
penis, the urethra is longer in
men (8 inches) than in women
(about 4 cm )
* In males, the urethra is also
the conduit for semen.
* In females, the urethra is
shorter and emerges above the
vaginal opening.
* The external urethral sphincter
is a striated muscle that allows
voluntary control over
urination.
*
* Equipment Needed
* Computer with internet
* Maniken
* Assorted colors of clay
* Wire tools
* Body System organizer
* Colored Markers
* Laboratory journal
*
Dissection- look for these structures
*
*From the abdominal
aorta, blood enters
the kidney through
the renal artery.
*The renal artery
divides into a number
of segmental arteries.
that travel between
the renal pyramids.
* tiny blood vessel
intertwines with a
tiny urine-collecting
tube
*
* Make tooth pick flags for
the following terms prior
to the dissection
* Renal Capsule
* Renal Cortex
* Renal Medulla
* Renal Pyramid
* Calyx
* Renal Pelvis
* Ureter
* Site of Glomerulus and
Bowman’s Capsule
* Site of Collecting Ducts
and Loop of Henle
Dissection- look for these structures
*
*3.
What is the general structure of
the kidney and how does the
structure relate to kidney function?
*4.
How does the kidney form urine?
Filtration reabsorption and secretion
*
*To helps maintain homeostasis in the body by;
*Regulating fluid balance
* Filtering the blood,
*Regulating electrolyte concentration
*Maintaining the pH balance of the blood
*Riding the body of liquid waste called urine.
*
* Find this simple diagram of the kidney and the nephron to assist you
with the activity on the “How Stuff Works” site,
http://health.howstuffworks.com/kidney1.htm
*
*The Blood/Urine
Connection
*the volume of blood passing through both
kidneys in one minute.
*the amount of glomerular filtrate
produced by both kidneys in one minute.
*the volume of urine that is produced by
both kidneys in one minute.
*the volume of urine produced by an
average adult in one day.
*
*the volume of blood passing through both
kidneys in one minute. = 1200 ml
*the amount of glomerular filtrate
produced by both kidneys in one minute.
= 125 ml
*the volume of urine that is produced by
both kidneys in one minute. = 1 ml
*the volume of urine produced by an
average adult in one day. = 1500 ml
*

As the kidneys filter blood, urine is created,
* which collects in the kidneys 'pelvis (a funnel-shaped structures)
* drains down tubes called ureters
* stored in the bladder
* excreted from the body through the Uerthra
The kidneys receive about 20% of the blood flow from
the heart, about 1.25 liters of blood per minute.
All the blood in the body is filtered in about 5 minutes.
The kidney produces about 180 liters of filtrate per day.
Most is reabsorbed, yielding only 1 - 1.5 liters of urine per
day for the average human.
*
*The glomerular filtrate consists primarily of water, glucose,
urea, and excess salts (primarily Na+ and K+).
*The kidney produces about 180 liters of filtrate per day. Most is
reabsorbed, yielding only 1 - 1.5 liters of urine per day for the
average human.
*a calculation of how much blood passes through and is filtered
by the kidneys each minute, or how well the kidneys are
working.
*calculated using a mathematical formula that compares a
person's size, age, sex, and race to serum creatinine levels.
*GFR
*Recorded in units of volume per time, e.g.,
milliliters per minute (mL/min). The lower the GFR
number, the worse the kidney function.
*GFR is an estimate. It may not be a good measure of
kidney health in some people, such as the very
young or very old, amputees, or obese people.
*GFR below 60 mL /min for 3 or more months is a
sign of chronic kidney disease.
* A GFR below 15mL/min is a sign of kidney failure
and requires immediate medical attention.
*Would you notice if you lost
function
It's possible to lose as much as 90% of kidney function
without experiencing any symptoms or problems
*
• The (GFR) for all of the nephrons in both kidneys is
approximately
125mL per minute.
• That means that about 125mL of fluid and dissolved
substances are filtered out of the blood per minute.
• Use this information to Calculate the GFR per day.
• Express your answer in liters (L) per day.
*
What is really
going on inside
the nephron
*Filtration*Reabsorption
*Secretion
*Filtration
*Mass movement of water and solutes from plasma to the
renal tubule . About 20% of the plasma volume passes
through the glomerulus at any given time and filtered.
*180 liters of fluid are filtered by the kidneys every day.
Thus, the entire plasma volume (about 3 liters) is filtered
60 times a day!
*Filtration is primarily driven by blood pressure in the
capillaries of the glomerulus.
Note: In order for the kidneys to rapidly remove waste and
toxins from the plasma efficiently they must filter much
more fluid than the amount of urine that is actually
excreted (about 1.5 liters per day).
*Reabsorption
*The movement of water and solutes from the
tubule back into the plasma.
*Reabsorption of water and specific solutes
occurs to varying degrees over the entire length
of the renal tubule.
*Bulk reabsorption, occurs largely in the proximal
tubule.
*Over 70% the filtrate is reabsorbed here.
* Secretion
*After filtration has occurred, the tubules
continue to secrete additional substances into the
tubular fluid.
*This enhances the kidney's ability to eliminate
certain wastes and toxins.
*It is also essential to regulation of plasma
potassium concentrations and pH.
Note: Excretion is the end result of the above
three processes and is what goes into the urine,
*
* The functional unit of the
Kidney composed of
glomerulus and tubules.
* Each kidney has about a
million nephrons.
* The glomerulus (tiny blood
vessels, or capillary)
intertwines with a tiny urinecollecting tubes called tubules
that allow extra fluid and
wastes to pass through.
* Glomerular filtrate-- amount
produced by both kidneys/min
= approx. 125 ml.
*
* Where filtration takes place
* Blood flows through the
kidneys at a very high rate.
* Arrives at the glomerulus
through Afferent arterioles
and Exits through smaller
Efferent arterioles .
* The Glomerulus acts as a
filtering unit of the kidney is
housed in Bowman’s Capsule
* It keeps normal proteins and
cells in the bloodstream,
allowing extra fluid and
wastes to pass through.
* In addition to the Glomerulus
are the
* Proximal convoluted tubules=
drain Bowman’s Capsule, and
where most reabsorption of
nutrients takes place
* Loop of Henle= Reabsorbs
H2O and ions from urine and
plays an important role in
concentration urine
* Distal Convoluted
tubules=Regulates K, Na and
pH & further dilution of urine
* Collection ducts= connects to
several tubules to collect
filtrate and final Na
regulation takes place
*
*
*5.
What is the relationship between blood and
urine?
As the kidneys process blood, they regulate the
amount of dissolved substances, especially
electrolytes such as sodium, potassium, and calcium
ions, reabsorbing what is need and returning it to
the blood and excreting the waste as urine .
What the kidneys retain and put back into the
blood is just as important as what it filters out as
waste.
*
*6. What is the function of the nephron?
*7. How do filtration, secretion and
reabsorption in the nephron help
maintain a fluid and electrolyte
balance in the body?
*
* The kidneys are a powerful buffering system that maintains acidbase balance in the narrow range of pH at 7.35 to 7.45, :
* In response to acidosis, tubular cells reabsorb more bicarbonate
from the tubular fluid,
* In response to alkalosis, the kidneys decrease hydrogen ion secretion
* Outside the normal pH range;
* proteins are denatured and digested,
* enzymes lose their ability to function,
* and the body is unable to sustain itself.
* The kidneys are slower to compensate and correct pH than the
lungs, but renal physiology has several powerful mechanisms to
control Ph.
*
*What happens to the body when
H2O levels are low?
*You become:
*weak
*nauseous
*dizzy
*may even pass out.
*
*You may remember from Endocrine
system,
*ADH (Produced by Hypothalamus,
released by pituitary, acted upon by
Kidneys) is necessary for normal reabsorption of water back into the blood.
*AND drinking ethanol inhibits the
production of ADH and urine output
increases significantly.
*
*When you increase fluid intake, the fluid
gets absorbed into the blood.
*The absorbed fluid increases the amount
of water filtered in the glomerulus plus it
reduces the concentration of Na.
*The reduced Na concentration is sensed
by the osmoreceptors sending a message to
pituitary.
*The pituitary decreases secretion of
ADH. NOTE: (ADH tells the kidneys to hold
onto H2O).
When the collecting ducts don't see as much ADH, they decrease
water reabsorption in response to the Na concentration gradient
set up by the loop of Henle.
•The excess water gets excreted as urine.
•When the excess water is excreted, the Na concentration of the
blood returns to normal.
*
* Peptide hormone that helps regulates water,
glucose, and salts in the blood.
* Increases water permeability of the kidney's
collecting duct and distal convoluted tubule
*Increases water absorption in the collecting
ducts of the kidney nephron.
* It also increases peripheral vascular resistance
(PVR), which in turn increases arterial blood
pressure (BP).
*
* A steroid hormone produced by the outer section of
the adrenal cortex in the adrenal gland.
*Stimulates the reabsorption of water in the kidney,
increases H2O retention.
*Cause the conservation of Na, and the secretion of
K,
*Plays a central role in the regulation of blood
pressure by acting on the distal tubules and
collecting ducts of the nephron
*When dys-regulated, aldosterone is pathogenic and
contributes to the development and progression of
cardiovascular and renal disease.
*Decreased blood volume or blood pressure
stimulates the release of Renin that starts the
process
* The glomulerus, a bundle of capillary blood vessels found in the kidney,
senses a drop in blood flow or sodium and secretes an enzyme called
renin into the bloodstream.
* Renin moves to the liver where it converts the inactive peptide
angiotensiongen to angiotensin I.
* Angiotensin I travels to the lungs where another enzyme converts it to
angiotensin II.
* Angiotensin II makes its way to the adrenal glands at the top of the
kidneys where it stimulates the production of aldosterone.
* Aldosterone helps the kidneys conserve sodium and water, leading to
increased fluid volume and sodium levels.
* NOTE: If blood flow to the kidneys or the amount of sodium increases,
less renin is produced in an attempt to normalize blood pressure.
*
8. How do the hormones ADH and
aldosterone affect the nephron and
the body’s overall water balance?
*
*.
*
9. What is urinalysis?
10.How can the composition of urine
provide clues about problems in
other human body systems?
*
*A test to determine or analyze the content
of the urine.
*Because urine removes toxins and excess liquids
from the body, its contents can provide vital health
information.
*Urinalysis can be used to detect some types of
disease, particularly in the case of metabolic
disorders and kidney disease.
*Urinalysis can also be used to uncover evidence of
drug abuse.
*
* The role of the kidneys is to maintain homeostasis by
controlling the chemical composition of the blood. The
kidneys do this by:
* Removing waste products from the blood
* Leaving nutrients such as proteins and glucose in the blood
* Maintaining the acid-base balance
* Regulating water and electrolyte balance
*
* If the kidneys are functioning properly, and person is in good
over-all health, urine will be normal.
* If urine shows abnormalities, this can indicate problem with
kidneys.
* The following conditions can cause kidney problems:
* Congestive heart failure
* Diabetes,
* Hypertension,
* kidney stones
* Injury to glomerulus or tubules from drugs, heavy metals, and
viral infections.
*
*Urinalysis consists of the following
components:
*Macroscopic Examination
*Chemical Analysis
*Microscopic Examination
*
*Looking at the physical properties of the urine:
*Color:
*Normal urine should be a shade of yellow ranging
from a straw to amber color.
*Abnormal urine can be: colorless, dark yellow,
orange, pink, red, green, brown, or black.
*Clarity (transparency):
*Normal urine should be clear
*Abnormal urine can be: hazy, cloudy, or turbid
*
*The chemical properties of urine, including pH,
specific gravity, protein content, glucose
content, ketone content, are tested.
*Urine test strips are often used to detect the
chemical properties of urine.
*
*pH
*Test measures if urine is acidic, basic or neutral
*Normal urine ranges from 4.6 to 8.0
*Specific Gravity:
*Test measures the concentration of particles in the
urine and evaluates the body’s water balance.
*The more concentrated the urine, the higher the
urine specific gravity.
*The most common increase in urine specific gravity is
the result of dehydration.
*Normal urine ranges between 1.002 to 1.028
*
*Ketones:
*Test measures the presence or absence of ketones,
the endpoint of rapid or excessive fat breakdown, in
the urine.
*Normal urine does not contain ketones
*Protein:
*Normal urine levels of proteins (called albumin) are
very small, usually approximately 0 to 8 mg/dl.
*Glucose:
*The test measures the amount of sugar in a urine
sample.
*Normal urine does not contain glucose.
*
*A variety of normal and abnormal cellular
elements may be seen in urine when looked at
under a microscope, including:
*Red blood cells
*White blood cells
*Epithelial cells
*Crystals
*Bacteria
*
*Red blood cells are not found in normal urine.
*White blood cells and bacteria, signs of
infections, are not found in normal urine.
*Epithelial cells are found in urine as they are
the cells that line the urinary tract
*Common crystals seen even in healthy patients
include calcium oxalate, triple phosphate
crystals and amorphous phosphates.
*A large number of crystals, or certain types of
crystals, may mean kidney stones are present or there
is a problem with how the body is using food