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THE ATHENS OF ARISTOPHANES AND SOCRATES
GOVERNMENT
Ecclesia (Assembly) Every male Athenian over 18 (i.e. citizen) had right to attend.
Meetings probably held around every 10 days. Only some of those eligible would usually attend.
Those who were there on each occasion = the demos -their decisions were recognised as those
of whole citizen body.
Boule (Council of Five Hundred) chosen annually by lot. All adult male citizens eligible but
probably no one was Council member more than twice in lifetime. Council provided on rota
basis, the President of the Assembly for the day. The Council sifted business to be dealt with by
the Assembly.
Other Officials - there were large numbers of these, mostly chosen by lot.
All were responsible directly to the People (demos) as represented by Assembly, Jurymen
or Council.
Jury c.500. chosen by lot from a panel of 6,000 Athenians (male citizens over 30) who were felt
to be the 'demos' in legal matters. Any state official might act as chairman of the court – no
professional judges or lawyers.
Thus governing was done by the citizens themselves and participation was wide and direct. But
many citizens might feel they did not always understand the intricate business of foreign policy
or financial affairs. Certain individuals through their powerful personalities, speaking abilities etc.
might gain considerable sway over many citizens and influence the course of events. Such
politicians are often called demagogues (e.g. Kleon). There was also the possibility that in times
of great tension and crisis the Constitution would be ignored and a small group seize power thus the Oligarchic revolutions of 411 and 404 (oligarchy = government by the few)
CITY OF ATHENS
The climate and nature of the city encouraged an outdoor life-style. Much new building had been
done under Pericles.
Acropolis - on top of this hill was the Parthenon marble temple in honour of patron
goddess Athena - several other shrines were nearby.
Theatre of Dionysus On South-east slope of the Acropolis was the precinct of the Agora which
was the centre of Athenian life. Administrative buildings, courts of justice, shops, orators'
platforms, more temples and shrines were here. Just below The temple of Hephaestus stood
most of the official buildings. Once of these was the nolos, a round building which served as
State Dining Hall where free meals were offered to councillors, guests of honour and Athenian
victors in the Olympics. (See Apology 36d, p.70). In the centre of the Agora was a large open
space with trees and porticos surrounding it. Here the Athenians could walk and talk with their
friends.
The Pnyx to the south-west of the agora. This was the hill near the Acropolis where the
Assembly met. There was a flat open space with a speakers' platform and a natural
amphitheatre formed by the surrounding slopes. Here too Socrates and his fellow citizens
gathered for discussion and argument both official and unofficial.
The Areopagus (the Supreme Court) and the Boule held their meetings on the Hill of Ares.
(named after the god of War)
FROM SOLON TO SOCRATES
Victor Ekrenberg & Meg Parker
THE SOPHISTS
In the second half of the 5th C a reaction against physical speculation set in and philosophers
began to direct their thoughts towards human life (i.e. the second side of philosophy). Part of the
reason was a revolt of common sense against the remoteness and incomprehensibility of the
world as the physicists presented it {e.g. Parmenides: all motion is illusion and reality an
immovable plenum (opposite of vacuum = space) entirely filled with matter) or the alternative
view -the only realities are atoms (invisible, colourless, scentless, soundless) and void. Such
views meant that the world of physicists was utterly remote from the world in which ordinary men
seemed to live, and therefore not very relevant.
Another reason for the change of direction and emphasis was the change in conditions in
Athens. From 431 citizens were engaged in the Peloponnesian War and soon after its outbreak
suffered the horrors of the plague. Such a society is not suited to disinterested scientific enquiry
but rather to contemplation of problems of human life and conduct.
The reaction towards humanism (concentration on man as the centre) is associated with the rise
of the Sophists - not a philosophical school but a profession. They were itinerant teachers who
made a living out of the new hunger for guidance in practical affairs which arose from increasing
opportunities for taking part in practical politics (through the Athenian democratic system),
growing impatience with natural philosophy (physicists), and increasing scepticism about the
validity of traditional religious teaching (with crudely anthropomorphic view of gods). Their fees
were often substantial.
The word ‘sophistes' (practitioner of wisdom) did not earn its derogatory implication until the late
5th C. Originally it meant expert in any art or craft so tile sophist could be artisan or artist,
physician or prophet, poet and thinker.
5th C sophists were individual teachers, differing in their views and their standards but they had
some points in common:
-Man was the central subject of their teaching, particularly as a political animal.
-Teaching was essentially practical. It was an inculcation of arête.
-They shared a common scepticism, a mistrust of the possibility of absolute knowledge.
Moral values depended on how you looked at an issue.
Gorgias and Protagoras were two of the best known and most influential sophists.
Gorgias parodied a favourite title for natural philosophers "On Nature or the Existent" by calling
his work "On Nature or The Non-existent." In it he set out to prove a) That nothing exists.
b) That if anything did exist we could not know it.
c) That if we could know anything we could not communicate it to our neighbours.
He was a powerful speaker and regarded it as more powerful than writing.
Protagoras was probably the greatest sophist. Even Plato treated some of his views with
respect. Plato wrote a dialogue entitled Protagoras which was supposed to have taken place
when Socrates was in his thirties. In it Protagoras maintains that man is the sole judge of his
own feelings and beliefs: "Man is the measure of all things." Plato interprets this to mean that the
way things appear to one man is the truth for him and the way they appear to another is the truth
for them. i.e. Truth is relative. Protagoras allowed for a more conventional view by adding that
though no one option is truer, one may be better e.g. to a man with jaundice it is true all things
appear yellow but still better for doctor to cure him so this no longer occurs. The majority can
seek to change the views of a minority who believe it is O.K. to do anti social things such as
stealing. There is no question of truth or falsehood only a pragmatic test.
The views of the sophists affected hitherto unchallenged sanction of law, based on belief in its
divine origin. The earliest makers of constitutions (e.g. Lycurgus, legendary founder of Sparta)
were believed to have been inspired by Apollo. Contemporary law givers still consulted the
oracle. Now sophists said:
-How could men have any real knowledge of existence of gods.
-Increasing contact with foreign countries and cultures shows fundamental differences between
laws and customs of people.
-Men are the authors of law. Protagoras himself was on a law-making commission for a South
Italian colony in 443 B.C.
Protagoras first put forward the theory of the origin of law which we call Social Contract. As
humans grouped together into communities they had to alter from the law of the jungle to
develop laws and conventions whereby the weak are protected. Thus his view was that laws and
moral codes were not divine in origin but man-made and imperfect.
He favoured social contract and urged compliance with the laws. Protagoras believed that man
was created equal by nature and having learnt to know what is just and what is venerable
created tradition and convention, custom and law - NOMOS. Nomos and dike (justice) then
became one and the community prospered.
Other sophists disagreed and thought the strong should follow natural right and have it their own
way. Such opposing views were possible because sophists rejected absolute standards and
values, whether based on theological considerations or not.
All human action was regarded as based on experience alone and dictated solely by
expediency. ‘Right’, ‘wrong', ‘wisdom', ‘justice’, and 'goodness' were nothing but names.
But the main aim of the Sophists was to produce successful speakers and politicians. Most
Sophists were men of integrity and morally respectable. Protagoras said it would be wrong to
use violence to overthrow laws - better a wise sophist by skilful argument persuade a city to
change its policies. All should respect the opinions of others and only when peaceful persuasion
fails should punishment be used - not as retribution but as improving education.
Without any evil intentions Sophists undoubtedly helped to break down many old traditions and
so became unpopular with those who wanted to cling to them.
Some Sophists were shocked by the way their teaching was interpreted and adapted by wealthy
young aristocrats e.g. Alcibiades~ to show that morality was merely a question of the rights of
the stronger person or more skilful arguer. Sophists travelled around Mediterranean cities
charging high fees for tuition in the art of eloquence (rhetoric) wisdom and state-craft. They
incurred hostility because they were 'professionals'. Xenophon reports Socrates as saying
"Those who for money sell wisdom to anyone who is prepared to buy it are called sophists those who prostitute wisdom” - see also Apology, 48.
Socrates insisted that goodness, justice, courage really existed and must be understood before
an action could be judged right or wrong (This is also a central theme of Plato's treatise on
Education and Society, The Republic.) It was Plato who gave the Sophists a bad name by using
Socrates' arguments to attack them. 'Sophistry' came to mean false argument with intent to
deceive.
(Note: We misuse 'sophisticated' if we use it as a term of approval. In its least derogatory
meaning it means 'altered form', 'deprived of simplicity or naturalness'. Also means 'made false';
'adulterated'; 'not genuine' , to sophisticate means 'to render artificial'; 'to corrupt or spoil by
mixing with some baser principle or quality’; ‘to make less genuine or honest').
In the minds of the Athenian public Socrates became associated with the Sophists (this is
the picture in Aristophanes "Clouds").
This is ironic as Socrates was opposed to the Sophists because they undermined traditional
values by showing they had only the status of customs, whereas Socrates’ life work was to
establish moral values that applied to all men. He was never a professional teacher and never
received fees.