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Ch 3 Early Empires in the Ancient Near East Lesson 1 Akkad and Babylon IT MATTERS BECAUSE New conflicts arose as the number of Sumerian city-states grew, and the citystates expanded. City-states fought one another for control of land and water. The Sumerian city-states were located on flat land, which left them open to invasion from the armies of other groups. Akkadian Empire GUIDING QUESTION What were the contributions of Sargon and the Akkadians? The Semitic-speaking Akkadians (uh•KAY•dee•uhnz) lived to the north of the Sumerian city-states. Around 2340 B.C., the Akkadians, under the leadership of Sargon, took over the Sumerian city-states and set up the first empire in world history. An empire is a large political unit or state, usually under a single leader, which controls many peoples or territories. Empires are often easier to create than they are to maintain. The rise and fall of empires is an important part of history. In his new empire, Sargon kept the former rulers of the conquered city-states as his governors. His power was based on the military, and his army included 5,400 men. Sargon’s empire included all of Mesopotamia as well as lands westward to the Mediterranean. Sargon was later remembered in chronicles in ancient Mesopotamia. He was described as the most powerful king who brought wealth and magnificence to all the lands he conquered. Sargon’s grandson Naram-Sin was one of his successors. Naram-Sin ruled from 2260 to 2223 B.C. He continued the greatness of the Akkadian empire. Like his grandfather, Naram-Sin led many military campaigns. His successes led him to boast that he was king of the universe and to declare himself a god. The Akkadian empire, however, did not last. The Akkadian empire fell by 2150 B.C. as a result of neighboring peoples’ attacks. PROGRESS CHECK Explaining How did Sargon establish and rule his empire? _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ Babylonian Empire GUIDING QUESTION What was the significance of Hammurabi’s codification of laws? The end of the Akkadian empire allowed independent city-states to return in Mesopotamia. After a long period of warfare among the city-states, a new empire arose. Hammurabi’s Rule Hammurabi (ha•muh•RAH•bee) was a king from Babylon, a city-state south of Akkad. He came to power in 1792 B.C. Hammurabi had a well-disciplined army of foot soldiers who carried axes, spears, and copper or bronze daggers (short, pointed knives). He learned to divide his opponents and subdue them one by one. Using such methods, he gained control of Sumer and Akkad. As a result, a new Mesopotamian kingdom was created. After his conquests, Hammurabi called himself “the sun of Babylon.” He said he was the king who had made the world obedient. He established his capital at Babylon. After his death in 1750 B.C., a series of weak kings followed him. They were unable to keep the empire united. It finally fell to new invaders. The Code of Hammurabi Laws had regulated people’s relationships with one another for centuries in Mesopotamia. Hammurabi’s collection of laws provides great insight into social conditions there. The Code of Hammurabi was based on a system of strict justice. Penalties for crimes were severe, and they varied according to the social class of the victim. A crime against a noble by a commoner was punished more severely than the same offense (crime) against a member of the lower class. Also, the principle of retaliation (an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth) was a fundamental, or basic, part of this system of justice. 1 Hammurabi’s Code took the duties of public officials seriously. Officials who failed to solve crimes had to make personal restitution, or payment, to the victims or their families. Judges could be penalized, or punished, for ruling incorrectly on a case. The law code also included what today we would call consumer-protection laws. Builders were held responsible for the buildings they constructed. If a house fell down and caused the owner to die, the builder was put to death. The largest category of laws in the Code of Hammurabi addressed marriage and family. Parents arranged marriages for their children. This means that they chose their children’s marriage partners. After marriage, the two parties signed a marriage contract. This made the marriage legal. Mesopotamian society was patriarchal—that is, men dominated the society. Hammurabi’s Code shows that women had far fewer rights in marriage than men had. A woman’s place was definitely in the home. A husband could divorce his wife if she failed to fulfill her duties, was unable to have children, or tried to leave home to engage in business. Even harsher, a wife who neglected her home or humiliated her husband could be drowned. Fathers ruled their children as well. Children had to be obedient, and punishment for not obeying was severe. For example, the Code had a law that a father could cut off his son’s hand if the son hit the father. If a son committed a serious enough offense, his father could disinherit him. Hammurabi’s laws clearly covered almost every aspect of people’s lives. PROGRESS CHECK Interpreting What was Hammurabi like as a conqueror and as a ruler? _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ Lesson 2 Egypt and Kush IT MATTERS BECAUSE After a period of disorder, new dynasties of pharaohs established the New Kingdom (c. 1550–1070 B.C.). The New Kingdom brought back Egyptian greatness and created an empire that made Egypt the most powerful state in the ancient Near East. To the south of Egypt, the new kingdom of Kush arose. Egypt: The New Kingdom GUIDING QUESTION What was distinctive about the New Kingdom in ancient Egypt? The Middle Kingdom came to an end around 1650 B.C. when a group of people from western Asia known as the Hyksos (HIHK•sahs) invaded Egypt. Influence of the Hyksos The Hyksos used horse-drawn war chariots, or two-wheeled carts, to defeat the Egyptian soldiers. The Egyptians used donkey carts, and they were not able to fight as well from them. For almost 100 years, the Hyksos ruled much of Egypt. The presence of the Hyksos was not entirely negative for Egypt, however. The conquered Egyptians learned a great deal from the Hyksos. They learned to use bronze to make their farming tools and weapons. The Egyptians also mastered many of the military skills of the Hyksos, especially the use of horse-drawn war chariots. Eventually, a new dynasty of pharaohs used the new weapons to drive out the Hyksos and reunite Egypt. Height of the New Kingdom Pharaoh Ahmose I managed to defeat and expel, or drive out, the Hyksos from Egypt. He reunited Egypt and established the New Kingdom, which lasted from 1550 B.C. to 1070 B.C. Ahmose put the Egyptians on a new militaristic path of expansion. He developed a more professional army. During the period of the New Kingdom, Egypt created an empire. It became the most powerful state in the ancient Near East. Thutmosis I expanded Egypt’s border to the south by conquering the African kingdom of Nubia. Thutmosis III led 17 military campaigns into Canaan and Syria. He and his forces even reached as far east as the Euphrates River. His 2 forces moved into and took control of Canaan. However, local native princes were allowed to rule there. Egypt now pursued an active political and diplomatic policy. The new Egyptian imperial state reached its height during the reign of Amenhotep III (c. 1412–1375 B.C.). The empire’s achievements were visible in the magnificent new buildings and temples. The temple centers at Karnak and Luxor and the 70-foot- (21.33-m-) high statues of Amenhotep III in front of temples along the Nile were especially famous. By the end of his reign, Amenhotep III faced a growing military challenge from the Hittites. His son, Amenhotep IV, proved even less able to deal with this threat. In large part, this was a result of the religious upheaval he had created in Egypt. The pharaoh Amenhotep IV introduced the worship of Aten as the only god. Aten was the god of the sun disk. Amenhotep pursued the worship of Aten with great enthusiasm. He closed the temples of other gods. He changed his name to Akhenaten, which means “Servant of Aten.” He even set up a new capital called Akhetaten (“Horizon of Aten”). The new city was located at modern Tell el- ‘Amârna, 200 miles (321.87 km) north of Thebes. Akhenaten’s attempt at religious change failed. The society had always worshiped many gods. Many Egyptians saw Akhenaten’s actions in destroying the old gods as the destruction of Egypt itself. Akhenaten’s changes were soon undone. After his death, the boy-pharaoh Tutankhamen restored the old gods. During the New Kingdom, an Egyptian queen became pharaoh. Hatshepsut was at first regent for her stepson Thutmosis III. Later she assumed the throne herself. Hatshepsut’s reign was prosperous. This is especially evident in the construction that happened during that time. She built a great temple dedicated to herself at Deir el-Bahri, near Thebes. As pharaoh, Hatshepsut sent out military expeditions, encouraged mining, and sent an expedition up the Nile to look for more places to trade. Hatshepsut’s official statues sometimes show her clothed and bearded like a king. She was addressed as “His Majesty.” Hatshepsut was aware of her unusual position. She placed an inscription on one of her temples that reflects her thoughts. She wondered about what people of the future would think about her actions. The Egyptian Empire Ends The upheavals resulting from Amenhotep’s religious revolution led to a loss of Egypt’s empire. The pharaoh was preoccupied with religious affairs. He ignored foreign affairs and, as a result, he lost both Syria and Canaan. Under Ramses II, who reigned from c. 1279 B.C. to 1213 B.C., the Egyptians went back on the offensive. They regained control of Canaan. However, they were unable to reestablish the borders of their earlier empire. New invasions in the 1200s B.C. by the “Sea Peoples,” as the Egyptians called them, destroyed Egyptian power in Canaan and drove the Egyptians back within their old frontiers. The days of Egyptian Empire ended. The New Kingdom collapsed in 1070 B.C. For the next thousand years, Egypt was dominated periodically by Libyans, Nubians, Persians, and, finally, Macedonians after the conquest of Alexander the Great. In the first century B.C., the pharaoh Cleopatra VII tried to reestablish Egypt’s independence. Her involvement with Rome led to her defeat and suicide. Egypt then became a province in Rome’s empire. PROGRESS CHECK Identifying Central Issues What was the worship of Aten, and how did it affect Egypt? _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ The Kingdom of Kush GUIDING QUESTION How did Kush emerge as a strong early African civilization? South of Egypt is an area known as Nubia. A busy trade had arisen between Egypt and Nubia by 2000 B.C. Egyptian merchants traveled to Nubia to get ivory, ebony wood, frankincense (a fragrant tree resin), and leopard skins. Nubia was under Egyptian control for many centuries. With the collapse of the New Kingdom, Nubia freed itself. It became the independent state of Kush around 1000 B.C. 3 In 750 B.C., Kush conquered Egypt. In 663 B.C., however, the Assyrians overwhelmed the Kushites. The Assyrians were better armed with iron spears and swords. The Kushites were still using bronze and stone weapons. The Kushites were driven out of Egypt. They returned to their original lands in the upper Nile valley. The economy of Kush was at first based on farming. Millet and other grain crops were grown along the banks of the Nile River. Kush soon emerged as one of the major trading states in the region. Its center was the city of Meroë, which was well-located. A newly opened land route across the desert to the north crossed the Nile River at Meroë. The city also had the advantage of having a large supply of iron ore. The Kushites learned iron smelting from the Assyrians. They made iron weapons and tools that were sent abroad. For the next several hundred years, Kush was a major trading empire that had links to other states throughout the region. Kush traded its own iron products, as well as goods from Central and East Africa, to the Roman Empire, Arabia, and India. The major exports of Kush were ivory, gold, ebony, and slaves. In return, the Kushites received luxury goods, including jewelry and silver lamps from India and Arabia. Not much is known about Kushite society. It seems likely that it was mostly urban. At first, state authorities probably controlled foreign trade. The presence of many luxury goods in many private tombs indicates that material prosperity was relatively widespread at one time. This evidence also suggests that a fairly large merchant class carried on trading activities. The merchants of Meroë built large houses with central courtyards. Like the Romans, they also built public baths. Kushite prosperity was also evident in the luxurious palaces of the Kushite kings. Like the Egyptian pharaohs, these kings were buried in pyramids. However, their pyramids were considerably smaller than those of their Egyptian models. The state of Kush flourished from about 250 B.C. to about A.D. 150. It then began to decline, or weaken, possibly because of the rise of a new power in the region known as Axum. Axum was located in the highlands of modern-day Ethiopia. Axum prospered because of its location along the Red Sea, on the trade route between India and the Mediterranean Sea. PROGRESS CHECK Describing What was life like at different times in the kingdom of Kush? _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ Lesson 3 Assyria IT MATTERS BECAUSE After 700 B.C., new empires arose in western Asia. They covered vast areas of the ancient world. The Assyrians were better at conquest than at ruling. Their empire lasted less than 100 years. The Persian Empire brought many years of peace to Southwest Asia, increasing trade and the improving the lives of its people. The Assyrian Empire GUIDING QUESTION What characterized the empire of the Assyrians? The first of the new empires was located in Assyria, which was on the upper Tigris River. The Assyrians were a Semitic-speaking people. They used powerful iron weapons to establish their empire by 700 B.C. The Assyrian Empire included Mesopotamia, parts of the plateau of Iran, sections of Asia Minor, Syria, Israel, and Egypt down to Thebes. In less than 100 years, however, internal strife and resentment of Assyrian rule began to tear the Assyrian Empire apart. In 612 B.C., the empire fell to a coalition of Chaldeans and Medes (people who lived in the east). Seven years later, the empire was divided between the two powers. At its height, the Assyrian Empire was ruled by kings with absolute, or total, power. Under their leadership, the Assyrian Empire became well organized. Local officials were 4 directly responsible to the king. The Assyrians also developed an efficient system of communication. It allowed them to govern, or run, their empire effectively. A network of staging posts was established throughout the empire. Relays of horses carried messages between the posts in most places, and mules or donkeys carried them in the mountains. The system was so effective that a governor anywhere in the empire could send a question to the king and receive an answer from the king within a week. The Assyrians were good at conquering others. They practiced for many years to develop effective military leaders and fighters. They enlisted and deployed troops numbering in the hundreds of thousands. However, most campaigns were not on such a large scale. The Assyrian army was well organized and disciplined. The infantry, or group of foot soldiers, was its core. They were joined by cavalry (soldiers fighting on horseback) and horse-drawn war chariots. The chariots were used as a place from which to shoot arrows. Also, the Assyrians had the first large army equipped with iron weapons. The army’s success was also based on its ability to use different military tactics. The Assyrians used guerrilla warfare in the mountains and had battles on open ground. They were especially known for siege warfare, which means surrounding a place and cutting it off to force it to surrender. They used battering rams to hammer at the city’s walls. They also used siege towers, which were tall structures from which archers could shot into the city. Then Assyrian soldiers would tunnel under the walls, making them collapse. The Assyrians used terror as an instrument of warfare. They regularly destroyed the land in which they were fighting. They smashed dams and looted and destroyed towns. They set crops on fire and cut down trees, particularly fruit trees. The Assyrians were also known for committing atrocities, or shockingly cruel acts, on their captives. The Assyrian Empire was a mix of cultures. The Assyrians took over much of Mesopotamian civilization. They saw themselves as guardians of Sumerian and Babylonian culture. One of the last Assyrian kings, Ashurbanipal, established one of the world’s first libraries at Nineveh. This library has provided a great deal of information about ancient Southwest Asian civilizations. PROGRESS CHECK Interpreting What factors helped the Assyrians assume and maintain power? _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ 5