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Management
A Practical Introduction
Third Edition
Angelo Kinicki &
Brian K. Williams
Kinicki/Williams, Management: A Practical Introduction 3e ©2008, McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Chapter 11: Managing Individual
Differences & Behavior
Supervising People as People
Values, attitudes, & behavior
Dealing with work-related attitudes &
behavior
Personality & individual behavior
Perception & individual behavior
Workplace stress
Kinicki/Williams, Management: A Practical Introduction 3e ©2008, McGraw-Hill/Irwin
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11.1 Values, Attitudes, & Behavior
HOW DO INDIVIDUAL VALUES AND ATTITUDES
AFFECT PEOPLE’S ACTIONS?
Organizational behavior (OB) is dedicated to better
understanding and managing people at work
OB focuses on individual behavior and group behavior and
tries to help managers explain behavior and predict behavior
Abstract ideals that guide one’s thinking and behavior
across all situations are values
For managers, values are the things for which people are
willing to work hard
Kinicki/Williams, Management: A Practical Introduction 3e ©2008, McGraw-Hill/Irwin
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11.1 Values, Attitudes, & Behavior
An attitude is a learned predisposition toward a
given object
Attitudes have three components:
-the affective component consists of the feelings or
emotions one has about a situation
-the cognitive component consists of the beliefs
and knowledge one has about a situation
-the behavioral component (also known as the
intentional component) refers to how one intends or
expects to behave toward a situation
Together, values and attitudes influence workplace
behavior (actions and judgments)
Kinicki/Williams, Management: A Practical Introduction 3e ©2008, McGraw-Hill/Irwin
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11.1 Values, Attitudes, & Behavior
The term cognitive dissonance was proposed by Leon
Festinger to describe the psychological discomfort a person
experiences between his or her cognitive attitude and
incompatible behavior
How people deal with the discomfort depends on the
importance of the elements creating dissonance, how much
control they have over the matters that create dissonance,
and what rewards are at stake
To reduce cognitive dissonance, people change their
attitude and/or behavior, belittle the importance of the
inconsistent behavior, and find consonant elements that
outweigh the dissonant ones
Kinicki/Williams, Management: A Practical Introduction 3e ©2008, McGraw-Hill/Irwin
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11.2 Work Related Attitudes & Behaviors
Managers Need To Deal With
DO MANAGERS NEED TO PAY ATTENTION TO
EMPLOYEE ATTITUDES?
Managers need to be aware that attitudes affect
behavior - a happy employee performs better
Managers need to be particularly interested in job
satisfaction, job involvement, organizational
commitment, and organizational citizenship
Kinicki/Williams, Management: A Practical Introduction 3e ©2008, McGraw-Hill/Irwin
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11.2 Work Related Attitudes & Behaviors
Managers Need To Deal With
1. The extent to which a person feels positively or
negatively about various aspects of their work is their
job satisfaction
2. The extent to which people identify with or are
personally involved with their job is job involvement
3. Organizational commitment reflects the extent to
which an employee identifies with an organization
and is committed to its goals
4. Employee behaviors that are not directly part of
employees’ job descriptions-that exceed their workrole requirements are called organizational
citizenship behaviors
Kinicki/Williams, Management: A Practical Introduction 3e ©2008, McGraw-Hill/Irwin
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11.2 Work Related Attitudes & Behaviors
Managers Need To Deal With
Managers need to manage two behaviors:
performance and productivity, and absenteeism and
turnover
The method a manager uses to evaluate
performance must match the job being done
Absenteeism (when an employee doesn’t show up
for work) is related to job dissatisfaction
Absenteeism may be a precursor to turnover (when
employees leave their jobs)
Kinicki/Williams, Management: A Practical Introduction 3e ©2008, McGraw-Hill/Irwin
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11.3 Personality & Individual Behavior
WHY ARE PERSONALITIES IMPORTANT?
Personalities (stable psychological traits and
behavioral attributes that give people their identity)
are important for managers to understand because
they affect how people perceive and act
The Big Five personality dimensions are
extroversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness,
emotional stability, and openness to experience
Kinicki/Williams, Management: A Practical Introduction 3e ©2008, McGraw-Hill/Irwin
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11.3 Personality & Individual Behavior
where:
 -extroversion refers to how outgoing, talkative, sociable,
and assertive a person is
 -agreeableness refers to how trusting, good-natured,
cooperative, and soft-hearted, and persistent one is
 -conscientiousness refers to how dependable, responsible,
achievement-oriented, and persistent one is
 -emotional stability refers to how relaxed, secure, and
unworried one is
 -openness to experience refers to how intellectual,
imaginative, curious, and broad-minded one is
Kinicki/Williams, Management: A Practical Introduction 3e ©2008, McGraw-Hill/Irwin
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11.3 Personality & Individual Behavior
DO PERSONALITY TESTS PREDICT BEHAVIOR IN
THE WORKPLACE?
Extroversion (an outgoing personality) has been associated
with management success
Conscientiousness (a dependable personality) is strongly
correlated with job performance and training performance
An individual who scores well on conscientiousness is
probably a good worker and may have a proactive personality
(be more apt to take initiative and persevere to influence the
environment)
Kinicki/Williams, Management: A Practical Introduction 3e ©2008, McGraw-Hill/Irwin
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11.3 Personality & Individual Behavior
Managers need to understand five traits to understand
workplace behavior:
1. The locus of control indicates how much people believe
they control their fate through their own efforts
2. Self-efficacy is the belief in one’s personal ability to do a
task
3. Self-esteem is the extent to which people like or dislike
themselves - their overall self-evaluation
4. Self-monitoring is the extent to which people are able to
observe their own behavior and adapt it to external situations
5. Emotional intelligence is the ability to cope, empathize with
others, and be self-motivated
Kinicki/Williams, Management: A Practical Introduction 3e ©2008, McGraw-Hill/Irwin
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11.4 Perception & Individual Behavior
HOW DOES PERCEPTION INFLUENCE
BEHAVIOR?
Perception is the process of interpreting and
understanding one’s environment
There are four steps in the perceptual process:
selective attention, interpretation and evaluation,
storing in memory, and retrieving from memory to
make judgments & decisions
Kinicki/Williams, Management: A Practical Introduction 3e ©2008, McGraw-Hill/Irwin
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11.4 Perception & Individual Behavior
Figure 11.2: The Four Steps in the Perceptual Process
Kinicki/Williams, Management: A Practical Introduction 3e ©2008, McGraw-Hill/Irwin
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11.4 Perception & Individual Behavior
HOW CAN PERCEPTION BE DISTORTED?
Four distortions in perception are:
1. Selective perception - the tendency to filter out information
that is discomforting, that seems irrelevant, or that contradicts
one’s beliefs
2. The tendency to attribute to an individual the characteristics
one believes are typical of the group to which that individual
belongs is called stereotyping
3. The halo effect occurs when people form an impression of
an individual based on a single trait
4.The activity of inferring causes for observed behavior is
called causal attribution
Kinicki/Williams, Management: A Practical Introduction 3e ©2008, McGraw-Hill/Irwin
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11.4 Perception & Individual Behavior
The phenomenon in which people’s expectations of
themselves or others leads them to behave in ways
that make those expectations come true is called the
self-fulfilling prophecy or the Pygmalion effect
When managers’ expectations of an individual’s
performance are high, the individual tends to be
more productive and successful
When managers expect employees to perform
badly, they probably will
Kinicki/Williams, Management: A Practical Introduction 3e ©2008, McGraw-Hill/Irwin
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11.5 Understanding Stress & Behavior
HOW CAN WORKPLACE STRESS BE REDUCED?
The tension people feel when they are facing or
enduring extraordinary demands, constraints, or
opportunities, and are uncertain about their ability to
handle them effectively is called stress
The source of stress is called a stressor
Stressors can be hassles (simple irritants), crises
(sudden occasions of overwhelming terror), or strong
stressors (extreme physical discomfort)
Kinicki/Williams, Management: A Practical Introduction 3e ©2008, McGraw-Hill/Irwin
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11.5 Understanding Stress & Behavior
There are six sources of on-the-job stress:
1. Stress created by personality characteristics
2. Stress created by individual task demands
3. Stress created by individual role demands
4. Stress created by group demands
5. Stress created by organizational demands
6. Stress created by non-work demands
Kinicki/Williams, Management: A Practical Introduction 3e ©2008, McGraw-Hill/Irwin
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11.5 Understanding Stress & Behavior
WHAT ARE THE CONSEQUENCES OF STRESS?
Positive stress is constructive, negative stress is
destructive
Negative stress shows up physiologically,
psychologically, and behaviorally
Burnout is a state of emotional, mental, and even
physical exhaustion
Employees who are burned out are less productive
Kinicki/Williams, Management: A Practical Introduction 3e ©2008, McGraw-Hill/Irwin
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11.5 Understanding Stress & Behavior
Managers can make buffers or administrative
changes to reduce the stressors that lead to
employee burnout
Some changes managers can make include:
-creating a supportive organizational climate
-making jobs interesting
-making career counseling available
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