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Management A Practical Introduction Third Edition Angelo Kinicki & Brian K. Williams Kinicki/Williams, Management: A Practical Introduction 3e ©2008, McGraw-Hill/Irwin Chapter 11: Managing Individual Differences & Behavior Supervising People as People Values, attitudes, & behavior Dealing with work-related attitudes & behavior Personality & individual behavior Perception & individual behavior Workplace stress Kinicki/Williams, Management: A Practical Introduction 3e ©2008, McGraw-Hill/Irwin 2 11.1 Values, Attitudes, & Behavior HOW DO INDIVIDUAL VALUES AND ATTITUDES AFFECT PEOPLE’S ACTIONS? Organizational behavior (OB) is dedicated to better understanding and managing people at work OB focuses on individual behavior and group behavior and tries to help managers explain behavior and predict behavior Abstract ideals that guide one’s thinking and behavior across all situations are values For managers, values are the things for which people are willing to work hard Kinicki/Williams, Management: A Practical Introduction 3e ©2008, McGraw-Hill/Irwin 3 11.1 Values, Attitudes, & Behavior An attitude is a learned predisposition toward a given object Attitudes have three components: -the affective component consists of the feelings or emotions one has about a situation -the cognitive component consists of the beliefs and knowledge one has about a situation -the behavioral component (also known as the intentional component) refers to how one intends or expects to behave toward a situation Together, values and attitudes influence workplace behavior (actions and judgments) Kinicki/Williams, Management: A Practical Introduction 3e ©2008, McGraw-Hill/Irwin 4 11.1 Values, Attitudes, & Behavior The term cognitive dissonance was proposed by Leon Festinger to describe the psychological discomfort a person experiences between his or her cognitive attitude and incompatible behavior How people deal with the discomfort depends on the importance of the elements creating dissonance, how much control they have over the matters that create dissonance, and what rewards are at stake To reduce cognitive dissonance, people change their attitude and/or behavior, belittle the importance of the inconsistent behavior, and find consonant elements that outweigh the dissonant ones Kinicki/Williams, Management: A Practical Introduction 3e ©2008, McGraw-Hill/Irwin 5 11.2 Work Related Attitudes & Behaviors Managers Need To Deal With DO MANAGERS NEED TO PAY ATTENTION TO EMPLOYEE ATTITUDES? Managers need to be aware that attitudes affect behavior - a happy employee performs better Managers need to be particularly interested in job satisfaction, job involvement, organizational commitment, and organizational citizenship Kinicki/Williams, Management: A Practical Introduction 3e ©2008, McGraw-Hill/Irwin 6 11.2 Work Related Attitudes & Behaviors Managers Need To Deal With 1. The extent to which a person feels positively or negatively about various aspects of their work is their job satisfaction 2. The extent to which people identify with or are personally involved with their job is job involvement 3. Organizational commitment reflects the extent to which an employee identifies with an organization and is committed to its goals 4. Employee behaviors that are not directly part of employees’ job descriptions-that exceed their workrole requirements are called organizational citizenship behaviors Kinicki/Williams, Management: A Practical Introduction 3e ©2008, McGraw-Hill/Irwin 7 11.2 Work Related Attitudes & Behaviors Managers Need To Deal With Managers need to manage two behaviors: performance and productivity, and absenteeism and turnover The method a manager uses to evaluate performance must match the job being done Absenteeism (when an employee doesn’t show up for work) is related to job dissatisfaction Absenteeism may be a precursor to turnover (when employees leave their jobs) Kinicki/Williams, Management: A Practical Introduction 3e ©2008, McGraw-Hill/Irwin 8 11.3 Personality & Individual Behavior WHY ARE PERSONALITIES IMPORTANT? Personalities (stable psychological traits and behavioral attributes that give people their identity) are important for managers to understand because they affect how people perceive and act The Big Five personality dimensions are extroversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability, and openness to experience Kinicki/Williams, Management: A Practical Introduction 3e ©2008, McGraw-Hill/Irwin 9 11.3 Personality & Individual Behavior where: -extroversion refers to how outgoing, talkative, sociable, and assertive a person is -agreeableness refers to how trusting, good-natured, cooperative, and soft-hearted, and persistent one is -conscientiousness refers to how dependable, responsible, achievement-oriented, and persistent one is -emotional stability refers to how relaxed, secure, and unworried one is -openness to experience refers to how intellectual, imaginative, curious, and broad-minded one is Kinicki/Williams, Management: A Practical Introduction 3e ©2008, McGraw-Hill/Irwin 10 11.3 Personality & Individual Behavior DO PERSONALITY TESTS PREDICT BEHAVIOR IN THE WORKPLACE? Extroversion (an outgoing personality) has been associated with management success Conscientiousness (a dependable personality) is strongly correlated with job performance and training performance An individual who scores well on conscientiousness is probably a good worker and may have a proactive personality (be more apt to take initiative and persevere to influence the environment) Kinicki/Williams, Management: A Practical Introduction 3e ©2008, McGraw-Hill/Irwin 11 11.3 Personality & Individual Behavior Managers need to understand five traits to understand workplace behavior: 1. The locus of control indicates how much people believe they control their fate through their own efforts 2. Self-efficacy is the belief in one’s personal ability to do a task 3. Self-esteem is the extent to which people like or dislike themselves - their overall self-evaluation 4. Self-monitoring is the extent to which people are able to observe their own behavior and adapt it to external situations 5. Emotional intelligence is the ability to cope, empathize with others, and be self-motivated Kinicki/Williams, Management: A Practical Introduction 3e ©2008, McGraw-Hill/Irwin 12 11.4 Perception & Individual Behavior HOW DOES PERCEPTION INFLUENCE BEHAVIOR? Perception is the process of interpreting and understanding one’s environment There are four steps in the perceptual process: selective attention, interpretation and evaluation, storing in memory, and retrieving from memory to make judgments & decisions Kinicki/Williams, Management: A Practical Introduction 3e ©2008, McGraw-Hill/Irwin 13 11.4 Perception & Individual Behavior Figure 11.2: The Four Steps in the Perceptual Process Kinicki/Williams, Management: A Practical Introduction 3e ©2008, McGraw-Hill/Irwin 14 11.4 Perception & Individual Behavior HOW CAN PERCEPTION BE DISTORTED? Four distortions in perception are: 1. Selective perception - the tendency to filter out information that is discomforting, that seems irrelevant, or that contradicts one’s beliefs 2. The tendency to attribute to an individual the characteristics one believes are typical of the group to which that individual belongs is called stereotyping 3. The halo effect occurs when people form an impression of an individual based on a single trait 4.The activity of inferring causes for observed behavior is called causal attribution Kinicki/Williams, Management: A Practical Introduction 3e ©2008, McGraw-Hill/Irwin 15 11.4 Perception & Individual Behavior The phenomenon in which people’s expectations of themselves or others leads them to behave in ways that make those expectations come true is called the self-fulfilling prophecy or the Pygmalion effect When managers’ expectations of an individual’s performance are high, the individual tends to be more productive and successful When managers expect employees to perform badly, they probably will Kinicki/Williams, Management: A Practical Introduction 3e ©2008, McGraw-Hill/Irwin 16 11.5 Understanding Stress & Behavior HOW CAN WORKPLACE STRESS BE REDUCED? The tension people feel when they are facing or enduring extraordinary demands, constraints, or opportunities, and are uncertain about their ability to handle them effectively is called stress The source of stress is called a stressor Stressors can be hassles (simple irritants), crises (sudden occasions of overwhelming terror), or strong stressors (extreme physical discomfort) Kinicki/Williams, Management: A Practical Introduction 3e ©2008, McGraw-Hill/Irwin 17 11.5 Understanding Stress & Behavior There are six sources of on-the-job stress: 1. Stress created by personality characteristics 2. Stress created by individual task demands 3. Stress created by individual role demands 4. Stress created by group demands 5. Stress created by organizational demands 6. Stress created by non-work demands Kinicki/Williams, Management: A Practical Introduction 3e ©2008, McGraw-Hill/Irwin 18 11.5 Understanding Stress & Behavior WHAT ARE THE CONSEQUENCES OF STRESS? Positive stress is constructive, negative stress is destructive Negative stress shows up physiologically, psychologically, and behaviorally Burnout is a state of emotional, mental, and even physical exhaustion Employees who are burned out are less productive Kinicki/Williams, Management: A Practical Introduction 3e ©2008, McGraw-Hill/Irwin 19 11.5 Understanding Stress & Behavior Managers can make buffers or administrative changes to reduce the stressors that lead to employee burnout Some changes managers can make include: -creating a supportive organizational climate -making jobs interesting -making career counseling available Kinicki/Williams, Management: A Practical Introduction 3e ©2008, McGraw-Hill/Irwin 20