Download E Chapter 15 Conservation

IMPACTS FROM DISTURBANCES,
POLLUTION, AND CLIMATE CHANGE
Kaiser part three; Impacts
Chapter 15: Conservation
CONSERVATION
Includes:
Conservation of climate, landscape types, plant and animal societies,
biotopes, species, populations and genes
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Kaiser part three; Impacts
Chapter 15: Conservation
Chapter 15 subdivision
1 Introduction
2 Why conserve?
3 What to conserve
4 Economics of conservation
5 Conservation policy and legislation
6 Conservation in action
7 The future
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Chapter 15: The motivation for concervation
In 1768, only 27 years after it was discovered, Steller’s sea cow (Hydrodamalis gigas), a
large, defendless mammal feeding on seaweed, had been hunted to extinction by human
hunters. Its distribution range was limited to the coastal areas of the Kamchatska island.
The north Atlantic right whales (Eubalaena glacialis) was driven to the fringe of extinction
by commercial whaling at the 18th and 19th century. Today, their total number is only
about 300. Big, old fish specimens of all sorts become increasingly rear after decades of
over-exploitation and destruction of marine habitats by land reclamation, pollution and
construction.
Does it matter, and do we care?
Readers of this book probably do, but for the most of the increasing world population, the
next meal is of more concern. In the treatment of cases concerning conservation and
sustainable development, a marine ecologist is engaged on a large and complex arena,
where practice and politics are affected by moral, culture, politics and economy. At the
same time it is a very challenging and rewarding arena, where science plays a pivotal
role for judging the sustainability of human activities, in the prioritation og conservation
tasks, and in supporting the development of sustainable politics, management and
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Chapter 15: Conservation
INTRODUCTION
In the previous chapters we have seen how pollution, fisheries and aquaculture,
together with climate change have affected and continue to affect the marine
environment. These factor are only a small part of the possible antropogenic effects.
In many cases, human activities are not sustainable; they threaten species, habitats
and ecosystems and the recreational values they represent.
Applied marine ecology is a source of scientific facts to identify, when and where
there is a need for action to preserve, both by judging the sustainability of the
activities, and by developing methods to reduce non-sustainable activities.
At least in the political meaning of the word, conservation contributes to sustainable
development, where the idea is that the needs of future generations shall not be
compromised by our choises and actions today.
In this chapter the ethical and economical fundaments for marine conservation is
treated, together with the question of how conservation tasks can be identified
and prioritized.
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Chapter 15: Conservation
The natural environment sets limits for modern development and resource utilization, and these limits are affected by e.g. man-made climate changes. Some of the
goals for preservation is legally founded (protection of endangered species, the right
to pure water), but there are also strong ethical and economical reasons for milieu
preservation. These will obviously vary with personal perseptions and situations.
The conservation of biodiversity has been a main goal for modern conservation
work; it is easily understood and has not been very controversial.
A common definition of biodiversity is:
”… the variation among living organisms of all sorts, inter alia terrestric, marine,
and other aquatic ecosystems and the biological complexes they are parts of;
this includes diversity within species, among species and in ecosystems” (The bioDiversity Commission 2002 (cf Box 15.1 in the textbook”.
The arguments for this definition are:
1. Man has a moral and ethical responsibility for life on earth
2. Living organisms enriche our lives
3. Ecosystem values are the results of there being a large number of species
4. It is the diversity of species which enables ecosystems to adapt to changes in
the milieu, and is a source of raw materlals which serves man.
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Chapter 15: Conservation
WHY CONSERVE?
Marine protection plans have been easier to get support for in cases when the protection of the marine milieu also are economically beneficial; it is a source for both food,
income and work, particularly in the poor parts of the world. For the industry, marine
organisms are also a source for valuable polysaccharids like agar and alginate. For
bioprospecting, the marine environment has become more and more interesting.
However, these facts do not mean that economic arguments have been easier to
identify than the ethical.
Man in the 21th century is very specialized to function under the current milieu regime.
Various characteristics of the current milieu give protection against natural dangers;
coral reefs protect against storms, vegetation and oceans regulate CO2 levels, the
oceans are resipients of vaste, etc. In many countries, recreation in pristine nature
is an important economic income source as well a source of quality of life.
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HOW TO DECIDE WHAT IS WORTHY OF CONSERVATION?
So far, the activity relating to protection and conservation of marine ecosystems have been
a relatively defensive ”pointing finger” role, with warnings against dangers and reduction of
de facto damage. Even if many countries have signed tractates which emphasize the
so-called ”precautionary principle”, this important principle has not gained any tradition yet.
Even in highly developed industrial countries like Norway, the protection of jobs and local
societies are often stronger arguments than the preservation of nature. Special interest groups
which protest against sanctuaries or catch-stop for a fish species can often count on the
support from politicians.
It appears to be a rather general principle in our days, that economy and applied
ecology only in few cases have a common goal; in most cases they will play
antagonistic roles. Examples of this are easy to find:
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Quota recommendation from fishery scientists are almost always exceeded
Law propositions for protection of water drainages which threaten local
community economic interests will usually not pass
Oil activity in sensitive spawning areas are carried out despite protests
Earth gas powerstations are built without CO2 cleansing
It is not of interest to place any restrictions on the aquaculture industry despite the
knowledge of damage to natural populations
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Chapter 15: Conservation
It is hardly realistic to believe that the controverse between economy and
preservation will change appreciably in the times of modern market economy.
There will be a need for compromises, and a priority list of important tasks related
to sustainability.
At the global level international decisions related to the handling of the danger of
global warming have high priority (cf the Kyoto treaty). At regional and local level,
the question of allocation of limited resources for conservation be important,
together with the priority of specific tasks. Making priority list can be a
difficult task, because many cases can wake irrational and emotional storms through
media exposure. There are some charismatic species (like the big cats, the
salmon, birds and reptiles) which often release most concern although the threats
to entire habitats and plant/animal society are ecologically much more serious.
Probably, conservation will never be an entirely rational process as long as so much
emotion is involved.
World Conservation Union (IUCN) is maintaining a socalled ”red list” of species, which
is meant to be a easily understood classification system for species with a high risk
of extinction. The work involved includes all described animal species, and many
marine fish and mammals are already on the list, also Norwegian species.
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HABITAT CONSERVATION
plays an increasingly important role in the marine environment, and there is an
increasing tendency of defining and implementing protected marine areas. So far it
has not been possible to establish any large geographic marine reserves, so that
species such as whales are still managed on a stock-to-stock basis.
The prosess of establishing marine reserves involves:
1. A description of the qualities of one or more areas
2. An evaluation of the qualities against a set of criteria
3. Application of methods for ranking the areas
The criteria may include:
1. The rareness of the species, size of the area, representability and pristinity of it,
cultural qualities, and vulnerabilty. Combining two or more areas in a network
with free migration corridors between them can give synergistic effects.
2. Whether it is practically possible (i.e. politically) to achieve
3. Whether the desirable effect are actually and sufficiently effectively achieved
(pollution, e.g., has often effects far beyond local areas)
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ECONOMICAL ASPECTS OF CONCERVATION
Economical development based on the utilization of natural resources often has
hidden costs in the form of pollution, stock declines, bycatch, and loss of biological
diversity. These effects usually are not included in the calculation of costs, neither
by the authoroties nor by entrepreneurs who earn money on the utilization.
Such a system cannot be characterized as sustainable, and will probably not last long.
Marine fisheries are examples of how short-term economical motives lead to a nonsustainable regime, even when one knows that a sustainable regime would give a
higher long-term output for man. The system, as it workd today, have no incentives
for the single person to waive taking out much today in order to harvest double as
much in a few years. Longsightedness is not inbuilt in todays thinking and economical
realities.
The texbook (page 498 and Fig. 15.1) treats this problem in more detail ("Discounting the future"). In short, the reasoning is that if
fishing hard for a short period and then place the income on a bank account for five years, gives a higher total outcome than fishing
less today in order to preserve the productivity of the stock and take out more in a five years period, the single person would choose
the first alternative. However, detailed studies have shown that when all factors are taken into account in such calculations, it is the
shortsighted perspective which are least profitable.
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CONCERVATION POLITICS AND LEGISLATION
Anthropogenic effects on the marine environment are the effects of individuals,
local societies, cities and nations. The impact is affected by regulations and
incentives from governments, social pressure, conscience and market forces.
In the end, it is the attitude of people which has the greatest potensial
for changing an unwanted development. Attitudes can be influenced by
education, economical incentives, legislation or military power. In a broad sence,
one can say that conservation work is a choise between a top-down and a
bottom-up approach, or a blend of those two.
Australia and New Zealand are examples of nation which have umplemented an
unusually "green" policy for use of the marine environment. Education and
influence already on the primary school level are effective in shaping attitudes.
Excursions to aquaria and nature have increased both the knowledge level and
the interest among young people relative to the use of the marine environment
many places in the world. For example, the Monterey Bay Aquarium has been a
big success (http://www.mbayaq.org/).
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INTRODUCTIONS & TRANSFERS I
CONTROLLING INTRODUCED SPECIES
To introduce alien species into well established ecosystems has sometimes bee planned,
usually for the purpose of creating a new resource for economy or recreation. Actually, this was
a very common practice a late as after the second world war, but is mostly abandoned as a
management strategy today.
Other introductions can be unplanned, for example the uncontrolled spread of plants and
animals by ballast-water from tankers. Species introduced this way have usually become pestorganisms in their new habitats, and have lead to clogging of harbours and shallow waters, and
reduction of the local marine flora and fauna as a result.
In general, introductions have unpredictable consequences. Established ecosystemes are
maintained by dynamic balances between species, and the introduction of a new species with
new characteristics and preferences can lead to cascade effects resulting in changed and
usually less diverse animal societies (cf IDH hypothesis in Ch.14).
Escape of exotic species from captivity (zoological gardens, fish farming facilities) is also a
recognosed problem in the context of biodiversity concervation.
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A useful web-site showing the status of introductions and transfers is:
http://dogfish.mit.edu/website/invasives/viewer.htm
INTRODUCTIONS & TRANSFERS II
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INTRODUCTIONS & TRANSFERS III
ICES (The International Council for
the Exploration of the Sea) gives out
a blue-book with recommendations
about how the members countries
should relate themselves to introductions and transfers of marine
organisms.
One of the problem areas which is
relevant is the unintended transfers
of organisms by ballast water. Such
organisms have often become pestorganisms in their new habitats,
which often can be in a totally
different part of the world than
where they came from.
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INTRODUCTIONS & TRANSFERS IV
ICES has a "Working Group" of
experts; WGITMO (Working Group on
the Introduction and Transfer of
Marine Organisms), which annually
treats questions from ICES regarding
recommendations for the management
in the member states concerning
introductions and transfers of marine
organisms.
WGITMO, like other Working Groups
i ICES, delivers annual reports (see
faximiliy of the Report in 2003 to the
left).
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An adequate legislation for a policy which meets the demands for conservation of
the environment depends in the end on the attitude of single persons. Attitudes are
shaped early in life, and an engaged teaching with popularised teams from nature
has been used with great success many places in the world. The childen are the
legislators of the future. Below; example from the Monterey Bay Aquarium.
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In most cases, marine ecosystems are not confined by country borders, and international regulations and legislations become necessary. A range of initiatives have
been taken. In Europe, this has crystallized in ICZM (Integrated Coastal Zone
Management), where the different and often crossing interest og different acteurs
in the coastal zones can be weighted in an objected and unifying way.
EU has asked its member countries to come up with national strategies for coastal
zone management. The request is based on 8 principles:
1. a broad general perspective
2. a longterm perspective based on the precautionary principle
3. an adaptive management
4. local peculiarities and differences
5. to work in accordance with natural processes and economical capacity
6. to involve all parts in the process
7. support and involvement from the central authorities and local administration
8. a combination of remedies to simplify co-operation between administrative
sectors
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PRACTICAL CONSERVATION WORK
Some examples on how an active conservation policy have resulted in
practical rsults are:
EIA (Environmental Impact Assessment), a compulsatory forehand
assessment of natur impact planned for the marine milieu.
Ecolabelling: Product marking which enables consuments to make milieu
choises, and which urge the industry to take part voluntary in sustainable
development.
Marine reserves (Marine Protected Areas): The declaration of geographical
areas where fishing and other forms of exploitation is forbidden.
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MARINE RESERVES
The reasoning behind marine reserves
(no-take areas, boxes) or sanctuaries is that
at least a part of a stock and in a part of its
life history, shall be left in peace for exploitation and other disturbances.
The most vulnerable life stages for disturbance
are often in connection with reproduction and
in early life stages.
It is often desirable also to let some areas for
feeding and ongrowth be left undisturbed.
This would contribute to the preservation of
the genetic composition of a stock, which is
probably changed by the use of size-selective
fishin gear (trawl, nets).
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THE FUTURE
Any concurrent conservation action takes place in marine surroundings
which already has been changed by human activities. One of the biggest
obstacles for a successful conservation is the massive change that has
already taken place in marine habitats and species, and the fact that one
has to repair instead of having a proactive approach.
However, there has been a change in attitude and a new understanding
for marine conservation, and many governments have committed
themselves internationally to work for a sustainable development and
approach to environmental questions.
Not many examples of practical implementations exist so far, but some
promising examples of marine preserves exist. It is a dilemma that while it
is the rich part of the world that has the economic power to do this, it is the
poor part which sits on the threatened resources. The perspectives are
therefore not entirely positive, unless the international society commits
itself to support and subsidize ecosystem friendly management also in the
poor parts of the world.
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Chapter 15 Summarized
• Conservation means a sustainable management of the marine milieu. Sustainable management demands
action to preserve or create an environment which do not threaten the welfare and quality of life for our
descenders.
• National and international treaties express will to move against a sustainable development, but this
needs to be incorporated in national legislation and international agreements.
• There are ethical, ecological, and economical reasons for conservation, but short-term economical
motives lead to non-sustainable management.
• There are considerable practical problems in reshaping national political aspirations to practical actions.
• A sustainable development includes not only biological and ecological considerations, but also an
assessment of what consequences a conservation action will have for local economical, social and
cultural structures.
• Conservation actions will concern species, habitats, and ecosystems, and will involve many levels of
ecologicl and administrative organisation. The success will depend on the general welfare and cultural
values in the society.
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