Download Where Innovation Is Tradition - Potomac Valley Ecological

The Impact of Regional Development
on Symbioses From the Potomac
River Valley to the Chesapeake Bay
Maheen Aziz
Adam Carpenter
Eileen Flynn
Pete Goddard
Dana Griffith
Richard Groover
Damien Hammond
Laruen W. Kinne
Charles Milling
Dr. Dann Sklarew
Wendy Stickel
Julia Welch
Where Innovation Is Tradition
Tonight’s Agenda
• Introduction
• Stressors to the PRV
• Types and Causes
• Effects on Symbiosis
• Terrestrial, Freshwater, and Brackish Ecosystems
• Prospects for the Future
• Challenges and Remediation
• Conclusion
Where Innovation Is Tradition
Introduction
Potomac River Valley
Where Innovation Is TraditionPhoto:
http://tinyurl.com/sklarew2000
What is symbiosis?
• “Two or more forms of life that have a
relationship which may change over time
which influence each other. “ Jan. 21,
2010
• What is mutualism?
• “Interaction between species which benefits
both… a +/+ interaction” (Boucher et al.
1982)
Where Innovation Is Tradition
Thesis
• Development has begun to place
stressors on the symbioses in the PRV,
thus creating the potential for
fundamentally altering the ecosystem
services of those symbioses.
Where Innovation Is Tradition
Ecosystem Services in the PRV
• Ecosystem Services: contribution of ecosystems to
the benefit of populations, to both our physical and
psychological well-being. Not defined separate from
human values (EPA, 2009).
• Provisioning Services-Oysters
• Regulating Services-Pollination
• Cultural Services-Aesthetics of the River
• Supporting Services-Mycorrhizae
Where Innovation Is Tradition
Environmental Stressors as a Result of
Development
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Habitat degradation/fragmentation
Sediment
Nutrients (phosphorous & nitrogen)
Endocrine disruptors (DDT, PCBs, etc.)
Toxics (heavy metals)
Organic pollutants (medicines, hormones)
Flow regimes
Where Innovation Is Tradition
Environmental Stressors as a Result of
Development
• Suburban sprawl increases habitat destruction
and fragmentation
•
•
•
•
Lots of clear-cutting
Lot sizes increased
Loss of contiguous forest
Loss of mycorrhizal associations
Where Innovation Is Tradition
Environmental Stressors as a Result of
Development
• Habitat alteration allows for multiple stressors on
ecosystem
• Higher salinity
• Changes in acidity/ alkalinity
• Removal or uptake of nutrients in soils and
watersheds
• Introduction of heavy metals into environment
Where Innovation Is Tradition
Environmental Stressors as a Result of
Development
• Pollution
• Nutrient runoff from the mainland can increase nutrients
in the water and cause algal blooms that cover and
destroy the existing underwater vegetation.
• Pesticides, oil, and sediment can also be included in
runoff from the mainland.
Where Innovation Is Tradition
Emerging Contaminants & the PRV
• 2004 in West Virginia tributaries o
Potomac river
• USGS finds that 44 percent of
male Smallmouth bass produced
eggs and exhibited female
• “Intersex” fish, alligators, and
frogs
• Endocrine disrupting compounds
Where Innovation Is Tradition
Nonpoint Source Pollution
• Nonpoint source pollution generally results
from land runoff, precipitation, atmospheric
deposition, drainage, seepage or hydrologic
modification.
Where Innovation Is Tradition
Nonpoint Source Pollution
• Excess fertilizers, herbicides and insecticides from
agricultural lands and residential areas
• Oil, grease and toxic chemicals from urban runoff
and energy production
• Sediment from construction sites, crop and forest
lands, and eroding stream banks
• Salt from irrigation practices and acid drainage
from abandoned mines
• Bacteria and nutrients from livestock, pet wastes
and faulty septic systems
Where Innovation Is Tradition
Environmental Stressors as a Result of
Development
• Commerce
• Detrimental oyster collecting techniques and deep
water trawling
• Harvesting of different species for human
consumption
• Ships that come into port bringing invasive species
and diseases.
Where Innovation Is Tradition
Environmental Stressors as a Result of
Development
• Erosion:
• Loose silt, sand and clay released in the environment as
sediment (sedimentation)
• Nutrient run-off
• Increased turbidity
• Carried through streams and rivers the Chesapeake
Bay by surface run off.
• One of the leading causes of the Bay’s decline.1
• Symbiosis affected at all levels.
Chesapeake Bay Program. 2009. Sediments. http://www.chesapeakebay.net/sediments
Where Innovation Is Tradition
Impacts of Urbanization on Symbioses in
the PRV
• Terrestrial
– Mycorrhizae & Plants
– Pollinators & Plants
• Aquatic
• Freshwater
– Mussels & Fish
– Shrimp & SAV
• Brackish water
– Multiple Oyster Mutualisms
– SAV
Where Innovation Is Tradition
Terrestrial: Mycorrhizae Fungi
Mycorrhizae: form mutualisms
with plants
• Ectomycorrhizae-form
sheaths around the roots of
partner plants
• Endomycorrhizae-invade
interior root cells of host
plants
(Stamets,
2005)
(Margulis & Fester Eds.,
1991)
http://www.palaeos.com/Plants/Lists/Glossary/Images/Endom
ycorrhizae.gif
Where Innovation Is Tradition
Mycorrhizae and Herbaceous Plants
• Wild leeks (also called ramps) form mutualistic
relationships with mycelium which promotes leek
health by:
– Bioremediation
– Increasing surface area for water uptake
– Changing physical and chemical properties of soil
(Leyval &
Binet,
1998)
Where Innovation Is Tradition
http://greayer.com/st
udiog/wpcontent/uploads/200
9/04/mosaic160223
9.jpg
Impact of fossil fuel emissions
• Fossil fuels release polyaromatic hydrocarbons
(PAHs)
• Increasing amounts of PAHs in the soil decrease
mycorrhizal colonization of plant roots
• Plants with mycorrhizal associations are able to
survive and grow in soils with higher amounts of
PAH than plants without these associations
(Bouchez et. al,
1995)
Where Innovation Is Tradition
(Leyval & Binet,
1998)
Impact of Clear Cutting
• Removes Native Plant Species such as
Virginia Pine (Pinus virginiana)
Where Innovation Is Tradition
Photo: http://www.forestwander.com
Impact of Clear Cutting
• Study by Liu et al. (2001) found:
• Clear-cutting and burning led to deficiency in
available nitrogen
• Nitrogen fixation decreases for 18 months
• Overall soil degradation occurs due to erosion
Where Innovation Is Tradition
Impact of Clear Cutting
• Removes top soil and associated mychorrhizae
such as Thelephora terrestris
Where Innovation Is Tradition
Photo: http://aboutenvironment.com/
Terrestrial: Pollinators
• >90 crops are benefited by
honey bee
• Alfalfa leafcutter bee
pollinates alfalfa for seed
Alfalfa Leafcutter, Megachile rotundata
• Bumblebees used for
pollination services in
greenhouses
(Sanford, 1998)
Where Innovation Is Tradition
Pollination Services in VA
• $23 million added value
to apple industry
• Major factors threatening
Commercial honey bee hives scattered throughout holly
orchard - Appleton et al., 2009
pollinators
• Loss of habitat
• Loss of symbiotic
partner
• Use of pesticides
Where Innovation Is Tradition
Aquatic (Freshwater): Mussels & Fish
In the freshwater PRV:
• Historically the area supported 14 species of mussels
• Presently 7 species live in the PRV
• two of which are Yellow lamp mussel (Lampsilis
cariosa) and tidewater mucket (Leptodea ochracea)
•white perch is often a host along with other species
http://www.lsc.usgs.gov
/SPN.asp?StudyPlanNum
=02098
Where Innovation Is Tradition
bio.umass.edu
Symbiosis Between Mussels & Fish
•Fish hosts are requirement for mussels to
complete their life cycle.
•Larvae attach to the gills or fins of the host
and remain attached for one to four weeks
while transforming into a juvenile mussel.
As juveniles, they drop off the fish and begin
their free-living life.
•Mussels have adaptations that ensure host
interest such as mantles that resemble prey
items (worms, etc) or mating colors and
body shape similar to the host fish.
•Mussels lure the fish in and release the
larvae into the water column or grab the fish
by the head and inject the larvae into the
gills Innovation
or fins. Is Tradition
Where
Help save America's pearly mussels - Virginia cooperative extension
Aquatic (Freshwater): Mussels & Fish
• Ecosystem function:
Mussels benefit the ecosystem by removing algae and
suspended particles in the water column, especially from
turbid and organically enriched waters near wastewater
facilities and in fish farm effluents. Mussels repackage
nutrients and mix the upper sediment layer.
*Evidence from cancer research suggests that some mussels may be resistant to
certain types of cancer and that the extraction of cancer-curing drugs from mollusks
may be feasible in the future.
Where Innovation Is Tradition
http://www.lsc.usgs.gov/SPN.asp?StudyPlanNum=02098
Impact of Sedimentation
•Sedimentation deeper than 2mm
shown to cause 100% mortality in
white perch larvae
•Decrease in fish population will
decrease mussel population,
affecting rate of filtration
Where Innovation Is Tradition
Help save America's pearly mussels - Virginia cooperative extension
Aquatic (Freshwater): Shrimp & Wild
Celery
Freshwater grass shrimp Palaemonetes paludosus
&
Wild celery Vallisneria americana
Petshrimp.com
•Sherpaguides.com/chesapeake_bay/natural_history
(Lowe et. Al, 1990)
Where Innovation Is Tradition
www.mass.gov
Aquatic (Freshwater): Shrimp & Wild
Celery
Relationship/Ecosystem Function:
•Grasses produce oxygen, hiding places and food
•Shrimp feed on algae, detritus, aquatic insects, crustaceans,
and meiofauna and, in turn, are eaten by fishes and other
predators
•Sherpaguides.com/chesapeake_bay/natural_history
•(Lowe et. al, 1990)
Where Innovation Is Tradition
Impact of Erosion and Nutrient Loading
• Nutrient loading (from development) can cause algal blooms
that cloud the water, blocking light to grasses
• Urban sprawl produces 5-7 times more sediment and
phosphorus than an old-growth forest
• Only 11% of the Bay’s historic SAV grasses remain
Pant, H and Reddy, K. Phosphorus Sorption
Characterizes
of
Where
Innovation
Estuarine Sediments under Different Redox Conditions
Is Tradition
Thekrib.com
www.sacramentoaquariumsociety.org
Aquatic (Brackish): Oyster Mutualisms
• Filter feeder
• Reef-builder
• Substrate for
invertebrates
• Nutrient-cycler
Where Innovation Is Tradition
Role of Oysters in PRV
• Decades of over-harvesting have substantially reduced role
of oyster  loss of crucial ecosystem services:
• Reduced grazing of phytoplankton has led to increased
turbidity and reduced photosynthesis by SAV
• Lower rate of filtration = less effective curb on pollution
• Reduced reefs, reduced refuge and limited substrate has led to
reduced species richness and fish abundance
• Fewer biodeposits to fertilize sea grasses
• Contributes to reduced resilience of entire estuarine ecosystem
Where Innovation Is Tradition
Impact of Development on Oysters & Sea
Grass
• Excessive nutrient flows
create algal blooms which
lead to hypoxia, limiting
supply of oxygen to oysters
and other benthic fauna.
• Siltation increases turbidity,
affecting density of sea grass
communities which offer
refuge to oyster (and other)
larvae.
Photo: http://www.life.umd.edu
Where Innovation Is Tradition
Photo: http://www.chesapeake-bay.org
Impact of Development on Oysters & Sea
Grass
• Hydrological flow regimes which limit flow of
freshwater in PRV increase salinity levels,
exacerbating population of protozoa that cause
Dermo disease
• Years of dredging have reduced height of oyster
reefs exposing surviving oysters to increased risks of
hypoxia, reducing further what is left of the oyster
population and creating barriers to restoration.
Where Innovation Is Tradition
Positive Feedback Loops
• Increased turbidity  decline of seagrasses no buffer for wave
action  increased re-suspension of sediment  increased
turbidity  decline of seagrasses (Newell and Koch 2004)
• Loss of reef substrate decline of sea-nettles increase in comb
jellies increased predation on oyster larvae reduced oyster
abundance loss of reef substrate (Goldman 2004)
• The “eutrophication cascade”: increased nutrient
loadingphytoplankton growth and sinkingincr benthic
respirationincr recycling of N and Pincr nutrient-fed
phytoplankton growth (Kemp 2005)
Where Innovation Is Tradition
Aquatic: Submerged Aquatic Vegetation
(SAV)
• A foundation species with
multiple roles:
• habitat and refuge
• flow management
• nutrient buffering
• Dramatic decline in SAV from 1950s
• Recent signs of recovery
Where Innovation Is Tradition
Causes of SAV Decline
• Primary cause is poor water quality from pollutants
•
•
•
•
SAV as “canary of coastal water”
Chlorine and other chemicals
Herbicides
Sediments and algal blooms affecting turbidity
• Other causes
-Over-grazing
-Warming of water temp
-Storm events
-Disease
Where Innovation Is Tradition
Conservation
A. Human Land Use Changes (policy & action)
1.
2.
3.
4.
Strategic development
Treatment facilities
Cultural changes
Changes in Regulatory Structures
B. Bioremediation
1.
2.
Bioindicators
Symbioses as agents of bioremediation
Where Innovation Is Tradition
Human Land Use Changes
• Considerations of Land Use is Required to Address
Environmental Issues including Global Climate
Change1
• Development in theory is not that bad
– It is the WAY we develop
• Loss of forests and native species, as well as top soil
• Impervious surfaces
• Fragmentation of existing forestland
• Construction Areas
• Existing Roadways
Where Innovation Is Tradition
1Lecture: Lovejoy, April 8,
2010
Strategic Development
• Larger Environmental Easements and Buffers
• Remove Native Species Only Where Necessary
• Leave Layer of top soil and at least 30 percent of existing
plant species
– Mychorrhizae associations provide services
• Soil formation and retention
• Absorption of naturally occurring phosphorous
• Develop Fewer Impervious Surfaces
• Plan More Direct and Narrow Roadways
• Replant Native Species Along Roadways and Parking
Lots as Environmental Species
Where Innovation Is Tradition
Example of Strategic Development
Solutions
Problems
• Development & land use
• Increase in impervious
surfaces
• Loss of natural
percolation filtration
• Increase in runoff velocity
causes erosion
•Decrease impervious
surfaces
• Green roof
• Rain gardens
• Installing water
absorbing plants around
highways
Where Innovation Is Tradition
Wastewater Treatment Plants (WWTPs)
• WWTPs minimize environmental contamination
from surface runoff, industrial, agriculture, &
residential sources
• Multiple WWTPs discharge into the PRV
Where Innovation Is Tradition
http://www.epa.gov/nps/whatis.html
Alexandria Sanitation Authority
• Tertiary treatment plant with UV & oxygen to
effluent processes over 54 million gal/day (12
billion)
• Filters 4.3 million lbs of N & 746,000 lbs of P per
year
• Minimize algae blooms that feed on nitrogen and create
oxygen dead zones
• Use methane gas to heat and cool plant (780 homes
annually)
Where Innovation Is Tradition
http://www.alexsan.com/how_does_asa_clean_dirty_water.asp
Wastewater Treatment Plants & the PRV
• Effluent from wastewater treatment plants is
currently the most notably identified point-source
contribution of endocrine disrupting contaminants
in the Potomac River.
• Emerging contaminants in the Potomac include
personal care products, pharmaceuticals and overthe-counter medications, agricultural pollution,
animal feedlots, and industrial byproducts.
Where Innovation Is Tradition
http://www.potomac.org/site/snapshot-watershed/index.php
Changes in Culture
• End the “Zero-Sum Game” mindset
• You can’t reach a “win-win” resolution if you’re not
looking for one
• Look at problems (and for solutions) holistically
• Myopic understanding of problems encourages
simplistic (not simple) solutions that tend to be ill-suited
to the complex reality... then no one wins
Where Innovation Is Tradition
Changes in Culture
• Enshrine the concept of the “Precautionary
Principle” at the same level as that of the
concept of “Progress”
• Neither is bad and neither is the enemy of the
other; they must be used in a complimentary
manner
Where Innovation Is Tradition
Changes in Culture (Through Education)
Conserve/Help/Protect Vulnerable Symbioses
•Better education for the offenders
•Better enforcement of the laws
•Strengthen environmental laws
Where Innovation Is Tradition
Changes in Regulatory Structure
•
Recognize and prioritize Ecosystem
Services
•
•
Neglecting or taking for granted what nature
provides tends to result in losing that value
Assigning economic value is one way to
handle this in a free-market system… this does
not necessarily mean buying and selling
Where Innovation Is Tradition
Changes in Regulatory Structure
• Require “Cradle-to-Grave” and/or “Cradle-toCradle” analysis for products and processes
• Often the most damaging things we do are
accidental/incidental, related to an aspect or feature we
overlooked or don’t understand; only by eliminating
those blind-spots can we make decisions that can even
ATTEMPT to be mutualistic
• Acknowledge that previous failures to understand
such complex systems could presage future failures
• “Measure twice, cut once” – learn from past mistakes
Where Innovation Is Tradition
Bioremediation
• How can we utilize local species and the
relationships between these species to help monitor,
conserve and rejuvenate the Potomac River Valley
for future generations?
Where Innovation Is Tradition
Bioindicators
• Use mycorrhizae and other mutualisms as
bioindicators of ecological system health
• Foraminifers as bioindicators of coral reefs
• Zooxanthellate and foraminifers have similar waterquality requirements
• Short life span provides differentiation between longterm water quality decline and episodic events
• Small and abundant
Where Innovation Is Tradition
Symbioses as Bioindicators
• Symbiosis degradation can be a measure of impact
• Monitoring the health of these relationships as a
measure of ecosystem health
• Symbiosis success can be a standard to achieve
Where Innovation Is Tradition
Bioremediation Using Symbioses
• Many mutualisms affect pollution complex
systems in wetlands filter water by:
• Removing metals, nutrients, silt, etc.
• Promoting new wetlands growth and biodiversity
which could help decrease pollutant levels
Where Innovation Is Tradition
Bioremediation Using Mycorrhizae
• Mycorrhizae bioremediate through bacterial
recruitment and improving soil conditions
• Bacteria that are recruited can use PAHs as a
source of carbon and thus break them down
and detoxify them
• Leeks (wild ramps in the PRV) could help
detoxify fossil fuel emissions from major
highways
(Leyval & Binet,
1998)
(Bouchez et. al,
Where Innovation Is Tradition
1995)
Soil Stabilization and Nutrient Recruitment
by Mycorrhizae
• Andersson et. al (1994) found that Paxillus
involutus, a mycelium associated with Picea
abies (Norway spruce) and (Betula pendula)
silver birch increased nitrate assimilation
Where Innovation Is Tradition
Bioremediation by Native Species
Mussels
Where Innovation Is Tradition
Virginia Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit 2010
Six Hours Later
• One mussel can filter ~0.5 gallon/hr
Virginia Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit 2010
Where Innovation Is Tradition
More Solutions/Symbioses
• Development of an intelligent robot to:
• To wander through the PRV waters
• To seek-out pollutants
• To process and eliminate pollutants
Where Innovation Is Tradition
Conclusions
•
•
•
•
Stressors play a defining role in symbioses
Environmental education and legislation is
essential for the protection of our ecosystems
Bioremediation is a powerful tool in protecting
and cleaning up ecosystems
Symbioses can play an integral role in the
process of bioremediation
Where Innovation Is Tradition
Floor is Open for
Questions
Where Innovation Is Tradition
Resources
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Adamson, N. (2009, April 18). Native Bee Pollinators for Crops. Retrieved April 16, 2010, from
http://www.slideshare.net/sdroege/native-bee-pollinators-for-crops
Andersson, S., Arnebrant, K., & Söderström, B. (1994). Growth and Assimilation of NH4 + and NO3 by Paxillus involutus in Association with Betula pendula and Picea abies as Affected by Substrate
pH. New Phytologist, 128(4), 629-637.
Appleton, B., Spivey, A., & French, S. (2009). Virginia Cut Holly Production: Holly Pollination and
Honey Bees – Virginia Cooperative Extension. Retrieved March 23, 2010, from
http://pubs.ext.vt.edu/430/430-468/430-468.html
Booth, D. M., and Heck, K.L. (2009). Effects of the American oyster Crassostrea virginica on growth
rates of the seagrass Halodule wrightii, Marine Ecology Progress Series, Vol 389: 117-126.
Bouchez, M., Blanchet, D., and Vandercasteele, J.P. (1995). “Degradation of polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons by pure strains and by defined strain associations: inhibition phenomena and
cometabolism.” Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology. 43.1: 156-164.
Brown, B. E. (1997). Coral bleaching: causes and consequences. Coral Reefs, 16, S129-S138.
Development - Bay Pressures - Chesapeake Bay Program. Retrieved March 18, 2010, from
http://www.chesapeakebay.net/developmentpressure.aspx?menuitem=19514
Cloern, J. E. (2001). Our evolving conceptual model of the coastal eutrophication problem, Marine
Ecology Progress Series, Vol 210: 223-253.
Where Innovation Is Tradition
Resources
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Fulford, R. S., et al. (2007). Effects of oyster population restoration strategies on phytoplankton
biomass in Chesapeake Bay: a flexible modeling approach, Marine Ecology Progress Series,
Vol.
336: 43-61.
Goldman, E. (2004). Recovering Resilience: Can Restoration Bring Back the Bay’s Buffers?
Chesapeake Quarterly, Vol. 3, No. 3.
Heithaus, R., & Humes, M. (2003). Variation in communities of seed-dispersing ants in habitats with
different disturbance in Knox County, Ohio. The Ohio Journal of Science, 103(4), 89–97.
Helfrich,Loui and et al. Help save America's Pearly Mussels. Virginia Cooperative Extension.
At:http://pubs.ext.vt.edu/420/420-014/420-014.html
Hughes, A. R., et al. (2009). Associations of concern: declining seagrasses and threatened dependent
species, Frontiers of Ecology and the Environment, 7(5): 242-245.
Jackson, J.B.C., et al. (2001). Historical overfishing and the recent collapse of coastal ecosystems,
Science: July 27, 2001, p. 629.
Kemp, W.M., et al. (2005). Eutrophication of Chesapeake Bay: historical trends and ecological
interactions, Marine Ecology Progress Series, Vol. 303: 1-29.
Kneeland, S. and Rhymer, J. (2008). Determination of fish host use by wild populations of rare
freshwater mussels using a molecular identification key toidentify glochidia. Journal of the
North American Benthological Society 27(1):150-160.
Where Innovation Is Tradition
Resources
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Lenihan, H. S., and Peterson, C.H. (1998). How habitat degradation through fishery disturbance
enhances impacts of hypoxia on oyster reefs, Ecological Applications, 8(1).
Leyval, C., and P. Binet. (1998). "Effect of polyaromatic hydrocarbons in soil on arbuscular
mycorrhizal plants." Journal of Environmental Quality 27.2: 402-7. Applied Science Full Text.
Web. 13 Feb. 2010.
Liu, F., Toda, H., & Haibara, K. (2001). Effects of clear-cutting and burning on characteristics of
nitrogen mineralization and microbes in the forest soil of a Pinus massoniana plantation in
Southern China. Ecological Research, 16(3), 531-542.
Lowe, Brian and Provenzano,Anthony. (1990). Survival and reproduction of Palaemontes
paludosus in saline water. Journal of Crustacean Biology, 10(4):639-647.
Margulis, L., and R. Fester (Eds.). (1991). Symbiosis as a source of evolutionary
innovation: speciation and morphogenesis. MIT Press, Cambridge Mass.
Retrieved from:
http://books.google.com/books?id=3sKzeiHUIUQC&printsec=frontcover#v=o
nepage&q=&f=false
Morgan II, R., Rasin, J. and Noe, L. Sediment Effects on Eggs and Larvae of Striped Bass and White
Perch. Appalachian Environmental Laboratory, Center for Environmental and Estuarine Studies,
University of Maryland.
Pant, HK and Reddy, KR. (2001). Phosphorus sorption characteristics of estuarine sediments under
different redox conditions." Journal of Environmental Quality 30:1474-1480.
Sanford, M. (1998). Pollination, The Forgotten Agricultural Input. Proceedings of
the Florida Conference and Trade Show, 45-47.
Where Innovation Is Tradition
Resources
•
•
•
•
•
•
Stachowicz, J. J. (2001). Mutualism, Facilitation, and the Structure of Ecological
Communities. BioScience, 51(3), 235.
Stamets, P. (2005). Mycelium running : how mushrooms can help save the world. Ten
Speed Press, Berkeley Calif. Retrieved from:
http://books.google.com/books?id=NPI8_omzvsC&dq=mycelium+running&printse
c=frontcover&source=bn&hl=en&ei=2PN5S93XOZCqNpuayLQH&sa=X&oi=boo
k_result&ct=result&resnu m=6&ved=0CCIQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=&f=false
Villella, Rita. Impact of aluminum-laden sediment discharge on viability of native
freshwater mussels in the Potomac River; Detailed project information for study
plan 02098. At: www.lsc.usgs.gov/SPN.asp?StudyPlanNum=02098
Virginia Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit. 2010. U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service, Department of Fisheries and Wildlife Sciences, Virginia Polytechnic
Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia.
Winegar, Deane. Longstreet highroad guide to the Chesapeake Bay. Retrieved from:
www.sherpaguides.com/chesapeake_bay/natural_history/
Zahran, H. H. (1999). Rhizobium-Legume Symbiosis and Nitrogen Fixation under Severe
Conditions and in an Arid Climate. Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev., 63(4), 968-989.
Where Innovation Is Tradition