Download Biology 1 Final Exam Review

Biology 1406 Chapter Reviews for HCC
This is a GENERAL review. The exam may contain, but is not exactly limited to
terms/concepts described below
General
To know terms and definitions.
Scientific method, controls, osmosis, diffusion, hydrophobic, hydrophilic, chemical
bonds, properties of water.
Structure and properties of proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, nucleotides.
Levels of protein folding that produce a mature protein, including the types of chemical
bonds that stabilize each level.
Properties of good experimental design, including the purpose of controls and numbers of
replicates.
Chemistry
To know terms and definitions.
Matter, elements, compounds (incl. emergent properties of a compound). Essential and
trace elements. Four main elements in human body.
Atomic mass (incl. units), atomic structure. Isotopes (incl. radioactive isotopes).
Energy, potential energy, electron shells (energy levels), valence shells/electrons.
Element valence, chemical properties related to atomic structure.
Chemical bonds (all types), electronegativity. Double-triple covalent bonds. Ionic
compounds (salts).
Chemical reactions, chemical equilibrium.
Water
To know terms and definitions.
Structure of water molecule. Hydrogen bonds. Four emergent properties of water.
Evaporative cooling/heat of vaporization. Energy, kinetic energy, heat, temperature.
Calories, kilocalories. Specific heat.
Water/ice density, hardness. The temperature of the highest water density. Solvents,
solutes. Mole, molarity, molecular mass, concentration.
Aquatic solutions. pH, acids and bases, pH scale, buffers, ocean acidification, acid
precipitation.
Organic chemistry
To know terms and definitions.
Origin of life and Miller-Urey experiment. Chemical properties of carbon, making it
important. Different patterns of carbon skeletons. Hydrocarbons.
3 types of isomers. Functional groups and their properties.
Large biological molecules
To know terms and definitions.
Macromolecules and polymers.
Carbohydrates: the main groups of carbohydrates, their properties and role.
Polysaccharides – cellulose, starch, glycogen, chitin.
Lipids. Saturated and unsaturated fatty acids; phospholipids and steroids. The role of
phospholipids in cellular membrane.
Proteins. Biological role and functions of proteins. Amino acids.
Four levels of protein structure. Denaturation and renaturation.
Nucleic acids and their components. Structure of nucleotides. Structure of DNA and
RNA, it’s relation to hereditary information.
The cell
To know terms and definitions.
Microscopy (different types of microscopes and their usage).
Prokaryotic cells vs. eukaryotic cells.
Plant cells vs. animal cells. Structures within eukaryotic cell and their function:
endomembrane system, mitochondria and chloroplasts. The evolutionary origin of
mitochondria and chloroplasts. The structure of mitochondria and chloroplasts.
The cytoskeleton: components and their function. Cilia vs. flagella.
Extracellular components and their role in intra- and intercellular activities. Cell junctions
in animal and plant cells.
Membrane structure and function
To know terms and definitions.
Fluid mosaic model of cellular membranes. The role of cholesterol in regulation of
membrane’s fluidity.
Membrane proteins and their function (six main functions).
Selective permeability of membranes. Diffusion, passive and active transport across the
membrane. Concentration gradient. Osmosis. Tonicity. The role of membrane proteins in
passive and active transport. Examples of active transport: the sodium-potassium pump
and the proton pump. Understanding of electrochemical gradient. Cotransport.
Bulk transport: exocytosis and endocytosis. The three types of endoytosis.
Metabolism
To know terms and definitions.
Catabolic and anabolic pathways.
Different forms of energy and their transformation. Understanding of thermodynamics
and its two laws. Entropy.
Exergonic and endergonic reactions. Equilibrium. Energy coupling: the use of Exergonic
reaction to drive an endergonic one. ATP/ADP cycling.
Enzymes as biological catalysts. The activation energy (EA) and the role of enzymes in
lowering of EA. Substrate specificity of enzymes: enzyme-substrate complexes, active
site. Effect of different factors (e.g., temperature, pH, salinity) on enzyme activity.
Competitive and noncompetitive inhibitors of enzymes. Understanding of allosteric
regulation of enzymes. Feedback inhibition.
Cellular respiration and fermentation
To know terms and definitions.
Energy flow and chemical recycling in ecosystems. The relationship between
photosynthesis and cellular respiration.
Catabolic pathways and production of ATP using organic fuel. Aerobic respiration vs.
fermentation.
Redox reactions. Reduction and oxidizing in Chemistry. The chemical equation of
cellular respiration.
The stages of cellular respiration: 1) glycolysis, 2) pyruvate oxidation and citric acid
cycle, and 3) oxidative phosphorylation (electron transport and chemiosmosis). The
location and yield at each stage. Electron transport chain. ATP production in each stage
of cellular (aerobic) respiration. ATP production at fermentation and anaerobic
respiration.
The comparison of fermentation, anaerobic, and aerobic respiration. The versatility of
catabolism.
Photosynthesis
To know terms and definitions.
Autotrophs and heterotrophs. Photoautotrophs.
The importance of photosynthesis as conversion of light energy to the chemical energy.
The sunlight as ultimate source of energy on the Earth.
Chloroplasts as the sites of photosynthesis in plants. Where chloroplast are located in the
leaf. The structure of chloroplasts. The chemical equation of photosynthesis.
Two main stages of photosynthesis: light reactions and Calvin cycle.
The role and location of light reactions.
The nature of sunlight: wavelength, electromagnetic spectrum, photons.
Photosynthetic pigments as light receptors. Photosystem II and I. Understanding of linear
and cyclic electron flow. Chemiosmosis in chloroplasts vs. chemiosmosis in
mitochondria.
The Calvin cycle as consumer of chemical energy from light reactions. Carbon fixation.
Output of each Calvin cycle’s turnover.
Photorespiration. Photosynthetic adaptations. Understanding of photosynthesis’s
peculiarities in C4 plants and CAM plants.
Cell communication
To know terms and definitions.
Conversion of external signals into responses within the cell. Signal transduction
pathway. Local and long-distance signaling.
The three stages of cell signaling: reception, transduction, and response. Ligands.
The role of proteins in signal transduction pathways. First messengers and second
messengers. Fine-tuning of the response: signal specificity and amplification. The role of
scaffolding proteins in signal transduction.
Apoptosis.
The cell cycle
To know terms and definitions.
The cell division as an integral part of the cell cycle.
Genome, chromosomes, somatic cells and gametes.
Eukaryotic cell division. Phases of cell cycle: interphase and mitotic phase. Phases of
interphase and mitotic phase. The older division of mitosis into 4 stages and newer
division of it into 5 stages.
Events in each stage of mitosis (the first phase in mitotic phase). Cytokinesis as the
second phase of mitotic phase: cytokinesis in plant and animal cells.
Binary fission in Bacteria. The evolution of mitosis.
The cell cycle control system. G1, G2, and M checkpoints.
Growth factor, anchorage dependence, and density-dependent inhibition. Loss of cell
cycle controls in cancer cells. Transformation, tumors, metastasis.
Meiosis and sexual life cycles
To know terms and definitions.
Sexual reproduction vs. asexual reproduction. Genes inheritance. Life cycle vs. cell cycle.
Karyotype. Diploid cell vs. haploid cell. Chromosome sets in human life cycle.
Alternation of generations in sexual life cycles – three main types.
The stages of meiosis. Meiosis vs. mitosis: similarities and differences.
The sources of genetic variation and its evolutionary significance.
Mendelian Genetics
To know terms and definitions.
Character, trait, true-breeding, hybridization.
Mendel’s experimental approach and his two main laws of inheritance: the law of
segregation and the law of independent assortment.
Alleles, loci, homo-, heterozygous organisms, geno-, phenotype, testcross, Punnett
square. Mono- and dihybrid cross.
The laws of probability. The multiplication and addition rules. Solving genetic problems.
Extending Mendelian Genetics (incomplete dominance, codominance, multiple alleles,
pleiotropy, epistasis, polygenic inheritance).
The environmental impact on phenotype.
Pedigree analysis. Recessively and dominantly inherited disorders.
Genetic testing and counseling.
Contemporary Genetics
To know terms and definitions.
Chromosome theory of inheritance. Morgan’s experiments with Drosophila
melanogaster. Sex-linked genes and the chromosomal basis of sex. X-inactivation in
female mammals. Calico (tortoiseshell) cats.
Linked genes and their tendency to be inherited together. Genetic recombination.
Crossing over. Genetic maps, map unit.
Abnormalities in chromosome number. Meiotic nondisjunction. Aneuploidy vs.
polyploidy.
Alterations of chromosome structure: deletion, duplication, inversion, translocation.
Human disorders due to chromosomal alterations (syndromes). Down syndrome,
Klinefelter syndrome, Turner syndrome.
The molecular basis of inheritance
To know terms and definitions.
The history of search for the genetic material. Griffith experiment, Hershey-Chase
experiment, Chargaff rules, Wilkins-Franklin’s works, and finally Watson-Crick
discovery of DNA structure.
Double helix DNA model, antiparallelism of DNA strands, monomers of DNA
(nucleotides), the structure of nucleiotide(s). Base pairing of nitrogenous bases in DNA
molecule. Semiconservative model of DNA replication.
The process of DNA replication. Terminology (leading and lagging strands, Okazaki
fragments, etc.), enzymes involved, proofreading and repairing DNA, telomeres.
Packing of DNA molecule (chromatin structure).
From gene to protein (protein synthesis)
To know terms and definitions.
The flow of genetic information and gene expression.
Garrod’s ideas about gene expression. Understanding of Beadle and Tatum’s experiments
with Neurospora. The development of the idea “one gene – one polypeptide”.
Transcription and translation. mRNA.
The genetic code: triplets of nucleotides in DNA. Codons in mRNA. Coding of amino
acids, start and stop codons. The codon table for mRNA.
The transcription process: location, stages, enzymes involved. Transcription unit,
promoter, terminator. Synthesis of mRNA: initiation, elongation, termination. mRNA
processing: 5’ cap, poly-A tail. RNA splicing. Introns and exons. Ribozymes.
The translation process: location, stages, enzymes involved. tRNA structure and
anticodons. Ribosome structure and three binding sites (P site, A site, and E site).
Stages of translation: initiation, elongation, and termination.
Polyribosomes and their importance.
Mutations and their effect on protein structure and function. Point mutations. Silent
mutations. Missense and nonsense mutations. Frameshift mutations. Mutagens.
Gene expression in Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya.
More detailed definition of a gene.
Regulation of gene expression
To know terms and definitions.
Regulation of transcription in Bacteria: the effect of environment.
The basic concept (and definition) of operon. Operator, repressor.
Repressible and inducible operons. Inducers. The lac operon as the classic example of
inducible operon.
The stages of eukaryotic gene expression. Post-transcriptional (RNA processing, mRNA
degradation, etc.) and post-translational (degradation of a protein by a proteasome)
regulation.
The development of different cell types in a multicellular organism. Differentiation and
morphogenesis. Induction. Determination. Homeotic genes.
Genetic changes affect cell cycle control and cause cancer.
Viruses
To know terms and definitions.
The definition of a virus as a subcellular unit, which exists in a shady area between lifeforms and chemicals.
The discovery of tobacco mosaic virus.
Structure of viruses. Phages, bacteriophages. Replication of viruses.
Lytic cycle and lysogenic cycle. Stages of viral replicative cycle. Virulent and temperate
viruses (phages). Prophage. Enveloped viruses.
Retroviruses, reverse transcriptase. HIV and AIDS.
Origination of viruses. Viroids and prions. Vaccine and vaccination. Emerging viruses,
epidemies and pandemies.
Biotechnology
To know terms and definitions.
Recombinant DNA, biotechnology, bioengineering.
Plasmids, gene cloning. Restriction enzymes and how do they work. Restriction
fragments, sticky ends, DNA ligase involvement. Cloning vectors. The process of gene
cloning.
DNA libraries. Genomic library. Complementary DNA (cDNA) and cDNA library.
Amplifying DNA, polymerase chain reaction (PCR).
Gel electrophoresis and it’s modification – Southern blotting. Understanding of DNA
sequencing principle.
Cloning of plants; totipotent cells. Cloning of animals: nuclear transplantation. Stem cells
of animals. Embryonic (pluripotent) and adult stem cells. The practical applications of
DNA technology. Gene therapy. Transgenic animals, “pharm” animals. Genetically
modified organisms.