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8/1/2013 In this lecture we continue our investigation of social institutions by focusing on religion, specifically… The origins of religious life. The elements that define all religions. Types of religions across history. 1 A religion is a unified system of beliefs and practices aligned with a society's sacred elements. All current societies have a religious system. All types of human societies across time have had some sort of religious institution. 2 1 8/1/2013 Emile Durkheim revealed that all societies divide social realms into the sacred (holy) and the profane (secular). Durkheim discovered the origins of religious life when he studied Aboriginal populations of Australia. Durkheim discovered that Aboriginal religion was born from the collective effervescence that emerged during group activities. During social gatherings sacred qualities were applied to people and things; these sacred qualities represented the ideals of society. 3 Religion is a evolutionary product that was selected as a solution to problems of social organization; religion operates to: 1. Reinforce institutional norms 2. Regulate socialization and social placement 3. Legitimate tension-producing inequalities 4. Alleviate personal anxiety and tension 4 2 8/1/2013 All religions involve the following four elements: 1. A concern with the sacred and supernatural 2. Rituals 3. Beliefs about the nature of the supernatural 4. Cult structures 5 The sacred represents special qualities imputed to objects and events that have been touched by supernatural forces or that symbolize the supernatural. The sacred arouses intense emotions, allowing religion tremendous influence in mobilizing and controlling human action. Supernatural forces are believed to affect natural events. 6 3 8/1/2013 Rituals are stereotyped sequences of behavior directed to evoke the powers of the supernatural; they link the natural and supernatural worlds by activating emotions toward the sacredness of the supernatural. There are two types of rituals: 1. Calendrical rituals ▪ Rituals based on regular schedules, e.g. birthdates of Gods. 2. Non-calendrical rituals ▪ Rituals performed sporadically or in times of crisis. 7 Religious beliefs consist of two components: 1. Cosmology ▪ A cosmology is a set of beliefs concerning the nature of the universe. ▪ Cosmologies often include a pantheon (group of supernatural beings who alter events in the natural world). 2. Values ▪ Religious values indicate what is right/wrong, and are often codified into a religious code (e.g. Ten Commandments, Ethics of Confucius). 8 4 8/1/2013 A cult structure is a corporate unit where rituals made meaningful by supernatural beliefs are enacted. Cult structures represent the level of social organization where beliefs and rituals become integrated. Cult structures vary in terms of… ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ Size Degree of bureaucratization Existence of professional clergy and reliance on lay clergy Degree of centralization Stability of membership and exclusiveness of membership 9 There are four types of cult structures (religious groups): 1. Cults ▪ A cult is a new religion with few followers, whose teachings and practices are at odds with the dominant culture and prevailing religion. ▪ All religions begin as cults. 10 5 8/1/2013 2. Sects ▪ A sect is a loosely organized religious group that is similar to but larger than a cult. ▪ Sects often feel substantial hostility from and toward society. ▪ Sects emphasize evangelism (active recruiting of new members). 11 3. Churches ▪ A church is a bureaucratized organization with structured rules and some sort of hierarchy of authority. ▪ Worship in churches tends to be formalized and less emotionally driven than worship in cults and sects. ▪ Church membership not evangelical, but internal (new members are children of existing members). 12 6 8/1/2013 4. Ecclesia ▪ An ecclesia (or state religion) is a religious group that is integrated into the dominant culture to such a degree that it is difficult to differentiate where one begins and the other ends. ▪ Ecclesia provide cultural identities more than concern the supernatural. ▪ Examples include the Church of England, the Lutheran church in Norway, Islam in Iran and Iraq. 13 The origin of Judaism is traced to Abraham, who lived about 4,000 years ago in Mesopotamia. Judaism was the first religion based on monotheism—the belief in only one God. Prior to Judaism, religions were based on polytheism—the belief that there are many gods. 14 7 8/1/2013 Contemporary Judaism in the United States has three main branches: 1. Orthodox Jews (this group adheres to the laws espoused by Moses). 2. Reform Jews (this group is more liberal, uses the vernacular in religious ceremonies, and has reduced much of the ritual). 3. Conservative Jews (this group falls somewhere between orthodox Jews and reform Jews). 15 Christianity developed out of Judaism and is based on the belief that Jesus Christ is the Messiah God promised to the Jews. During the first 1,000 years of Christianity there was only one church organization, directed from Rome. During the eleventh century, Greek Orthodoxy was established. 16 8 8/1/2013 In the Middle Ages the Roman Catholic Church aligned with the political establishment, and became corrupt. Martin Luther led a reformation of the church against the corruption of Rome. The Reformation marked the beginning of a splintering of Christianity; today there are about two billion Christians, divided into hundreds of semi-distinct groups. 17 Islam (followers are known as Muslims) began in the same part of the world as Judaism and Christianity; like the Jews, Muslims trace their ancestry to Abraham. The founder, Muhammad, established a theocracy (a government based on God being the ruler, his laws the statutes of the land, and priests his earthly administrators). 18 9 8/1/2013 After Muhammad’s death, a struggle for control split Islam into two branches that remain today: 1. The Shi’ites ▪ The Shi’ites are a conservative branch inclined to fundamentalism, or the belief that true religion is threatened by modernism and that faith as it was originally practiced should be restored. 2. The Sunni ▪ The Sunni are generally more liberal than the Shi’ites. 19 Hinduism, the chief religion of India, goes back about 4,000 years but has no specific founder or canonical scripture. Canonical scriptures are texts thought to be inspired by God. Instead, several books expound on the moral qualities people should strive to attain. 20 10 8/1/2013 Hindus are polytheists (they believe there are many gods). A central belief is karma (spiritual progress). Hindus believe that there is no final judgment, but reincarnation—a cycle of life, death, and rebirth. Every twelve years, a purifying washing in the Ganges River takes place. Millions of people participate. 21 About 600 B.C., Siddhartha Gautama founded Buddhism. During meditation he discovered the “four noble truths” which emphasize self-denial and compassion. Buddhism is similar to Hinduism in that the final goal is to escape from reincarnation into a nonexistence of blissful peace. Buddhism spread rapidly into many parts of Asia. 22 11 8/1/2013 Buddhism’s four noble truths: 1. Existence is suffering. 2. The origin of suffering is desire. 3. Suffering ceases when desire ceases. 4. One must follow the “noble eightfold path” to end desire. 23 5. Right occupation or living 6. Right effort Right speech 7. Right-mindedness Right conduct 8. Right ecstasy 1. Right belief 2. Right resolve 3. 4. 24 12 8/1/2013 Confucius (China 551-479 B.C.) urged social reform and developed a system of morality based on peace, justice, and universal order. The basic moral principle of Confucianism is to maintain jen (sympathy or concern for others). This principle means treating subordinates as one would like to be treated by those superior. 25 Major Religions of the World 26 13 8/1/2013 The functionalist perspective on religion states that religion… Answers questions about ultimate meaning. Creates social solidarity. Provides guidelines for everyday life. 27 The functionalist perspective on religion states that religion…(cont.) Serves as an agent of social control. Helps people adapt to new environments. Supports a society’s government. 28 14 8/1/2013 Functionalists also cite elements of religion that are dysfunctional, including: Religion as justification for persecution. Religion used by nations to justify war. Terrorism associated with religion. 29 There are five common themes that explain why religion motivates terrorists: 1. They believe their values are under attack by evil forces that want to change the world. 2. They are convinced God wants action. 3. They believe violence will resolve the issue. 4. They are convinced God has chosen them. 5. Their perspective is nurtured by their community. 30 15 8/1/2013 Conflict theorists are critical of religion, emphasizing that it supports the status quo of a society and maintains social inequality. Karl Marx claimed that religion was “the opium of the people.” Religion is an escape for the lower class who hope for a better life in the afterlife; it therefore blinds the lower class to their worldly misery and allows social inequality to perpetuate unabated. 31 Conflict theorists cite that religion and government are often connected. Religion thus becomes validated by law and legitimates the social order, e.g.: 1. Individuals in a society are told that existing social arrangements represents what God desires. 2. Christian “divine right of kings” (God determines who is king; to disobey the king is to disobey God). 32 16 8/1/2013 Examples of how religion justifies the social order (cont.): 3. Egyptian’s believed the pharaoh was a God. 4. Traditional Hindu teachings decree that those attempting to change the caste system will come back in the next life as a lower caste member. 33 Symbolic interactionist perspectives on religion focus on how religion provides values and meaning in people’s lives. Sacred symbols assist in communication and creating shared realities. Religion provides the basis for mutual group identities and establishes norms that govern the behavior of individuals. 34 17 8/1/2013 The importance and influence of religion has changed in industrial societies, for example: Church attendance has declined in most industrialized countries (not in the U.S.): ▪ United States: 40% over the past 60 years. ▪ Canada: 60% in 1945; 20% in recent years. ▪ Ireland: 91% in 1973; 34% in 2005. 35 Society Percentage Claiming Religion is “Very Important” in Their Lives United States United Kingdom Canada Italy South Korea Germany Japan France 59% 33% 30% 27% 25% 21% 12% 11% 36 18 8/1/2013 The industrial revolution caused a decline in the influence of theistic religions and allowed the emergence and growth in influence of a number of secular ideologies. New ideologies that emerged in Europe during the 17th and 18th century reduced (or eliminated) the role of supernatural beliefs. 38 19 8/1/2013 The following new ideologies are based on the belief that human destiny is largely subject to human control: 1. Democratic republicanism ▪ “Government of the people, by the people, and for the people.” 39 2. Capitalism ▪ Spawned by Adam Smith’s Wealth of Nations (1776). ▪ Free markets are necessary to promote economic growth. ▪ Government intervention unnecessary and hindering. 3. Democratic socialism ▪ Assumes socialist principles are appealing to most people. ▪ Means of production public owned; political democracy essential. 40 20 8/1/2013 4. Revolutionary socialism (communism) ▪ Abolishment of private property. 5. Environmentalism ▪ A moral code and ascetic purpose of humans to forgo the exploitation of habitat and consumption of natural resources for human purposes and benefit to preserve nature. 41 6. Nationalism ▪ The ideology that emphasizes the importance of a nation or ethnic group. 7. Pragmatism ▪ Pragmatism offers no pre-conceived notions of how societies should be organized, but rather asserts that social institutions should be judged by their consequences and those that prove beneficial should be preserved while those that do not should be eliminated. 42 21 8/1/2013 8. Hedonism ▪ Hedonism is the pursuit of pleasure. ▪ Increased time spent on consumer entertainment, drug use, vacations, and the like represent the value of hedonistic lifestyles that define industrial cultures (especially America). 43 22