Download Applying Transaction Cost and Real Option Theory in Entry Mode

MSc. Finance & International Business
Author:
Søren Cramer Hansen
Exams Number:
300639
Academic Supervisor:
Eliane Choquette
Applying Transaction Cost and Real Option Theory in Entry Mode
Aarhus University
School of Business and Social Sciences
Master Thesis
Number of characters: 133.000
Date: 31-8-2014
Abstract
Entry mode has over a number of years received a large development in research and in literature.
This has lead to a number of theories trying to explain firm entry mode decision. These theories are
different in focus and also have a different impact on the ownership decision, which makes it
difficult for firms to apply the theoretical framework that have been published.
The purpose of this paper is to use both theoretical and practical research in the area to give the best
entry mode advice for a Danish dairy manufacture. The subject of this thesis is inspired from the
course of Internationalization of the firm and emerging markets where the idea of using transaction
cost theory (TCT) and real option theory (ROT) together was tested in an article by K. D. Brouthers
et al. (2008). It is therefore necessary to analyze volatility and uncertainty in the Chinese market for
Arla that have an international growth strategy and see how the theory can be applied to Arla that
wishes to enter the Chinese market.
The TCT and ROT have been applied with factors that are important to the dairy industry and the
Chinese market. The factors have been analyzed using the two theories. The internal environment of
the firm has also been analyzed in order to give entry mode advice for Arla.
Arla's entry mode advice in China has ranges from low levels of control to high levels of control but
most of the factors point to a joint venture (JV). The result form the two theories have been
different because the two theories have different focus and their explanatory strength is different.
The Chinese market has show to be both negative and positive in their attitude towards foreign
businesses. In one end the market has a huge potential and the government attitude is positive
towards foreign business and on the other end the market is very volatile and unstable.
According to the TCT the firm should choose a medium to low level of control for entering the
Chinese market. Arla has medium to low level of asset specificity combined with a high level of
country risk and a high level of market potential proposes that the firm uses a JV or a lower level of
control since it does not have a high requirement to protect their assets. The ROT suggest the
foreign market entry to be a JV as there is a lot of growth option but also a lot of uncertainty in the
Chinese market and it is therefore necessary for local knowledge to take advantage of the market
potential.
Arla used a JV when they entered the Chinese market in 2006. It is however unclear what factors
and consideration they had in mind when they made this decision. To better understand their
decision it is necessary for a more thorough study and in close relation with Arla to understand their
entry mode decision from the theoretical framework.
Indhold
1 Introduction and Research Question ................................................................................................. 4
1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 4
1.2 Research Question ...................................................................................................................... 5
2 Method .............................................................................................................................................. 6
2.1 Data, Sources and Critique ......................................................................................................... 6
2.2 Boundaries of the Paper ............................................................................................................. 7
3 Entry mode ........................................................................................................................................ 8
3.1 Definition of Entry Mode ........................................................................................................... 8
3.2 Origin of Entry Mode ................................................................................................................. 9
3.3 Categories of Entry Mode .......................................................................................................... 9
4 Entry Mode Literature ..................................................................................................................... 10
4.1 Transaction Cost Theory .......................................................................................................... 10
4.1.1 Origin of Transaction Cost Theory .................................................................................... 10
4.1.2 Transaction Cost Influence on the Choice of Entry Mode ................................................ 12
4.1.3 Transaction specificity assets ............................................................................................ 13
4.1.4 External uncertainty ........................................................................................................... 15
4.1.5 Internal uncertainty ............................................................................................................ 16
4.1.6 Free riding potential ........................................................................................................... 18
4.1.7 Critic of Transaction Cost Theory ..................................................................................... 19
4.2 Real Option Theory .................................................................................................................. 20
4.2.1 Application of Real Option Strategy to International Strategy ......................................... 21
4.2.2 Choice of Market Entry Mode ........................................................................................... 23
4.2.3 Demand Uncertainty .......................................................................................................... 24
4.2.4 Strategic Flexibility ........................................................................................................... 25
Page 1 of 66
4.2.5 Critic of Real Option Theory ............................................................................................. 25
4.3 Summary of Entry Mode Theory ............................................................................................. 26
5 Factors of Entry Mode .................................................................................................................... 26
5.1 Factors Influencing Entry Mode of Dairy Industry .................................................................. 27
5.1.1 Internal Factors in the Dairy industry ................................................................................ 27
5.1.2 External Factors in the Dairy Industry............................................................................... 29
5.2 Factors Influencing Entry Mode in China ................................................................................ 30
5.2.1 External Factors in China .................................................................................................. 31
5.2.2 Internal Factors in China ................................................................................................... 32
5.2.3 Summary of Factors Influencing Entry Mode Decision in China ..................................... 32
6 External and Internal Analysis ........................................................................................................ 32
6.1 External Entry Mode Factors in China ..................................................................................... 33
6.1.1 Legal Environment ............................................................................................................ 34
6.1.2 Sociocultural Distance ....................................................................................................... 36
6.1.3 Country risk ....................................................................................................................... 40
6.1.4 Economic environment ...................................................................................................... 41
6.1.5 Summary ............................................................................................................................ 45
6.2 Internal Factors in Arla............................................................................................................. 45
6.2.1 Assets Specificity for Arla ................................................................................................. 46
6.2.2 Brand.................................................................................................................................. 49
6.2.3 Financial Capability ........................................................................................................... 49
6.2.4 International Experience .................................................................................................... 50
6.2.5 Summary of Internal Factors in Arla ................................................................................. 51
7 Arla's Entry Mode in China ............................................................................................................ 51
7.1 Effect on Entry Mode Decision from External Factors ............................................................ 52
7.1.1 Effect from Legal Environment ......................................................................................... 52
Page 2 of 66
7.1.2 Effect from Sociocultural Distance ................................................................................... 52
7.1.3 Effect from Country Risk .................................................................................................. 53
7.1.4 Effect from Economic Environment .................................................................................. 54
7.1.5 Summary of Effect from External Factors......................................................................... 54
7.2 Effect on Entry Mode Decision from Internal Factors ............................................................. 55
7.2.1 Effect form Assets Specificity ........................................................................................... 55
7.2.2 Effect from Brand Value ................................................................................................... 56
7.2.3 Effect from Financial Capability ....................................................................................... 56
7.2.4 Effect from International Experience ................................................................................ 56
7.2.5 Summary of Effect from Internal Factors .......................................................................... 57
7.3 Entry Mode Choice .................................................................................................................. 57
7.4 Arla's Entry Mode .................................................................................................................... 58
8 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................................... 58
9 Literature ......................................................................................................................................... 61
Page 3 of 66
1 Introduction and Research Question
1.1 Introduction
This paper proposes an entry mode decision for a Danish dairy manufacturing firm within the
Chinese market. For firms to choose the optimal entry mode has been identified as being one of the
important decisions in the internationalization process of firms (Anderson & Gatignon, 1986;
Werner, 2002). The Chinese market has received a lot of attention in the literature because of the
huge market potential that it has (Canabal & White, 2008).
Since entry mode has received a lot of attention in the literature of the years it is expected that there
should be a good empirical base to use the literature practical. That is however not the case, since
the literature has been divided into a number of theories (Brouthers & Hennart, 2007; Li, 2007).
Some of these researched theories have been studied for many years but they remain contradicting
in control and ownership decision and the results are inconsistent. Some researcher found certain
aspect in entry mode to be significant for successful entry others have found the opposite (Canabal
& White, 2008). This paper will apply one of the common entry mode theory and a newer theory
within the Chinese market, in the form of TCT and ROT. The combination of these two theories are
based on the article by K. D. Brouthers et al. (2008) who used the two theories together where the
model's explanatory power was better than the two theories separately.
Entry mode theory is focusing on how firms enter a foreign market. The different theories in entry
mode are focusing on the same goal of increasing the long term profit but the different theories are
founded on different perspective of the firm and market (Sharma & Erramili, 2004; Li, 2007). As
mention earlier two theories will be used to determine which entry mode is the best, based on the
firm's strategy, and helps to answer some of the problems that occur when firm enter a foreign
market.
When firms decide to expand into foreign countries they are met with a lot of economic, cultural
and institutional differences from what they are accustomed to in their home market which will
affect their choice of entry mode. The firm is also faced with internal factors and financial
capabilities that also impact the firm's ownership decision in foreign markets. It is therefore
necessary for firms to balance their resource commitment with control and risk in the foreign
market, which is important for firms so they can get the highest return on their foreign investments
(Madhok, 1997; Anderson & Gatignon, 1986).
Page 4 of 66
For western firms to enter the Chinese market they are faced with a lot of obstacle but it also have a
lot of opportunities. The Chinese GDP has managed to maintain growth in the financial crisis even
when the western countries could not (The World Bank, 2013). Also China has experienced a huge
increase in retail spending during the last few years (Shan, 2013). This makes the Chinese market
very potential for western firms, that come from market that are expect limited growth and where
the market may be saturated. However there are several problems and threats that are associated
with entering a foreign market which is unknown.
For the Danish firm, Arla, 2005 was a disappointed year where they only made a small revenue of it
operating profits of DKK million 11,487. They recovered much of the lost revenue in 2006. This
sudden lost in revenue have made the firm pursue internationalization and growth strategy in other
markets. The Chinese market was a market that showed a lot of opportunity in the dairy industry as
well as in general. In 2006 Arla decided to enter the Chinese market where they made a JV with a
local company. This paper will seek to apply the two theories, mentioned earlier, to the entry mode
decision of Arla within the Chinese market, to determine if it was the optimal entry mode decision.
Therefore the data used to analyze Arla will be from the same period as when Arla had to choose
their entry mode.
1.2 Research Question
A firm's entry mode decision is a combination of analyzing the internal and external environment
and then choosing the level of control from the acquired knowledge that is best for the firm.
Therefore choosing the entry mode for a firm is influenced by many local market factors from the
host country. To choose the optimal entry mode the following five issues needs to be addressed:
1. Understand the background and literature of entry mode and the number of different choices
a foreign firm can choose from when wishing to enter a foreign market.
2. Presentation of the literature view of transaction cost theory and real option theory.
Presenting the two theories and comparing their influence, differences and critic for choice
of entry mode.
3. Describe which factors that are associated to the dairy industry entry mode as well as which
factors influencing entry mode decision in the Chinese market.
4. Analysis of the internal and external environment, form the chosen factors in point 3, in Arla
and in the Chinese market.
Page 5 of 66
5. Choice the most optimal entry mode from the analyzed factors according to transaction cost
theory and real option theory and compare it to the entry mode chosen by Arla.
2 Method
To give Arla the best ownership advice, when entering the Chinese market, this paper will use both
theoretical and practical research of the entry mode area. To answer the above mentioned issues one
of the most well known theory in, the area of entry mode, will be used along with a new theory.
They will be used collaboration with a chosen number of internal and external factors for the
Chinese market. The purpose of this paper is to weigh the benefits and the costs of the different
levels of control for then to give the most optimal entry mode decision for Arla.
This paper will use entry mode literature to give advice on which ownership form is best suited for
Arla. Over the years transaction cost theory has been the most studied theory where as ROT is a
newer and emerging theory (Canabal & White, 2008; Li, 2007).
Entry mode has received a lot of attention over the years so some of the earlier studies on the area
have been rather extensive. From the large focus on entry mode six key entry mode theories have
been proposed (Sharma & Erramili, 2004). This paper will focus on one of these theories which is
the most studied in recent time and a new emerging theory. These two theories will be used in
collaboration due to the work of K. D. Brouthers et al. (2008). To chose the important factors
information will be used regarding the dairy industry and the Chinese market.
The first section of this paper describes the origin and background of entry mode theory and
categorizes the choices of entry mode in the framework. The second section present the two theories
in a literature review of the transaction cost theory and ROT. The following section present
important factors in the dairy industry and in the Chinese market. The fourth section of this paper
will then make a market analysis of China given the highlighted factors and analyze Arla's internal
factors. The final section will come with an entry mode advice and compare it to the used entry
mode by Arla.
2.1 Data, Sources and Critique
The theoretical literature has been found using literature reviews and compendiums from earlier
courses. The literature has been found using the newest and the most citied literature. The founded
theories include the most recent findings and proposition in the area along with the most accepted
Page 6 of 66
theories in the area (Canabal & White, 2008). The newer theories in the internationalization theory
are assumed to be improved from the older and more mature theories and thus explain areas that the
older theories have problems explaining. The two theories have been chosen so they complement
each other, where TCT focus on the cost side of entry mode and protection against uncertainty ROT
use uncertainty to say flexible and use the uncertainty as an opportunity.
Factors in the Chinese market and internal factors which affect the entry mode decision will be
identified and discussed. The analysis of the chosen factors will be made from the knowledge that
has been acquired from courses in Emerging market and Internationalization of the firm. To get the
required information data from Danish, Chinese and international databases will be used along with
firm's homepages and articles from business journals.
2.2 Boundaries of the Paper
When firms wishes to expand into foreign market they are faced with a lot of dilemmas. Entry
location (whether to enter a market or not), entry mode (how to enter a market) and entry timing
(when to enter a market) are some of the dilemmas that the firm will face. This paper has chosen to
only focus on the ownership decision on entry mode theory, which is one of the most studied parts
of international management (Huang & Sternquist, 2007; Werner, 2002).
Implementation of the chosen ownership will not be part of the paper, which could be finding and
monitoring potential partners. Even though this is not a part of the paper it is still a large cost for the
firm in their internationalization process. This paper will only try to explain which ownership Arla
should choose based on the chosen theories.
The entry mode is decided for the firm based on their manufacturing which means that the paper
will focus on the manufacturing process by the firm. This paper will not go into the problems that
can occur with finding distribution channels and stores to sell their products. Since all ownership
levels are possible every option will be in consideration when the ownership decision has to be
made. When firms enter a market they must also decide where to set up their operation, in this paper
this will not be in focus therefore the location which Arla original choose will also be the one in this
paper.
There are a number of factors that could be considered in the entry mode. These factors has been
selected based on the which factors have been most in focus by researchers and by analyzing of the
dairy industry to found which factors are important for firms operating in this industry.
Page 7 of 66
3 Entry mode
3.1 Definition of Entry Mode
As business becomes more global international management research becomes more relevant in the
business practice. International management research can be divided into three categories; the first
category is the study of international aspects of management which does not exist in domestic firms.
This is the study of the internationalization process, entry mode, foreign subsidiary etc. The second
category compares the management practice of different cultures and nations. The last category
study the management outside of North America since it is there most studies has been conductive
(Werner, 2002).
Internationalization can be seen as a part of the strategy process that most firms are following. The
two key differences between internationalization and other strategy processes are: the firm transfer
product, service or resources across borders. This means that the firm has to choose in which
country they want the transaction to be performed. Second the firm has to choose a foreign
marketing entry strategy. These two dimensions, market selection and entry mode represent the key
strategic decisions in internationalization connection (Andersen, 1997).
A relative simple way of defining entry mode is which way a company should control it foreign
operations, how much risk they are willing to invest and what resources are required to commit in a
foreign market (Zhao, Luo & Suh, 2004). A foreign market is a market outside of the home market
which the company operates in. Entry mode theory is concern with the issues of establishing
effective boundaries for the company when entering a foreign market (Brouthers & Hennart, 2007).
The choice the firm has to make is balancing costs and benefits (Gatignon & Anderson, 1988).
A firm that wants to operate outside of their domestic market has several options, for example by
sales, manufacturing, distribution or marketing (Gatignon & Anderson (1988). The entry mode
decision, which is in the international management area, also focus on how precise a chosen entry
mode can predict the international equity ownership level and the consequences. When a company
has to predict their entry mode choice or level of equity ownership this include factors in the host
country such as: cultural distance and market structure. Furthermore the entry mode also includes
an analysis of factors concerning multinational enterprise e.g. international experience and strategic
option. In addition transaction cost, home country factor and industry also define the entry mode
decision (Werner, 2002).
Page 8 of 66
3.2 Origin of Entry Mode
Entry mode is a relatively new research area. Early studies did not form any theory in the area. They
only researched what kind of entry modes firm used. It was first in the 1980s and 1990s that
researchers began to use TCT to understand entry mode decision. Using both theoretical and
empirical data to understand why companies choose different entry modes. In the last 15 years entry
mode has been a research area that has received much more attention than in previous years
(Brouthers & Hennart, 2007).
Since the 1970s no other topic in international business has received higher level of attention than
entry mode. Since Hymer's effort in 1976, researchers have used different theories of the firm trying
to explain its entry mode decision. From this pursuit several entry mode theories have been
proposed (Sharma & Erramilli, 2004). The entry mode decision to enter a foreign market is one of
the most important international business decisions a firm has to make (Kim & Hwang, 1992).
Even though there has been done a lot of research in the entry mode area, it has been difficult for
research to estimate the differences in entry mode decision. One of the problems is that firms
choose their strategy and entry mode decision on their attributes and industry condition. Studies of
entry mode seek to determine the effect of choosing one entry mode over another. The problem is
that entry mode studies are influenced by endogenous and self-selection. Firms are not randomly
selected into a certain entry mode they choose themselves based on their own estimation on what is
best (Shaver, 1998).
3.3 Categories of Entry Mode
The question of vertical integration is not if a function should be vertically integrated but to what
degree it should be integrated. Integration is a continuum controlled by the option of market and
hierarchy. Moving from market contracting to more unified governance is associated by an
increasing degree of resources are placed at risk. The firm is compensated for this risk with a higher
level of control that is expected to be used to generate a higher profit (Anderson & Gatignon, 1988).
A firm that seeks to do business outside their domestic market must choose the best way to enter the
foreign market. The entrant must choose from a large array of entry mode decisions these includes:
a wholly-owned subsidiary (WOS), a joint venture (here the entrant can be the majority equity
holder, they can be equal or the minority equity holder), or a non-equity decision such as licensing
or export (Anderson & Gatignon, 1986).
Page 9 of 66
The most common way to enter a foreign market is by WOS or JV. There are two main views in the
literature on the meaning of entry mode and the difference among contractual (e.g. export and
licensing), JV and wholly-owned organizational structures. The first view organizes contracts, JV
and WOS along a continuum with increasing control, commitment and risk. In this view, if the
company wants maximum control, maximum commitment and maximum risk, then they will
choose WOS. The second view does not see JV as a continuum step between contracts and WOS
but instead it categories entry mode into two groups; contracts and equity. Both JV and WOS are in
the equity category. The only difference between JV and WOS is that JV consists in joint
internationalization where WOS represent sole internationalization. In the equity group the input
suppliers are paid ex post from the profit of the venture whereas in the contracts where payment are
paid ex an (Brouthers & Hennart, 2007).
Different entry modes have different level of invested equity. The entry mode can be divided into
equity and non equity entry modes. The entry mode consists of equity JV and WOS and the non
equity are divided into contractual agreement and export (Pan & Tse, 2000).
The entry mode decision can also be seen as a combination of two strategic decisions: Location and
ownership. The location is about where the production and marketing activities should operate, if it
is within or outside the host country. The ownership is which degree the firm shall commit; full,
partial or none (Sharma & Erramilli, 2004).
4 Entry Mode Literature
In this following section the literature in TCT and ROT will be presented in the entry mode
literature. First the TCT will be presented where the origin and its influence on entry mode decision.
It will then discuss the same areas in ROT. Although the two theories have different approach they
have the same goal to maximize the long term profit.
4.1 Transaction Cost Theory
Transaction cost economic (TCE) was first systematically applied as an international entry strategy
and was initially introduced by Anderson & Gatignon (1986) who explicitly linked TCE with the
entry mode strategic choice when a firm work in international business (Zhao, Luo & Suh, 2004).
4.1.1 Origin of Transaction Cost Theory
Ronald Coase article from 1937 addressed the issue of economic organization in comparative
institutional terms. Markets were normally seen as the principal way by which coordination is
Page 10 of 66
realized but Coase on the other hand insist that firms often supplement the market in doing the same
functions. The market and the firm can then be seen as two alternative means of economic
organization. Williamson (1985) developed the theory from Coase and identified why cost arise
when using the market. In TCT the ownership decision focus on the minimization of transaction
cost and production cost (Williamson, O. E, 1985).
In 1969 Kenneth Arrow defined transactions cost as the cost of running the economic system. This
must not be mistaken from production cost. Production cost is the cost category in the neoclassic
analysis. Transaction costs are the economic corresponding of friction in physical systems
(Williamson, O. E, 1985).
The TCT that Williamson made was found with the decision that a firm can choose either to make a
product or buy it from the market. This decision is defined as the vertical boundaries of the firm
where they choose how much of the supply chain they control. With a high level of transaction cost
it is expensive for the firm to do business with other companies and are therefore better off
producing the goods themselves by vertical integrate activities, instead of buying from the market.
A firm should therefore integrate activities vertically until the internal costs are higher, than the
market price (Williamson, O. E, 1985).
Transaction cost can be distinguished into two types ex ante and ex post. The first category is the
costs of drafting, negotiating and safeguarding an agreement. This can be done in two ways, the
first consist of a lot of work, where a document is drafted with a numerous contingencies, which are
recognized by both parties and agreed to in advance. The second way is where the document is very
incomplete and the holes will be filled in as the contingencies arise. Ex post costs are related to the
issues that occur after the contract is agreed upon and can take several forms. These costs include
haggling cost that can occur if bilateral efforts are made to correct for misalignment, the setup and
running cost related to the governance structures were disputes are referred (Williamson, O. E,
1985).
Transaction cost can also occur due to human behavior. In transaction cost theses behaviors are
characterizes as human nature and it is known by bounded rationality and opportunism. Bounded
rationality is the cognitive assumption which TCE relies on. The theory assume that economic
actors act intended rational, but only limited. This means firms can only act on the information they
have acquired. Therefore there is the possibility of asymmetric information where one part in a
Page 11 of 66
transaction has more information than the other. The firm is also limited by the cognitive
information they have and the amount of time they have available (Williamson, O. E, 1985).
Opportunism is self-seeking with guile. The term is limited to more blatant forms such as lying,
stealing and cheating. Opportunism can happen both ex ante and ex post. The term is in this context
described as when another person take advantages of a firm which has not successfully safeguarded
their information or company secrets. Firms can prevent this behavior by including safeguards in
the contract. A contract with the other person/company will help make sure that the agreed upon
terms are fulfilled because otherwise the opponent company will act in their own interest. It is not
necessary to make the same safeguard with every contracting member but only with those who are
unknown or behave opportunism. There are also cost related to forming these safeguard contract
therefore it is only necessary to forming these contract when it is required. If a firm has some assets
specificity it can be more necessary to make the contracts if the assets are a common good
(Williamson, O. E, 1985).
4.1.2 Transaction Cost Influence on the Choice of Entry Mode
TCT is the most common used theory in international entry mode and in almost half of all papers
that has been published has been about TCT. TCT was first used as an entry mode theory in the
1980's when Anderson & Gatignon published their paper on entry mode. Adapting of the TCT to
the entry mode decision was developed by Anderson & Gatignon (1986) which they based on the
work of Williamsons (1985) TCT. TCT is such a studied area because it will significantly help the
survival of a firm operating in a foreign market, since it helped governing the cost of a partner in a
JV or alliance (Brouthers K. D., 2002; Madhok, 1997).
Evidence has proven that firms, which follow the propositions in the transaction cost framework,
will perform significantly better than firms that does not (Brouthers, Brouthers & Werner, 2003).
Further it was found that firms that follow the transaction cost framework e.g. with higher finding,
negotiating and monitoring cost of a partner tend to use a higher level of control in the form of
using WOS (Brouthers, 2002).
In the TCT the mode of entry is ranged from low levels of control to high levels of control. The
equity modes (WOS, JV) belong to the higher level of control and the non equity mode
(franchising, export) offer a lower level of control. This means that entry mode is a decision of what
is the most appropriate tradeoff between control, resource commitment and cost and benefits.
Control also influence how "easy" it is for a firm to coordinate its action, carry out strategies, revise
Page 12 of 66
strategies and resolve dispute when they arise. Further the entrant can use control to obtain a larger
share of the company's profit in the foreign market (Anderson & Gatignon, 1986).
Anderson & Gatignon (1986) was the first who made proposition regarding entry mode of a foreign
market. They also put forward that entry modes differ greatly in their advantages and drawbacks
and that these are poorly understood. Several researches have been made on how firms really make
their entry mode decision and it shows that few companies make a cost/benefit analysis. The factors
in TCT that influence the choice a firm has to make when entering a foreign market have been put
into four categories (Anderson & Gatignon, 1986):
1. Transaction specificity assets: physical as well as human investment that are specialized to
one or a few users and when it cannot be reassigned to an alternative use or is useful outside
to any other transaction.
2. External uncertainty: the unpredictability in the external environment of the entrant ability to
measure risk.
3. Internal uncertainty: the entrants inability to determine the performance of its agents by
observing output measures and the international experience of the entrant.
4. Free riding potential: The agent ability to receive benefit from the entrants firm without
bearing the costs associated with the benefits.
The four factors which TCT impact on firm's entry mode decision will be discussed in the following
four sections.
4.1.3 Transaction specificity assets
Williamson (1985) argues that assets specificity is one of the most important factors in determine
the choice of governance. Later research on this area has given mix results. Several studies have
found support for the transaction cost prediction that high assets specificity should result in higher
level of control such as WOS or JV, however other studies have found the opposite effect
(Brouthers & Hennart, 2007).
Since Williamsons made his definition in 1986 many other researchers have tried to redefine the
concept (De Vita, Tekaya & Wang, 2011). Transaction specificity assets are by Anderson &
Gatignon (1986) defined as physical or human investments which are specialized to one or a few
users (Anderson & Gatignon, 1986).
Page 13 of 66
Transaction cost states that when there are a high level of assets specificity and where the assets are
non re-deployable and the assets are specially dedicated to a specific relation then the higher
transaction cost should be safeguarded against opportunism with vertical investments instead of
market based relations (De Vita, Tekaya & Wang, 2011). When some transaction specific assets are
likely to become valuable for the entrant in the foreign market the firm is better off using vertical
integrating. When there is asset specificity there is the possibility that they can be locked in with
their partner but with vertical integrating they can avoid getting locked in with a partner but they
will be it with their employees. Opportunism can easier be dealt with within the firm than with a
partner. Opportunism in the firm can be combated by exercising legitimate authority, monitoring
the behavior of the employees and offering more varied incentives (Anderson & Gatignon, 1986).
The concept of transaction specificity assets suggest that modes of entry offering greater control are
more efficient for highly proprietary products or processes. Proprietary knowledge is a very
important type of specificity asset. It may seem that licensing is the best control a firm can use
because there is some value to license. Firms with a high proprietary knowledge spend a lot of time
and money on R&D to gain this knowledge. The problem of valuating the proprietary product or
process for a potential buyer can become a problem because the buyer cannot know what the
knowledge is worth unless the knowledge is disclosed to the buyer and then it is already known.
This obligates firms with the knowledge to exploit the knowledge themselves and this results in
high level of ownership and control in a foreign business unit (Anderson & Gatignon, 1986).
For unstructured and poorly understood products and processes a higher degree of ownership and
control is required since there are no common code of the problem and how they are dealt with. The
first transfer, an entrant make across national boundaries, is much higher than the subsequent
transfers. This is because the first transfer is poorly understood. For simpler products it is more
common to use a low form of control while with more complex products and processes higher
control and ownership are preferred (Anderson & Gatignon, 1986).
A product which is customized for the consumer require considerable amount of local knowledge.
That is why entry mode with a higher degree of control is more efficient for customized to the end
user. The obvious way this local knowledge can be acquired is if the entrant firm make contract
with a local independent entity that has the required knowledge of the local market. But the problem
with a customized product is that the entrant firm is required to work very close with the local firm.
Having such a close relationship with another company locks the entrant firm and this can result in
Page 14 of 66
conflicts between the two companies. This can only be solved if the entrant firm has the most
control (Anderson & Gatignon, 1986).
The more mature a product class is the less control the entrants demand of its foreign business
entity. Technological and market knowledge of a new product class is not yet common and it is only
known to the inventor. Therefore newer technology is more likely to be handled with a high degree
of control. When specialized knowledge comes into the open market it becomes more general
knowledge that is associated with a well established product and it is thus no longer special
knowledge. As the innovation diffuses it is expected that a firm use less integration and
administration control, therefore older technology is likely to be licensed or handled by a JV
(Anderson & Gatignon, 1986).
4.1.4 External uncertainty
External uncertainty is the level of volatility in the market or country risk. From the general TCT
firms should react to volatility with lower control because it commits the firm to an operation that
may not be appropriated when the next change in the market or country occur. With less ownership
the firm stays flexible and shifts the risk to contractors. This means that in market with the absence
of transaction specific assets firms with higher control are not expected to be more efficient than
lower control firms (Anderson & Gatignon, 1986).
Williamson (1979) argues that the best control for many transactions is with low control. Low
control benefits the firm with incentive and scale of economies of a competitive marketplace. At the
same time it allows the entrant firm to avoid the bureaucratic disabilities that comes with
integration. These benefits can sometimes be offset by comparative cost burdens (Anderson &
Gatignon, 1988).
In international operation external uncertainty is an important factor. External uncertainty is often
labeled "country risk" which include many areas, e.g., political instability, economic fluctuations,
currency change. Some writers suggest that firms react to external uncertainty by increasing control
to manage their volatile affairs and resolve disputes. In TCE firms should react to volatile
environment with low control entry modes. With low control the entrant avoid resource
commitment but they also stays free to change partners or renegotiate contract terms as working
condition change relatively easily develop and change (Anderson & Gatignon, 1986).
Page 15 of 66
Anderson & Gatignon (1986) proposition in the external environment state that the greater the
combination of country risk and transaction specific assets the higher degree of control is required.
When transaction specific assets are high environment unpredictability play a major role, because it
magnifying the need for control that specificity creates. When specificity is low unpredictability
does not changes the original proposition of external uncertainty which suggest low control since
the firm can deal with unpredictability by changing agents (Anderson & Gatignon, 1986).
The legal restrictiveness of a country can make it more difficult for a firm to enter a foreign market.
In some counties it is illegal for a firm to establish a WOS in most industries while other countries
make it difficult to obtain a high level of control so it practically becomes impossible. The reason
for these restrictions is to discourage foreign investment except for those firms whose technology is
so rare and valuable that the host country will make an exception (Anderson & Gatignon, 1988).
4.1.5 Internal uncertainty
The third factor in the transaction cost framework is internal uncertainty. Internal uncertainty is
when a firm has problem with their agents. A firm can have difficulty with accurately assess their
agents' performance by objective, readily available output measures. Internal uncertainty may occur
when good measure of output is not available or if there is an ill-understood relationship between
the input and output, which can make it difficult to estimate a specific performance level (Anderson
& Gatignon, 1986).
When measuring of performance is difficult there are other ways a firm can apply to control their
performance. If performance cannot be specified or measured easily then firms can choose to focus
only on input instead of output. Another way is for firms to make an array of subtle incentives to
develop a common goal and loyalty. This can make the agent or employee act in the firms' best
interest without them dictating what to do. When internal uncertainty is high more control is needed
to impose subjective judgement and to monitor input. This assumes that managers know how
people behave. In the domestic market managers should be able to do this because of years of
experience but in a foreign market managers might find this difficult because they have gotten use
to the processes in the domestic country. Therefore it is expected that entrants to a foreign market
which are new to the international setting are more unlikely to know how to deal with internal
uncertainty (Anderson & Gatignon, 1986).
An entrant degree of control of a new market should be positively related to the entrants' cumulative
international experience. This concept proposes that a firm mature as it acquires experience in
Page 16 of 66
international markets. With international experience comes enhanced understanding, competence,
and confidence and the firm will be better at accurate perception of foreign risks and returns. Firms
with a high level of international experience are also more willing to enter more distance countries
and with the more experience they are more likely to want more control and want to actively
operate these new foreign entities (Anderson & Gatignon, 1986).
This proposition is not without controversy because the relationship between international
experience and the observed degree of ownership is negative. This is because firms with a low level
of international experience want their own staff in key positions and it is easier to require that with
ownership than negotiation. Over time as they gain more experience they become more comfortable
with the local differences, develop working relationships with the local people and become
confident that they can use the local expertise to their advantages. Therefore with the more
experience they become more willing to delegate the control which is shown with a lower degree of
control (Anderson & Gatignon, 1986).
International experience is often measured using a number of constructs such as number of years in
the worldwide market, total number of foreign investments, ratio of foreign to total number of
investments, number of year's presence in the host country or number of country specific ventures
(Brouthers & Hennart, 2007). The empirical evidence has been mixed and some have found that the
more experience firms tend to be less likely to invest in JV while other researchers have found the
opposite. However Zhao et al.'s (2004) meta analysis show that experienced firms tend to use WOS
(Brouthers & Hennart, 2007).
Another form of internal uncertainty is created by sociocultural distance. The sociocultural distance
is the cultural different between the home and host country. It is argued that the greater the
sociocultural difference between the home and host country the lower the degree of control an
entrant is recommended. This is because with the higher uncertainty perceived by the entrant's
executive in the host countries cultures which are deem foreign to them. Not knowing or being
familiar with the values and operating methods in the host country makes executive refrain from
involving with a higher degree of ownership in the host country. Uncertainty that is based on
sociocultural distance can cause firms to undervalue foreign investments. It is suggested by
Anderson & Gatignon (1986) that when sociocultural distance is great:
A. Low control levels are more efficient than intermediate levels;
Page 17 of 66
B. High control levels are more efficient than intermediate levels;
C. High control levels are efficient only when there is a substantial advantage to doing business
in the entrant's way.
Proposition C suggests that when operating in a host country with a very different environment the
entrant normal way is not always the best. They should only use higher control if there is a reason
for it. Proposition B state that a firm operation in a country with very different culture they are
bound to manage it their way thus creating specificity. The firm with high control is now committed
in the market and are now required to manage it but the firm now benefits from the freedom high
control gives to operate unconventionally. In contrast proposition A use the design reaction to
sociocultural distance by low control thereby they are managing the firm as it is done in the host
country. By doing so they lose specialization benefits but they avoid getting locked in. Intermediate
level of control is undesirable because the firm then neither has the freedom to be unconventional
nor the low control to be flexible (Anderson & Gatignon, 1986).
The last area in internal uncertainty is that the larger the foreign business community is in the host
country the lower the level of control the entrant need. The problem of sociocultural distance can
diminish over time. This happens as more foreign firms enter a country the number of local trained
personnel in these methods will grow. With just the presence of firms in a foreign country causes
the host country nationals to obtain a higher education. This process is slow but it has a cumulative
effect. Then the management of a foreign business can be contracted out of a pool of
knowledgeable personnel who can be controlled by the threat of replacement because of the large
amount of qualified personnel (Anderson & Gatignon, 1986).
4.1.6 Free riding potential
The free riding problem arises when one part can free ride on others effort which means that they
will receive the same benefits without bearing the costs associated with these. The transaction cost
framework suggests that when the free riding potential is high there is a need for more control. If
the entrant in a foreign market has a high value in their brand name then the entry mode that entrant
should use is one that offers a high degree of control. With a valuable brand name it is easy for
agents to make short terms gains at the expense of the long terms. Firms will use more control to
prevent degradation by free riders or to prevent agents to use the brand name in an inconsistent
manner thus confusing the international market positioning of the brand. Firms demand higher level
Page 18 of 66
of control when standardization of the product's design, style, quality and name is part of the
entrant's strategy (Anderson & Gatignon, 1986).
This will suggest that for products that are heavily advertised high control is appropriated entry
mode. However evidence shows that products, that are heavily advertised, are associated with firms
that have low integration and low control. This suggests that valuable brand names can be
effectively marketed from firms with low control. The explanation for this is that products with a
high level of advertising tend to be consumer goods, which many agents are capable of handling
and therefore low control is appropriated. However heavy advertising makes free riding more likely
and more control is therefore needed (Anderson & Gatignon, 1986).
4.1.7 Critic of Transaction Cost Theory
Even though TCT is the most used and studied theory in entry modes it does not mean it is without
flaws and short comings. Concerns have been raised about the limited explanatory power of the
TCT. Some of the questions TCT have problem answering is why firms avoid investing in countries
with poor protection of property rights. Also how come foreign subsidiaries resemble their parent
company and why there are so many similarities across firms when making their entry mode
decisions (Huang & Sternquist, (2007).
One of the main downside with TCT is it only focus on minimization on the costs associated when
a firm makes transaction with a partner. Therefore the value that a firm can generate from an entry
mode is not taken in consideration (Madhok, 1997).
The problem that TCT only focus on costs instead of value creation is an issue for three reasons.
Firstly, the transaction cost economics do not account for opportunity costs that are associated with
the timing of entry, and therefore leaves out the impacts of the competitors. Secondly, the
transaction cost economics do not recognize the potential for future growth that is generated from
investments which are made when uncertainty is high. The last issue is that TCE ignores the option
of strategic flexibility. The firm can create strategic option through past investments that allow them
to redeploy assets as uncertainty changes. TCE focus on uncertainty that a firm encounters as they
make the investment and not with the opportunity costs associated without making the investment
(Brouthers, K. D., Brouthers, L. E. & Werner, 2008).
In emerging market transaction costs can be very high because emerging markets are characterized
with weak legal institution and environments with a high level of uncertainty. The TCT's ability to
Page 19 of 66
predict the outcome within these markets is lower as the cost of transaction is difficult to measure. It
can therefore be necessary for a better form of modeling transaction costs direct as well as indirect.
In transaction cost dynamic models such as switching costs of foreign investment or adjustment
costs of organizational change have not been applied in emerging markets (Meyer & Peng, 2005).
Another short coming is that TCT suggests that low control modes are characterized by low specific
assets. For this assumption to hold two conditions has to be complied, first the only benefit of
integration is a reduction in transaction cost in imperfect market, and second, the cost of integration
is always high. The first condition does not always hold true in practice because firms often have
numerous non transaction cost motives for integration. The second may not be true for many firms
in the service industry, since they do not have to invest in machines, plants or other physical assets,
can be limited in establishing an office (Erramili & Rao, 1993).
The explanatory power of the TCT is somewhat limited because of the relation between the
individual propositions. There can be cases where factors are pulling in different directions and it
can therefore be difficult to use this theory as there are no ranking of the factors. As mentioned
earlier firms tend to avoid control if there are poor protections of the property rights. Does that
indicate that no matter in what direction the other factors are pulling they should choose an entry
mode with low control? Or if the firm has a high level of international experience which will
suggest that they should choose an entry mode with a high level of control but the host country has
a high degree of country risk which will suggest a lower level of control. Levels of control that are
contradicting are thus difficult to measure because they are all weighed the same.
4.2 Real Option Theory
ROT is a relative new and loosely defined field in international strategy that in recent years have
seen an increasing interest from the academic world. It is a complex theory drawn from other fields
such as economic, finance and strategy. ROT has the potential to answer some of the confusing
questions in international strategy (Li, 2007).
ROT can help the problems TCT framework has, because ROT focuses on cost minimization and
on value creation by focusing on the opportunities, the uncertainty, that is associated with not
making an investment. This theory suggest that when uncertainty creates a situation where the value
of an investment opportunity cannot be accurately forecasted then firms seem to ignore the TCT
suggesting to delay investment or use the market. Firms will instead keep their investments low
while still keeping the option for future investments. When firms have an option they minimize
Page 20 of 66
downside risk by deferring a part of the investment until uncertainty is reduced and the value of the
investment can be more accurately predicted and at the same time the firm keep the option to
participate in potential upside if the option improves (Brouthers, Brouthers & Werner, 2008).
The concept of real option comes from financial options and was introduced by Myers (1977).
Financial option gives firms the right but not the obligation to sell or buy stocks at a pre agreed
price for a predetermined time. Thus financial option allows the holder of the option to pursue
opportunities that have potential and at the same time containing downside risks, which makes
financial option an asymmetric performance distribution. This asymmetric, that comes from having
the right but not the obligation to exercise the option, is where the value of the option comes from
(Li, 2007).
An investment in a project can provide real option there are two characteristics that are required.
Firstly, the future payoff of the project has to be volatile. Secondly, with increasing commitment
there are managerial flexibility or control losses according to the resolution of uncertainty in the
business environment. Real option is not the same as financial option, there are some differences.
Real options are based on real assets which often make them non-tradable and their value is
impacted by managerial actions. They are mostly not included in formal contracts but already
embedded in strategic investments. How to exercise real option is often not as clear as how to do it
for financial options (Li, 2007).
There are different types of real options in international strategy. The types of real options which
are frequently observed in international strategy are: the option to defer, the option to grow, the
option to switch, the option to abandon and the option to learn. This paper is about the entry mode
decision and will therefore only focus on the options which are important to that decision. The
options, which affect the entry mode, are the option to grow, option to abandon and option to learn
(Li, 2007).
4.2.1 Application of Real Option Strategy to International Strategy
When firms enter an oversea market they are inevitable facing a variety of uncertainty. Since the
global economic environment is increasingly growing firms no longer only have to deal with
uncertainty in the market where they have operations and business. Therefore, since production has
become a feature in many international firms operations, political, social and economic disturbances
in many other countries can affect global supplies of the products (Li, 2007).
Page 21 of 66
In general when we talk about uncertainty it can be divided into two types: exogenous and
endogenous. Exogenous uncertainty is uncertainty that is not affected by the firm's actions and it is
not possible for the firm alone to lower it. The only way it can be revealed is over time. Exogenous
uncertainty is mostly in the macroeconomic environment such as political and economic conditions.
Endogenous uncertainty can be affected by the firm if they increase their investments which will
lower the uncertainty. Uncertainty in the microeconomic environment, such as consumer needs and
competition conditions, and at the firm level, such as relationship in partnership, is characterized in
this type of uncertainty. For example a firm can invest in an international joint venture (IJV) to
reduce the uncertainty about the complementary knowledge about distributional channels which a
local partner can provide. The downside is that the local partner may behave opportunistically and
use MNE's advanced technology to their own advantages (Li, 2007).
If it was possible for entrant firms, which had invested in a market, to fully recover their
investment, firms would have much more flexibility in dealing with business shocks because they
could just correct the mistake they have made in their decision making at any given moment.
However that is not the case for most investments, because many investments are irreversible and
such irreversibility limits managerial flexibility in dealing with uncertainty. According to TCT
specific assets are more likely to be irreversible because these assets specificity makes it more
difficult to sell them in the market. Also such assets specificity increases the information
asymmetric in the used goods market. Therefore buyers lower their estimations of the quality of the
assets and are therefore less willing to pay for them (Li, 2007).
TCT suggests that specific assets should be protected with WOS in foreign markets. However
investing in WOS usually involves large investments that are irreversible. When firm commit to
these large irreversible investments they lose some flexibility in adjusting their decision when more
information becomes available, and they can face major losses if the future proves unfavorable.
Therefore even though establishing a WOS, because it has the lowest transaction costs, the
advantages of such a decision may be reduced if the dynamic environment of the firm's investment
is also in consideration (Li, 2007).
TCE view uncertainty as a source of transaction cost that should be dealt with, with more control.
TCE does not see any means of benefits from uncertainty. It does not recognize the potential
opportunities embedded in uncertainty or value managerial flexibility in adjusting investments in
response to the revelation of uncertainty. Therefore ROT contribute with a new way of thinking
Page 22 of 66
where uncertainty implies risk as well as opportunity, and firms are capable of benefit from
uncertainty by creating real options so they remain flexible to response to new information (Li,
2007).
4.2.2 Choice of Market Entry Mode
As mentioned before there are different kinds of entry modes such as WOS, IJV and
licensing/export. IJV is the most studied approach based on real option. These studies mainly focus
on two aspects. Firstly, IJV can be viewed as ROT. Secondly, what conditions are required for an
IJV to provide a higher option value. An IJV can be seen as a real option, because it allows the firm
with the possibility to exploit the potential upside by acquiring it partner's share of the JV if the
uncertainty from the market environment and internal partner proves to be favorable, which gives
the firm the option to grow. It also avoids downside losses since the firm can sell its equity to its
partner or dissolves the IJV when uncertainty proves unfavorable, this gives the firm the option to
abandon. If the partners in an IJV have a different valuation of the IJV then it provides a higher real
option value (Li, 2007).
ROT suggests that entry mode decision should not be viewed as a static decision but as a process.
A market entry mode should not only be viewed by the NPV of its future profits, but also from the
option value it can bring the firm. The option value is generated from adjusting future entry modes
to new information that the firm has obtained. Entry modes provide three types of options, the
option to grow that spot and exploit market opportunities, the option to abandon that spot market
disadvantages and withdraw from the market, and the option to learn in which firms gain
knowledge through collaborations with local firms about how to do business in the host country that
will influence their decision on later business activities in the host country or other countries with
similar cultural, social, economic and political environments. Then the problem is which entry
mode provides the highest option value (Li, 2007).
Buckley and Casson (1998) shows that an IJV is more likely to give a higher real option value than
a WOS, licensing or export. When comparing the weakness of a WOS and licensing/export, a WOS
gathers more information of the host country than licensing/export because ownership of assets
grants ownership of information. With more information the WOS is in a favorable situation to
react if the market becomes volatile because they will easier be able to recognize opportunities.
The option to grow for a WOS is higher than that of licensing/export because its cost is higher for
licensing/export. However the cost to abandon is much higher in a WOS because they have invested
Page 23 of 66
more irreversible investments than licensing/export. Thus the option to abandon is lower for a WOS
than licensing/export (Buckley & Casson, 1998).
It is further suggested that an IJV has the best combination of characteristics than the other entry
modes. If both the option to grow and the option to abandon is important for the entrant. An IJV has
a higher option to grow than licensing/export because the firm has a better option to respond if the
market is favorable by acquiring their partners share. It also has a higher abandon option than that
of a WOS because the partner provides a prepared market divested asset. There may be
disadvantage in using an IJV because the partner can become volatile which will reduce the option
value in an IJV (Buckley & Casson, 1998).
In an IJV the source of uncertainty is the two partner's valuation of the same assets. This option
value depends of how the two partners forecast the expected value of the IJV. The option value is
higher if the partners have divergent forecast value of the joint assets. The partner who has a higher
valuation of the assets is willing to pay a higher price. If they have the same valuation of the
internal JV, the option to acquire the other partner's part cannot be realized and either of them will
benefit from any trade in their stake (Chi & McGuire, 1996).
4.2.3 Demand Uncertainty
ROT suggest that when a firm enter a market with high demand uncertainty, then they may benefit
from minimizing or delaying their investment while at the same time obtaining an option to take
advantage of possible opportunities if the market prove favorable. Demand uncertainty influence
the strategic choice firms have to make because the demand uncertainty influence the NPV, so
alternatives can not accurately be calculated. If an investment is highly uncertain the value of an
option approach is more appealing. There are different ways an option based investment, IJV, can
benefit a firm when the demand uncertainty is high. The first is the former mentioned to optimize
opportunities and minimize downside, the second is that options gives the benefit that allows firms
to invest in a variety of opportunities. They also have a faster way of gathering knowledge from the
market compared to licensing/export. Also they give the firm first mover advantage which can close
distribution channel for competitors, limited access for competitor to resources and engage potential
partner organizations competitors that licensing/export does not provide (Brouthers, Brouthers &
Werner, 2008).
ROT is interprets as being a collection of strategic options that are gathered over time. These
strategic options or portfolio of investment can increase the value of the portfolio because they give
Page 24 of 66
the firm flexibility. In ROT portfolio of investment provides a firm specific resource that can
influence decisions. This means that if a firm has accumulated a lot of international experience it
may provide the firm with strategic flexibility, when it has to make entry mode decisions for two
reasons. Firstly, firms with more international experience have the option to move output from less
productive markets to more productive markets. If the forecast demand does not meet the expected
amount the output can be shifted to other markets. Secondly, firms can adjust their product or
service so it will fit the new international market better. If the initial product or service does not
meet the required demand, the firms with more international experience have the know-how to
change their facilities to produce other more suitable products (Brouthers, Brouthers & Werner,
2008).
4.2.4 Strategic Flexibility
ROT suggests that firms with a high level of strategic flexibility perceive a lower risk of loss and
they therefore prefer to enter a market with WOS or licensing/export. The reason for this is that if
the demand is lower than forecasted the firms, with a WOS or licensing/export, shift their output to
other markets. The venture will then continue to operate efficiently and avoid the cost of
underutilization. WOS can quickly make this decision while in shared ventures, where there is less
incentive to keep the production efficient because the costs and benefits are shared by all the
partners. Therefore JV have a tendency to reduce instead of reallocate the productions. Modification
of the product/service output is easier with non option based investments because the change in a
product require new knowledge or information for firms and because it is easier acquired in WOS.
Also because of the different control in WOS and licensing/export operations can be directed to
make change in the output so their product/service generates the greatest value in the market. In IJV
partners may be unwilling to share knowledge because they may expose firm-specific expertise to
others (Brouthers, Brouthers & Werner, 2008).
4.2.5 Critic of Real Option Theory
Brouthers, Brouthers & Werner (2008) points out, that firms with past international experience may
have greater strategic flexibility in market choice than firms with less experience. Also real options
variables such as demand uncertainty and strategic flexibility may influence or alter firms choice of
generic product strategy when decision of entering a new market. Before real option can be used
there are some assumptions that need to be met. It should be possible to estimate the value of the
real option, to include possible scenarios in the JV contract and the partners should have divergent
valuation of the JV. For the growth and abandon option and for the learning option there is only one
Page 25 of 66
and that is the partners should not become a new source of volatility. The problem with the first
assumption is that demand uncertainty makes it difficult to estimate the value of the real option
because it cannot accurately be calculated.
4.3 Summary of Entry Mode Theory
The TCT decision making is build on market failure and transaction cost when firms work and
operate with partners in a foreign market. The theory focus on opportunism compared to effect
assets specificity and brand value. It also assumes that firms act according to rational behavior. In
TCT uncertainty is seen as opportunism and must be protected against with control. One of the
problems with TCT is that it does not value the benefit from a strategy, it only looks on the cost side
of collaborations.
ROT deals with the option of firms to stay flexible, which focus on three options, the option to
grow, the option to abandon and the option to learn. The two categorizes a firm can apply to
determine the real option value are the demand uncertainty and strategic flexibility. In real option
uncertainty is not a weakness but an opportunity for firms that they can take advantage of if they
desire.
The two theories have different ways to deal with uncertainty. They have different decisions
making rules when determining governance structure. TCT focus on keeping control ex ante to
minimize transaction cost that arises from behavioral uncertainty. Real option emphasizes keeping
flexibility when facing exogenous and endogenous uncertainty and make decisions ex post based on
new information (Li, 2007).
These two theories have a poor explanatory power and it can be hard to measure, however they
complement each other well on their look on uncertainty. The two theories that have been presented
build on reflection rather than empirical research.
5 Factors of Entry Mode
The following section will focus on the important entry mode factors in the dairy industry and in
Chinese market. These factors will provide an overview over which factors that are most influential
to the theories discussed in section 4.
Page 26 of 66
5.1 Factors Influencing Entry Mode of Dairy Industry
This section describes factors that are important for companies which fall under the dairy industry
category. This section will outline the factors that are important to companies in the dairy industry
and will afterwards be applied to the TCT and ROT framework.
Earlier studies have identified three main groups of factors that have influenced the choice of entry
mode (Pan & Tse, 2000). These findings have been applied to firms in the dairy manufacturing
market, as a framework that indicate the most important factors in this industry. Problems with this
are a need for further empirical evidence to support the propositions. Studies have helped narrow
down the large array of different factors which affect the entry mode decision. However to find
these factors the market has to be analyzed to find which factors are the most important. The three
main groups are: firm, country and market specific factors. Firm specific factors are related to the
firm's capacities and characteristics that influence their competitive position in a market. Country
specific factors refer to the environment in the foreign country in terms of economic, legislation,
politics, institutions and culture. The final group, market specific factors, is defined as the overall
market environment in a foreign market. (Agarwak & Ramaswami, 1992).
The three factors include proposition on how the different factors will influence the firm's degree of
control. This paper will divide the three main factors into two groups: internal (firm specific) factors
and external (market and country specific) factors. This is because internal and external
environment are terms used in the entry mode area. Next the most important factors in the dairy
industry will be described based on market analysis. The impact of the level of control is made as a
choice of a single theory. The entry mode decision will not be divided into the two theories but
given as a single combined theory (Lu, Karpovo & Fiore, 2011).
5.1.1 Internal Factors in the Dairy industry
The firm specific factors contain factors which are associated with the firm. The factors which have
been chosen are assets specificity, brand value, financial capability and international experience.
These factors will be analyzed for Arla Foods in section 6.2. Table 1 show the internal factors
impact on the level of control.
Page 27 of 66
Internal Factors
Factors
Level of Control
Asset Specificity
Increases when high
Brand Value
Increases when high
Financial Capability
Increases when high
International Experience
Increases when high
Table 1: Internal factors influencing level of control for dairy industry
The first internal factor is assets specificity. The proposition form Anderson & Gatignon (1986)
suggests that firms with a high degree of assets specificity should choose a higher level of control.
From the TCT framework assets specificity is a specialized or unique asset that gives the firm value
and competitive advantage over their competitors. These advantages are obtained from experience
and learning from foreign market and the firm should therefore choose a higher degree of control to
protect these advantages. For the dairy industry these advantages are important so they can improve
their production process or know-how and then lower the cost since the market is homogeneous.
The industrial production of dairy products requires specialized assets that can be difficult to sell
when leaving the market (MarketLine, 2013).
The second factor is brand value. If a firm is going to have success in a foreign market with a high
degree of brand value they need a high control level. Brand value is very important in the dairy
industry because, as mentioned above, the market is homogenous and the company therefore needs
to distinguish themselves from their competitors. Also from the TCT a brand is valuable to
opportunist behavior because of self-interest seeking from partners. If the brand is valuable for the
company they need to have more control to prevent opportunist behavior. The brand value also
increases the possibility of free riders. Increased concentration in the market results in firms
focusing on brand value to give them advantage over their competitors (MarketLine, 2013).
The third factor is financial capability. With low financial capability the firm may not be able to
choose the entry mode that is considered the best. This is because the firm cannot afford to invest
the required amount of resources. For the dairy market it is required to invest rather large amounts
of resources. The aim for the entrants is to challenge the major market holders.
The fourth factor is international experience. A firm with a lot of international experience should
choose higher degree of control. International experience can be measured on how many foreign
Page 28 of 66
markets they operate in or on how many years they have been doing business in other countries than
their host country.
5.1.2 External Factors in the Dairy Industry
The external factors will be used in an analysis of the Chinese market. The external factors impact
will apply to the TCT and the ROT framework. In this paper the country and market specific factors
will be combined in one analysis because some areas overlap. Table 2 shows the external factors
impact on level of control.
External Factors
Country specific factor
Level of Control
Country Risk
Decreases when high
Cultural Distance
Decreases when high
Government Restrictions
Decreases when high
Market specific factors
Level of Control
Market Potential
Increases when high
Table 2: External Factors Influencing Entry mode for Dairy Industry
The first in the country specific factors suggest that when a firm chooses to enter a market with a
high level of country risk they should choose a lower level of control. The second country specific
factors are cultural distance which indicates that when the cultural distance between the host
country and the entrant firm is high the firm should lower the degree of control. Third, when a firm
enters a foreign market with high level of government restrictions, the degree of control should be
low (Anderson & Gatignon, 1988).
The market specific factors are concerned with the market potential which should increase the level
of control, when the market potential is great. If they choose to enter a market where there is a high
level of competition, the market specific factor states they should choose a lower degree of control
because the potential profit in the market is lower due to the high competition.
The problem with using Lu, Karpova & Fiore (2011) as guidance is that the factors represented are
equally weighted. This will be a problem, when they are used in a different market, because it has
shown that some factors have a crucial implication on a market and the choice of entry mode. It has
e.g. been noticed that firms tend to lower their investment in countries with poor protection of
property rights which indicate that the country risk factor is very important.
Page 29 of 66
5.2 Factors Influencing Entry Mode in China
For international businesses emerging markets offer a range of opportunities and China is one of
these markets that western businesses have been examined to expand to for a number of years. Even
though they are an emerging market, they have, compared to other emerging markets, a relative
well established institutional environment in China. One of the things that are characteristic in an
emerging market is the development of their institutions. In emerging market many parts of their
economy are not as well developed as Western countries. Many emerging countries quickly create a
physical infrastructure but they are less quick to realize the important of institutional development
that underpins the function of a mature market. It is therefore difficult in emerging markets for
buyer and seller to find information and evaluate each other's product and services, and if disputes
arise there are limited contractual solutions to resolve the issue. These less developed areas of the
economy can then change the entry mode decision (Khanna & Palepu, 2010).
Pan & Tse (2000) have analyzed the entry mode decisions in China from a large number of foreign
business. The study was to test the preferred ownership decisions of firms that entered the Chinese
market. Pan & Tse (2000) propose factors which should be considered, when foreign firms are
entering and choosing entry mode in China.
Studies have found that for a number of year's entrant in China was not comfortable with using
WOS and therefore they choose to either export or form a JV with local Chinese firms. From 1991
there has been a change in the behavior in the Chinese market and WOS have become more
attractive (Teng, 2004). One of the key economic driver sectors in the Chinese market is the
manufacturing sector. The dairy industry is a manufacturing process which is the key economic
driver in China, so foreign firms have a good opportunity to use the advantage that the Chinese
market provides to improve their business (Enderwick, 2007).
In 1991 firms exported for 63.8 billion dollars to China. At the same time there was JV for 8.2
billion dollars and 3.7 billion dollars WOS. In 2003 these numbers had increased extensionally so
there were exports for 412.8, JV for 33 and WOS for 82.6 billion dollars (Teng, 2004). Since Teng
(2004) article these numbers are expected to have improved even further. Most parts of the Danish
subsidiaries are located in the western part of China. There are relatively many companies in the
food industry, but most of them are not in the dairy industry. The Danish foreign Ministry's list
shows that companies from many different industries such as furniture retail & design, metal &
machinery and food agriculture & fisheries have set up subsidiary in China (Ministry of Foreign
Page 30 of 66
Affairs Denmark, 2012). In 2006 there were more than 570.000 foreign firms in China (Zu, Wang
& Quan, 2011).
5.2.1 External Factors in China
The economic environment in China has shown to be an important factor for firm's opportunity
when they want to do international business. For many firms, that want to operate in the
international market, agrees that it is not an option to enter China but a necessity for their future
(Teng, 2004). The economic environment includes areas such as the population size, economic
growth, income, consumption and purchasing power (Enderwick, 2007).
The political environment is crucial for non western countries, because their institutions are not
well developed and they have a reputation of being corrupt, which play an important role in the
firm's entry mode strategy. With countries which are very corrupt, firms can lose much of their
invested capital in the country (Enderwick, 2007). The cultural distance between the host and the
country of the entrants' origin is also a factor that plays an important role. This includes language
and religious differences. The cultural different between western and eastern can have a crucial
influence on a firms management and business activity in the host country (Zhu, Wang & Quan,
2011).
A very important factor for firms that consider entering China is the legal environment. The legal
environment helps secure the firm to make sure their investment in the country is somehow
protected. It is important for the firms to know, when they make an investment in the country, that
they will get the benefits from the risks they have taken .It is therefore crucial that there is some
form of property rights. The legal environment should be considered with the industry characteristic
because some industries are more based on knowledge and property rights and are therefore more
important (Enderwick, 2007).
Since China is such a highly regulated country, it can also be necessary to consider factors in the
form of legislation that prevent firms from entering the market in a certain ownership form. The
physical development of a country can influence the entry mode decision, too and underdeveloped
countries may not have the required resources firms needs to operate successfully in the country
(Khanna & Palepu, 2010).
Page 31 of 66
5.2.2 Internal Factors in China
Firms, that have decided manufacturing in the Chinese market, are more likely to have some degree
of international experience or business relation in the area and are thus able to use the knowledge as
an advantage over their competitors. New firms with low experience tend to start by entering
markets more closely related to their own. Entry mode in China could be influenced by a firm`s
specific advantage which gives foreign firms a benefit to other foreign firms that does not have it
(Enderwick, 2007). Guanxi is a cultural gap that is very different from the western culture, it is
unique in China because of institutional voids. Guanxi is embedded in friendship, personnel
network and connection among powerful persons or government, international firms are more
willing to take risks, if they have a strong guanxi network. Even though guanxi is considered an
external factor, because it is a cultural difference between China and the firms home country. In this
paper it will be considered in the internal analysis, because it is a factor that firms themselves can
influence, they can make these connections themselves to build relationships with people of interest
(Zhu, Wang & Quan, 2011).
5.2.3 Summary of Factors Influencing Entry Mode Decision in China
Many of the factors, which are mentioned in the external environment in the dairy industry and in
the Chinese market, are coherent because a firm will meet many of the same factors. There are
some legal issues which can be unique to the dairy market. The internal factors are both influenced
by the international experience by the firm both in the Chinese market and in the dairy industry. The
factors in the dairy industry which are coherent with the Chinese market will enhance the entry
mode decision.
6 External and Internal Analysis
This section will seek to analyze the external and internal environment of the firm and see how it
will influence the ownership decision, it will also analyze factors which have been identified in the
previously chapter that are in the dairy industry's factors and the Chinese market's factors. The
terms internal and external factors come from the literature review of entry mode.
The analysis of the external factors data will be from the most recently available and from the most
general used databases. The internal analysis will be presented as a study of Arla which operate in
the dairy industry. In the internal analysis material will be gathered from Arlas homepage and other
sources that deemed reliable.
Page 32 of 66
With the financial crisis the developed countries have made firms look for growth somewhere else.
In today's world emerging markets have become more in focus as the liberalization and opening of
these large economies have made it possible for western firms to invest in them. Emerging market
can be a source for cheap consumer goods, or they can be the location for firm's technical support or
for large multinational companies which are growth drivers and preservers of capital (Khanna &
Palepu, 2010).
Firms have a tendency to overestimate the attractiveness of a foreign market. They become so
astonished by the potential of unused market that they lose sight of the difficulties there can be to
enter a foreign market. This section will try to overcome this problem by balancing the potential of
the Chinese market with the uncertainty it also brings. To do this, the theories will be used that
previously have been mentioned in this paper (Ghamawat, 2001).
6.1 External Entry Mode Factors in China
This section will explain the external factors which can influence the entry mode decisions in the
Chinese market. The external factors have focused on the market potential and how intense the
competition is on the market. It also focuses on the threats and uncertainty that is characteristic with
a specific market. It is well known in international business that a country's environment factors
have an influence on entry mode decisions (Kim & Hwang, 1992; Ghemawat, 2001; Pan & Tse,
2000).
This section will look at which economic possibilities a manufacturing firm has to do business in
China. The external analyses will analyze the economic potential of doing business in China as well
as a number of external factors which can increase the costs or benefits for the firm that chooses to
enter. The reason for the external analysis is to make an extensive analyze of the factors which can
have influence on the entry mode based on the two theories that have been chosen. In order to do
that, the factors that have been identified in the Chinese market, will be analyzed.
The heritage foundation makes an index for countries based on the freedom of their labor and
property. The Chinese economy freedom score is 52.5 which make it the 137th freest country in the
world. In the Asian-Pacific they are ranked at 29th out of 42 countries. China scores overall just
lower than the global and regional averages. The Chinese economy can therefore be seen as
relatively unstable, and it provides material for consideration that there can be a lot of barriers for
Page 33 of 66
firms which come from countries, where they are not used to these kinds of problems (The Heritage
Foundation, 2014).
Morschett, Schramm-Klein & Swodaba’s (2010) meta-analysis on the external antecedents of entry
mode decisions shows that only few of the tested factors were of significant influence. Among those
were market attractiveness, country risk, legal restrictions and the cultural distance between home
and host country. Other studies on external uncertainty have focus on cultural distance and political
risk, which have found that the political risk is a factor that most studies agree upon, but the
contribution to the entry mode choice of the cultural distance has given mixed results (LópezDuarte & Suárez, 2010).
6.1.1 Legal Environment
This section will seek to analyze the legal environment for firms which do business in China. In
China the regulatory environment is seen as a weakness because it is only ranked 116th in the
world. The rule of law is not deemed a weakness, but it is also low on the index, as it is 87th on the
world ranking (WIPO, 2013).
6.1.1.1 Rule of law
One of the barriers a firm can meet, when they choose to enter China or other emerging markets, is
the low degree of property right. This is a problem for firms, because they must know that their
investment is protected, and they will get the benefits that are associated with the investment. This
is particular a problem for firms that operate in high technology or consumer based industries. The
most serious offenders of the lack of property right, are found in Asian. In China it has been pointed
out as one of their weaknesses. However in recent years China has committed to strengthen their
property protection as a result of their membership in WTO (Enderwick, 2007). With the lack of
law in a country, it is necessary for firms to be able to evaluate their business partners on how
reliable they are. It is important for the firms to do this evaluation, because they operate in a market
where other firms' behavior is opportunistic.
The Chinese legal environment is somewhat poor concerning property rights. China only scores 20
out of 100 on the Heritage Foundation property right index, which makes them rank at 139th place.
That is way below average. After they became a part of the WTO, they have not improved their
property right, which will make it unsure for foreign investors, if China will improve on the
property rights issue in the nearest future. Compared to the Danish property right, which scores 90
Page 34 of 66
on the index, there is a large different on how firms in the two countries protect their properties
(The Heritage Foundation, 2014).
6.1.1.2 Corruption
Corruption in the government has become a problem for international organizations. Corruption is
characterized as the abuse of public power for private benefit. Corruption in a market has been
shown to significantly lower the economic development of a country through its affect on firms
operating growth level in the country. Firms, which enter countries with a high level of corruption,
experience to have smaller investment from firms in foreign countries and the entering firms tend to
choose non-equity entry modes. With high growth in emerging markets companies are more
interested in these countries, but they will therefore more often do business in a market which is
characterized with a government which is corrupt (Uhlenbruck, Rodriguez, Doh & Eden, 2006).
The Chinese level of corruption is at a level which is also found in many African and Eastern
Europe countries. The Chinese market is ranked 80 out of 177 and has a score of 40 out of 100,
where 100 are the least corrupt and 0 is the most corrupt. China has stayed at the same level for
years and has only varied from 35 to 45 in their score. There is also a problem with bribing of the
government, where they are ranked 27 out of 28 of the largest economies in the world with a score
of 6.5. It makes sense there is bribery when there is corruption and that is one of the ways
corruption works (Transparency International, 2013).
If you compare the Chinese data with the one in the Danish market there is a big different on how
common corruption and bribery is used in the two countries. The Danish and the Chinese corruption
index are very different. With Denmark being one of the world's least corrupt countries in the
world, and the Chinese as being one where they accept corruption at some level it seems to be at a
steady level. Over the last ten years the two countries corruption level are somewhat steady and it is
therefore unlikely that any big changes will happen in the nearest future. Many anti-corruption
whistleblowers faces threats and violence from those they expose and enjoy little protection from
the police or other internal investigators of the communist party. The various form of corruption
affects the banking, finance, government procurement and construction. The Chinese judicial
system is therefore highly vulnerable to political influence and corruption (The Heritage
Foundation, 2014)
Page 35 of 66
6.1.1.3 Legal restrictions
Before China entered the WTO, there was a favor for foreign firms to enter China in JV to avoid a
lot of problems with the government. Prior to WTO accession the government regulated for
investment by classifying various industries as "encouraged, restricted or prohibited". But after a
numbers of economic reforms and China joined WTO, they became more open and willing to sell
certain small and medium sized state-owned enterprises. They also significantly lowered its tariffs
and other trade barriers to allow foreign export to increase in the 1990s. China has changed a lot
since they began to open their market in 1979. While JV were the favorite choice in the 1980s and
in the early 1990s change in the business environment has stimulated the use of other entry modes.
There is a number of exporting, JV and WOS present in China, so after the reform and changes
there are no certain law that favors one entry mode over another (Teng, 2004).
6.1.2 Sociocultural Distance
This section will seek to analyze the sociocutural factors that can have an effect on a Danish firm
which wishes to enter the Chinese market. Over the recent years much has been made of the smaller
effect distance has on the global business market. It has been argued that information technology
and global communication are shrinking the world and turning it into a smaller and more
homogenous place. When it comes to business this assumption is incorrect, distance still matters
and firms must explicitly and thoroughly account for it, when they make decisions about entering
other markets (Ghemawat, 2001).
6.1.2.1 Cultural distance
The cultural distance between the host and home country reflect the existents in differences in
certain norms, values and behavior (López-Duarte & Vidal-Suárez, 2010). There have been
contradictory results within the cultural distance factor, which have led to the term "Cultural
paradox". Some studies links cultural distance with the need for cooperative arrangement like JV,
others have found that the cultural distance best can be solved with strong hierarchical control such
as WOS (Brouthers & Brouthers, 2001). The effect of cultural distance has been difficult to prove in
entry mode, and it does not matter, if the distance between home and host market is large, but it is
still very common in entry mode literature (Morschett, Schramm-Klein & Swadoba, 2010).
In China there is a strong emphasis on hierarchy in their business culture. Therefore it is important
for Chinese business partners when entering a meeting, that people are entering the room in
hierarchy order. The Chinese will often assume that the first foreigner to enter the room will be the
Page 36 of 66
head of the delegation. Rank is also important during negotiations, it will therefore be best, if a
senior partner is present, because the Chinese counterpart will do the same. Mostly it will be the
senior members that will lead the discussion and any kind of interruptions will be considered
shocking. Negotiation tends to extend the official deadline, the Chinese do that because it will gain
them an advantage in negotiation. It is therefore import to be patient and show as little emotions as
possible. The Chinese prefer to build a strong relationship before closing a deal (Ministry of
Foreign Affairs (b), 2014).
In order to find the differences between Danish and Chinese business culture, it is necessary to
define and measure what culture is. To do that one of the most used and quoted articles which deals
with the cultural distance problem will be used (Hofstede, 1983).
The framework made by Hofstede (1983) has taken the concept of cultural distance and divided it
into 6 categories. These 6 categories help to account for the differences within cultures and measure
them. The first four categories, power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism versus
collectivism and masculinity versus femininity, relates to the fundamental problems which are faced
with in every human society but where different societies have different answers. They are used to
explain how different society structures their organizations, which motivate people in an
organization and the issues people and organizations have to deal with in a society. The last two
categories are pragmatism and indulgence (Hofstede, 1983).
The cultural distance based on Hofstede's (1983) framework between Denmark and China can be
seen below. According to Hofstede, when firms enter markets with a large cultural distance, it will
lead to obstacles for firms which want to operate in the foreign market. The problems does not only
occur when firms works with partners, but also if they choose to enter as a WOS, because they still
have to do business with market forces, and it is therefore necessary for firms to know how they
operate (Hofstede, 1983).
Hofstede's (1983) framework, on how to measure cultural differences in business between
countries, is one of the most known accepted and developed frameworks. The first category, the
power distance, deal with the fact that not all individuals in the society are equal. It helps to show
the culture in a country and how the attitude is on these inequalities. The power distance is defined
how those who are less powerful members in an institution or organization in a country accept that
the power distribution is carried out uneven. With a score on 80 China is in the high end of the
Page 37 of 66
model, they accept that there is inequality. Denmark is at the other end of the scale which means
they are better at coaching, and the employee carry out the work autonomy (Hofstede Centre, 2014).
Individualism addresses the issue of how independent society members are. It has to do with how
people see's themselves, whether it is as a group or an individual. Denmark is at the high end, and it
is expected that individuals take care of themselves and family only. China, on the other hand, has a
highly collective culture where people act in the interest of the group and not themselves. With
more interest in groups, it also means that the Chinese hire and promote people who they are closely
in group with such as family members (Hofstede Centre, 2014).
The third category, masculinity, indicates what drives the society. With a high score it will be
driven by competition, achievement and success, where success is being the best at what you do. A
low score is where the quality of life is important and liking what you do. With a score at 66 China
is a masculine society and that is shown by the fact that many Chinese will sacrifice family and
leisure to work. Denmark on the other hand is at the low end, where it is important to keep a
balance between work and family life (Hofstede Centre, 2014).
Uncertain avoidance has to do with the way society deals with the fact that the future can never be
known. Should they try to control the future or just let it be? Denmark, who has a low score, does
not need a lot of structure and predictability in their work life, things can suddenly changes and the
Danes are fine with that. China also score low in this category. (Hofstede Centre, 2014).
The fifth category, pragmatism, describes how people deals with all the things happening around
them that cannot be explained. In societies, with a normative orientation, they have a need to
explain as much as possible, while in pragmatic orientation they do not need to explain everything,
because they believe it is impossible to understand everything in life. The Danes are in the low end
of the scale which means they are in a normative society. China is at the other end of the scale,
which means it is a pragmatic culture (Hofstede Centre, 2014).
The final category is indulgence. This category is defined as how much people try to control their
desire and impulses based on how they were raised. This comes from which degree little children
are socialized. Weak control is called indulgence and strong is restraint. China is a restraint country,
which can be seen as they have a low score. Countries that have a low score tend to be cynicism and
pessimism also people who are restraint have the idea that their actions are restraint by social norms
and indulging themselves is considered wrong (Hofstede Centre 2014).
Page 38 of 66
Hofstede's framework has received a lot of criticism over the years. One of the critics is that
Hofstede framework categorizes culture by countries, where there can be several different cultures
in each country. This can be an important factor, especially when studying China, which is an
emerging market. Over the recent years the eastern part of China by the sea have been under a lot of
influence by Western countries, while the central and Western parts are less developed and
therefore their culture can be very different from the eastern part (Baskerville, 2003).
According to Huang & Sternquist (2007), firms which are based in masculine countries tend to take
more control and have a higher level of resource commitment, when entry mode decision has to be
made. Therefore firms from Denmark, who is characterized by being more feminine, will not pick
strong control modes, if it is not necessary.
Shenkar (2012) has argued that the development in the sociocultural different areas shows that it is
more important to discuss the friction between two countries culture instead of the cultural distance.
The recent development in international business indicates that a switch to friction is more
necessary because the actors in foreign investment have changed and the need to specify and
ground, and capture the interaction has become vital.
6.1.2.2 Language
In international business a firm`s language skill can be very important, because it can give them
power and opportunities that some in a similar position would not enjoy. Language barriers between
the home and the host country are a liability that foreign firms have to account for, because they
may have significant influence in the internationalization decision and the entry mode. Foreign
investors prefer entry modes which provide them with higher flexibility, lower resource
commitment and sharing risk with a partner when they have the same familiarity as the host
country's formal and informal environment. This is only the case, when both countries share the
same language. Therefore it seems that when language barriers between the investing firm and the
local partner exist, a JV is not preferable to lower the external uncertainty (López-Duarte & VidalSuárez, 2010).
In the country profile made by The World Bank (2012) firms do not see the Chinese language
barrier as a large problem, because they do not mention it as being one of the main problems. In
2010 there was approximately one third of the Chinese population who knew English. It has been
the official policy that English should be learned from the age of 8 or 9. This shows that the
Page 39 of 66
language barrier will become less as English becomes more common in China. In Denmark it is
known that foreign language is required to do business with other countries because almost no other
country knows Danish, so English are learned from a young age (Bolton & Graddol, 2012).
6.1.3 Country risk
López-Duarte & Vidal-Suárez (2010) refers to the country risk as the volatile of the host country
environment. Countries where there is large volatility in the market foreign firms may find it
difficult to handle a contract with a partner. In high risk countries a firm must stay flexible to
change to a different entry mode, if unpredicted change in the environment makes the original entry
mode inefficient (Morschett, Schramm-Klein & Swodoba, 2010).
The Chinese communist party still has a tight control of speech, religion and assembly. There is
some hope that there can still come new economic reforms from the communist party, but
meaningful political reforms are highly unlikely. The trade freedom has improved by over 50 point
while on the other hand scores for investment freedom, financial freedom, property rights and the
control of government spending all has declined (The Heritage Foundation, 2014).
In China the greatest political risk relate to their external claims and conflicts. China's claim on
Taiwan and disputed territories in the South China Sea is their greatest political risk. To minimize
the political risk international business can use different strategies. They can use powerful local
partners, who have a strong political connection or make contract with local politicians and
officials. They can also arrange funding or guarantees from major international organizations such
as the World Bank or EXIM (Export-import) banks (Enderwick, 2007).
In the Chinese market it takes 35 days for a new foreign market to start a new business unit. This is
a relative normal time to start a new business in emerging markets, where the lowest time to start
one is 6 days in Turkey and the longest is 152 days in Brazil. This is an improvement since they
came into WTO, because it was not normal for firms to start their own business in China. So this
new development shows that there is change in China, where they are more welcoming foreign
companies (Khanna & Palepu, 2010).
Even though they are normal in emerging markets, they still have some issues on the global scale.
The political environment only scores 39.2 and is ranked 126 in the world and this is seen as a
weakness. The political stability is a little better as they score 49 and is ranked 106. The
government effectiveness is a lot better as they are in the good end with a score of 41.7 and ranked
Page 40 of 66
58 so compared to Russia and Brazil, who are also emerging market, they are a little better (WIPO,
2013).
When external uncertainty comes from the host country environment can make it impossible for the
foreign firms to anticipate all possibilities. When external uncertainty comes from high political
uncertainty and high cultural distance with no language barriers, firms will prefer to invest in JV
rather than WOS (López-Duarte & Vidal-Suárez, 2010).
6.1.4 Economic environment
This section will describe the economic environment and the market potential and competition in
the Chinese market. The economic environment will be divided into the different areas which were
defined in the external market in China in order to determine the market potential and the possibility
for firms to make a profit in the market. The factors from the economic indicators have some degree
of uncertainty related to them which makes it difficult for foreign firms to make a reliable analysis
of the market.
The reason why foreign firms enter a foreign market is to gain a profit and one of the important
factors that help firms choosing the entry mode is the economic factor. For every entry mode under
consideration there should be some kind of frequency in transaction. If they only do business a little
or a few times, there is no need for firms to consider any of the entry modes that have high resource
commitment and export/licensing should be chosen instead. Therefore, if the potential of the market
is not high enough, the high resource committed entry modes are not worth to consider
(Williamson, 1979).
6.1.4.1 Consumption
February 2014 compared to February 2013 the volume of retail spending in Europe has increased
by 0.8%. The volume however is not back at the level it was before the financial crisis in the
Western countries. Even though there has been a change in the spending in retail, the food section
has not been affected by it, because it did not increase from 2013 to 2014, instead the food section
had a decrease of 0.4%, which is unusual compared to the other that are growing again after the
crisis (Europe Commission, 2014). This is a problem for companies in the food section, because
their main focus is to improve their business each year. That will force them to look outside the
Western market to find new areas to do business in and make a profit. In China there is a
completely different environment where the retail business has been increasing. The retail trade
Page 41 of 66
volume has increased from 10.8 trillion Yuan in 2008 to 21 trillion in 2013. Over the past five years
the annual retail sales volume has grown at an annual rate of 16.3 percent. China is now focusing
more on rebalancing the economy, which means they are shifting from investment to focusing more
on consumption (Shan, 2013). The consumption based on whether it is in rural or urban region has a
huge different on how much the population buy (The World Bank (b), 2014).
In 2012 Arla's total sale in the Chinese market was approximately DKK 700 million. Combined
with the new agreement, they have made with Mengniu Dairy company, they expect to increase
Arla's total sale to be five folded in 2016 (Arla, 2012).
In China it has been seen that with this huge market, potential firms are more willing to invest in the
country and use one of the high resource committed entry modes. It has been very profitable for
firms with the reforms and joining WTO, so the Chinese market became more open and easier to
invest in (Teng, 2004). The retail market is getting better in China, it is very modern, but the retail
sector is still fragmented. The 100 largest retailers account for 10% of the country's retail sale,
however there is improvement, because they are building new malls everywhere (Khanna &
Pelepu).
6.1.4.2 Economic growth
China has had a very good period of rapid growth shifting from a centrally planned to a market
based economy. Today China is an upper middle income country that has complex needs, where the
banks continue to play an important development role. Since the initially market reforms in 1979
the Chinese GDP growth have averaging about 10 percent per year and has helped 500 million out
of poverty. In 2012 and 2013 the GDP growth was at its lowest in five years with a growth on
respectively 7.7 percent and 7.7 percent. China has recently become the second largest economy
and plays an important role in the global economy. In the same time, where the global economy was
losing momentum and the Eurozone was stuck in recession, the Chinese market was only limited
affected by this. If China want to move from middle income to high income significant political
adjustment has to be made, because experience shows that it is harder than moving from low
income to middle income (http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/china).
6.1.4.3 Population
In China there are over 1.3 billion people and almost half of the population lives in urban areas
today, which make it the largest country in the world. It is expected that more people in the future
Page 42 of 66
will come to live in urban areas, it is expected that almost 70% of Chinese will live in urban areas in
2035. Most of the big cities in China are concentrated on the East coast. There are more than 90
cities with over 1 million inhabitants, which are not known in European countries, there it is normal
for only a few cities to be over a million. The five largest cities in China all have over ten million
citizens and two of them have over 20 million (World Population, 2014).
The size of the population has been a problem for China and the government has therefore
introduced a one child policy, which give them some bonuses from the government. This policy has
proven effective as the child rate has fallen from 2.1 to 1.4 per woman. The Chinese population will
peak in 2026, but they will probably change their one child policy as the labor force becomes too
small compared to the population over 65 and as the population becomes wealthier, they are not
dependent on the bonuses from the government (World Population, 2014).
6.1.4.4 Income
As mention in an earlier section the economic growth in China has been exceptional. But even
though 500 million do not longer live in poverty, there is still almost 100 million that live below the
Chinese national poverty line of RMB 2,300 per year. The Chinese way of living depends on which
part of the country they live in. Therefore the salary is very different depending on what part of the
country you are in. Beijing tops the list of employees with an average monthly pay in 2011 of 4,672
Yuan ($730) compared to the region of Gansu where the average is 2742 Yuan (Chinadaily, 2011).
The GNI per capital has over the recent years been improved where it in 2009 was 8,120 it had
increased to 11,850. This is not very high compared to other developed countries (The World Bank
(d), 2014).
The retail market in China has a high potential because of the high improvement in the salary. The
biggest potential is in the large cities where the salary is closer to the western standard, but still not
quite as high. There is a big market when the part of China that is not as developed as the Eastern
part comes out of their poverty, but this can take some years. It also has to be stated that the focus
from the Chinese government has been moved from economic growth to equal living standards
(The World Bank (c), 2014).
The exchange rate in China has been some volatile over the recent years. When comparing the
exchange rate between China and Europe, it has some volatile, which makes investment a little
uncertain, but over the past five years the exchange rate between China and Europe has been
Page 43 of 66
improved and where there have been over 10, it is now around 8.5 Yuan for each Euro (ECB,
2014).
6.1.4.5 Physical environment
Many observers of emerging markets recognize that for emerging markets to be fully successful, the
development of the physical infrastructure is an important factor. These factors in the physical
infrastructure include areas such as brides, telecommunication, water and sanitation and power
plants. If this physical infrastructure is not adequate it will be difficult for the operators in product,
labor and capital market to function effectively (Khanna & Palepu, 2010).
Physical infrastructure is important for firms to operate effectively. In China they practically have
no power outage in a month and there are only very little lost in sales based on power outage. They
experience a little more problem with water provision for the manufacturing sector. But it is still
under 0.2 numbers in average per month and the duration is around one hour in average (The World
Bank, 2012). Arla's JV in China has their operation in Beijing, where the physical infrastructure is
as developed as in the western countries. The level of shortage in the physical infrastructure is
therefore assumed to be even lower than the national average, and there should not be any physical
environment which change or limit Arla's entry mode decision.
6.1.4.6 Industry characteristic
When entry modes decisions have to be made the competition on the Chinese market is an
important factor for a firm, because this highly influences the profit in the market. The retail sector
is still fragmented but modern. The Chinese retail sector is still not fully developed, but it is under
development as shopping malls are compactly being built around the country. The 100 largest
retailers account for 10% of all retail sales, which can put pressure on the manufacture, because it is
through shopping malls and supermarkets the main sales comes from the manufactures (Khanna &
Palepu, 2010). In 2006 before Arla teamed up with Mengniu Co. Ltd. the market was dominated by
three manufactures Nestle, Shanghai and Danone with respectively 8.80%, 7.40% and 7.20%
market share. The market for dairy products in China is highly fragmented where the three largest
companies together only hold 23.4% of the market (Datamonitor, 2005).
Anderson & Gatignon (1986) suggest that for poorly understood products the firm should consider
a higher level of control, so they need not depend on a partner that might not be able to produce the
product because of the complexities. Even though t the producers on the dairy market has a
Page 44 of 66
diversified portfolio many of the players on the market is very similar to each other and because of
the homogenous of the products, it is not anticipated that it should affect the entry mode decision
(MarketLine, 2013).
6.1.4.7 Education level
The education level in China is in the high end they are among the 20 best educated countries in the
world (WIPO, 2013). Even though foreign firms still see the inadequately educated workforce as
the fifth biggest business environment obstacle in the country (The World Bank, 2012). Beijing is
expected to deal with a large amount of foreign trade, therefore it is also assumed that the
educational level in Beijing is higher than the national average.
6.1.5 Summary
The external environment in China has a higher degree of uncertainty and volatility than the
western countries. However the dairy market in China has a lot of potential, and they have opened
up for foreign firms to invest in their market. The political and legal environment scores very low
on the factors that are associated with the development of a country`s law, which makes it more
difficult for foreign firms to take benefit from the huge market potential. Furthermore the external
environment shows that the Chinese market has a huge potential with income rising and the
development of the country, even though it is still far from the western standard. There is still some
uncertainty about culture and the income which are slowly rising, but they have a large learning
opportunity in the Chinese market and Asian as a general.
6.2 Internal Factors in Arla
This following section will seek to describe the internal factors in Arla, and how they influence the
entry mode decision. The internal factors will be analyzed based on the factors that were chosen
earlier according to the internal factors as proposed.
This paper will use the two entry mode theories, TCT and ROT, to the Danish Dairy manufacture
Arla Food. Arla Food was first formed in 2000 when the largest Danish cooperative producer of
dairy products merged with its Swedish counterpart. The idea of farmers working together to invest
their products of dairy and then share the profit started back in 1880, when Danish and Swedish
farmers formed small cooperatives to invest in dairy production facilities. Arla is a well known
brand, and they sell their products in many parts of the world. Their main market is in the Danish
and Swedish market. Arla has three major brands that focus on different segments in the dairy
Page 45 of 66
market. This paper focuses on Arla's choice of entry mode in China, and because it is the packed
milk powder that is the product, they sell in China, it is the market segment that will be in focus.
Arla has had to adapt to the impact from EU and WTO, because of their political decisions
regarding to trade agreement and reforms, which have declined export subsidies. This has been
compensated by reallocation of the subsidies from export to direct (Arla Foods, 2006).
In 2006 the revenue was back to the same level, as it was before 2005, where there was a huge drop
in revenue. Of the overall result from Arla Foods the powder products are only a small part, they
represent only 12.2% of the overall revenue. It is interesting to see how they sell the packed powder
product in international context, because the fresh product have limit on which entry mode choice
they can make. Therefore the packed powder product is a very potential product, and it is easier to
sell to other countries, because every entry mode is possible, and it is also the most sold product
outside of Europe (Arla Foods, 2006).
There are already a large number of Danish companies that have established themselves in the
Chinese market and made a good profit. Some of these companies in the food sector are Carlsberg,
Danisco, Kopenhagen fur and Grundfos among others (Ministry of foreign affairs Denmark, 2012).
Carlsberg has in recent years increased their present in China due to the growing demand for
western beers and has thus improved their revenue from the Chinese market from 9% to 12% of
their total revenue (Hansen, 2012). But it is not only Carlsberg that has been successful in the
Chinese market, many Danish firms are now growing because of the rapid growth of the middle
class. In the last five years has 41 firms, with departments in China, almost three folded their
number of employees. The firms, which experience the biggest success, are mostly firms which
have been in China for many years. However for new firms, who wishes to enter China that will no
longer be the case (Børsen, 2010).
The following section will describe the internal factors that have to be taken to account for a dairy
manufacturing company that wishes to enter the Chinese market, which were described in the
previous section. The internal information will mostly be from the firm's annual report and its
homepage. There is some problem with this, because it is only information that the firm themselves
is willing to give, and therefore it is necessary to be aware of subjective opinion from Arla.
6.2.1 Assets Specificity for Arla
There are a number of forms and dimensions in which assets specificity can happen. There are
seven different types of assets specificity, human, physical, site, dedicated, brand, temporal and
Page 46 of 66
procedural. Brand specific assets will be analyzed independently later. This paper focus on the four
most studied dimensions in asset specificity. The first dimension is the human aspect which refers
to the degree to which skills, knowledge and experience of the firms employees are specific to the
requirement of dealing with another firm. It can be described as unique skills and experience
required in carrying out the work at hand. The next type of assets is the physical specific which
refers to tangible assets that are manufactured to a specific transaction and have few alternative uses
because of the specific design characteristics. Site specific assets comes from a situation, where the
buyer and the supplier are very close involved in a relationship with each other, which is necessary
to reduce their inventory or other related processing costs. Once the assets are in place they become
highly immobile and therefore to relocate it will be very costly. The last type is dedicated assets,
which are specific assets that have been made for a particular transactional agreement, which can be
necessary to ensure a long relationship. Should the relationship end premature this will result in
significant overcapacity and important financial disruption (De Vita, Tekaya & Wang, 2011).
The human specific dimension can be difficult to measure because of the nature of it (De Vita,
Tekaya & Wang). In 2006 effort was made to gather the firm's research strategy under a new
strategy, where, in addition to its original focus on food safety, nutrition, processing and product,
there would also be focus on differentiated production of milk. Arla is part of a high technological
fund project that focuses on the development of ingredients and milk protein that will help Arla's
understanding of protein. Furthermore, in Arla's Foodturum, they work on radical product
development, how to go from idea to reality, by researching new technologies and challenging new
markets. This is important for them, because it can strengthen and supplement their current skills.
All these initiatives gives Arla's employees some skills and knowledge that is unique for them
(Arla, 2006).
In the dairy industry there are required substantial specialized assets for the production of dairy
products. The need to sell these assets, when leaving the market, can turn into high exit costs
(Datamonitor, 2010). It is assumed that Arla is not different from the rest of the dairy market, and
they will also have to invest in physical assets to compete on the global market. The physical assets
are mostly related to factories and machineries.
Site specificity is low or medium for Arla. The dairy industry has to be located near a population
that has some knowledge on how to operate the machinery. The site also has to be located, so the
milk, they have gathered from the farms, can be transported to the factory, where it is transformed
Page 47 of 66
to milk powder and that is not possible, if the farms and the factories are located at two different
ends of the country.
For Arla the dedicated assets are close to non-existing. This is because the products are very
homogenous, which is not made for a special buyer. They do have products that are made to satisfy
consumer's demands, but they are not made specific to the Chinese consumer to fulfill their unique
demand.
Even though guanxi is not mentioned in the literature as assets specificity this is considered a good
section to discuss it, because guanxi can be an asset that is specific for a firm and can give them an
advantage. Because there is extensive market failure in China, local firms have been necessary on
reliance on the development of personal networks or what is known as gunaxi in China. These
networks are used instead of incomplete or malfunctioning markets. China seeks to develop their
legal and institution environment to overcome these market failures because of obligation when
they joined WTO, however gunaxi and the legal system will coexist. Because the legal system is
undeveloped guanxi will continue to play an important economic and social role. Despite the fact
that there are probable growth in the institutionalized legal system, it is likely that gunaxi still will
play an important part of the economic system (Enderwick, 2007).
To western firms much of what is considered illegal activity may constitute acceptable behavior in
China. For example guanxi is associated with gift giving, but the difference between the Western
and the Chinese understanding of this, is that the western notion of giving a gift for a gift, while the
Chinese does not see the difference between a gift and a favor. From a western perceptive this
crosses the thin line between relationship and corruption. The probability that guanxi networks and
an evolving legal system can work together is an important implication for foreign investors in
China, it suggest that barriers to entry into networks will continue to be a problem for new foreign
businesses. These barriers will force new businesses to look for other opportunities rather than try to
break into existing relationships. It will also make inexperience foreign investors to seek local
partners, who can help with the connections that are valuable in assisting business (Enderwick,
2007).
Guanxi can be divided into two domains the business and the government ties. The business ties are
ties with managers in other business firms such as suppliers, buyers, competitors and other business
intermediaries. The government ties are with government officials at different levels of government,
Page 48 of 66
bureaucratic and regulatory agencies. As the institutional environment develops the government
ties, because they are less important, the business ties are still a factor that is very important for
firms when doing business in China (Luo, Huang & Lu Wang, 2012). There is no indication that
Arla has any guanxi networks in China, which can be seen as a problem, and it will probably lower
their resource commitment.
6.2.2 Brand
The dairy market is characterized by its high price sensitivity, as buyers have a tendency to choose a
cheaper option, if it is possible. Manufactures can therefore target the end users with their brand
strategy. Many of the leading dairy product manufactures have strong brands that are used to aim at
the consumer's loyalty (Datamonitor, 2010).
Supermarkets around the world sells a large number of Arla's products such as Buko, which can be
obtained in the German market and Lurpak that is available in the UK, Puk is made for the Middle
Eastern market and in the Dominican Republic the milk powder, Milex, is sold in a number of
stores. Consumers are often unaware that the products, they are buying, are products that come from
Arla. This will change as the group will focus on fewer but stronger brands, many of which can be
associated with the Arla name or the umbrella brand. The Arla dairy brand will act as an umbrella
brand for most of the Arla's products, while the Arla name will remain the firms logo (Arla Brand,
2006).
Arla's brand suffered, in 2005, a severe blow in the Middle East, because of the satirical cartoons of
the prophet Mohammed that was published in a Danish newspaper. They have regained some of
their brand recognition prior the problem. In Germany Arla is known in more than half of all the
households, and it is associated with high quality. Because Arla's brand has a high quality
associated to it, apart from the Middle East, it can be stated that protecting the brand value for Arla
is important in the entry mode decision, and they also know how easy it can be to practically ruin
their brand, and they will therefore not want that to happen again (Arla, 2006).
6.2.3 Financial Capability
When talking about financial capability it is focusing on how capable the firm is to choose from all
the entry modes when entering a foreign country. If the financial capability is low then there is no
reason to look at all the entry modes, because it is not possible for the firm to choose among all the
entry modes, only the entry modes which are considered to give low control are worth looking at.
As mentioned earlier in this paper for a firm to have control, they need commitment of resources.
Page 49 of 66
This means that a firm who wishes to have a high level of control, they should have sufficient
resources available, if high degree of control is preferred (Anderson & Gatignon, 1986)
2005 was a very disappointed year for Arla. They only manage to make revenue of DKK 11 billion
from their operations, which was very low compared to the two previous years. In 2004 the
revenues was much higher with a revenue of DKK 46 billion and the year before it was DKK 47
billion. In 2005 the big change in the revenue was due to the boycott of all Danish products in the
Arab part of the world. They no longer boycott Arla's products, but the sales are still not back to
normal. The revenue in 2006 was almost back to normal where Arla generated revenue of DKK 45
billion (Arla, 2006).
The firm is expected to continue to grow in the future. The growth will come from the Middle
Eastern market, where they are expected to regain most of their former sale. It will also come from
acquisition as they are waiting for the approval of acquiring the remaining 49 percent shares of the
Arla Foods' UK subsidiary, Arla Foods UK plc (Arla, 2006). Based on this it is assumed that Arla
has the capability to enter markets even with a high level of control and resources commitment,
because that is what they have done. It is therefore expected that the firm can find the capital which
is required to enter the market in which way they consider will be best.
6.2.4 International Experience
Anderson & Gatignon (1986) have argued that the number of previous foreign entries made by the
firm can be used as a measure for the company's international experience, which will also be the
measure in this paper. Arla have entities in a large number of countries, and most of these
companies are WOS. There are only a few companies where they do not have the majority stock
share. They are present in countries all around the world, but most of their companies are located in
Scandinavia or more precise Denmark and Sweden (Arla, 2006). Arla has sales offices in 23
countries and production in 10. The company's dairy products are exported all around the world
(Arla Brand, 2006).
Outside of Europe, where Arla have most of their departments, they also have some in the Middle
East, Saudi-Arabia, Lebanon, Qatar and United Arab Emirates. Other than that they are also present
in Northern America both in Canada, USA and Mexico. In some of the less developed parts of the
world, they have entities in Argentina and Brazil, which are in the Latin American area. In Eastern
Europe they have entities in Hungary and Czech Republic. In all of Asia they only have one
department in each country of South Korea and Japan. Arla has therefore a high level of
Page 50 of 66
international experience in the number of foreign entities. Their problem is that most of their
entities in foreign markets have been made by merging with other companies that was how they
entered UK, Germany, Belgium and Luxembourg. Another issue is that even though they have
entities outside of Denmark and Sweden, they are mostly represented in Europe and other
developed countries. They do not have that many in undeveloped countries, and they are only
present in Korea and Japan in all of Asia with only one entity in each country, it does not give them
much experience in the Asian market (Arla, 2006; Arla, 2014).
6.2.5 Summary of Internal Factors in Arla
The assets in Arla are to some degree specific to them, but they lack the guanxi that is important in
the Chinese market. Arla have created a reliable brand for themselves, it can require that they
protect it from other partners who will misuse it. They have a lot of international experience, which
will help them operate in a new foreign market .If they try to enter other markets, they know what
problems they will meet and how to overcome them. Arla's finance is very good and it looks as if it
will improve over the recent years, when they acquire the final shares of one of their subsidiaries.
7 Arla's Entry Mode in China
In this section the choice of entry mode in China will be analyzed for the entrance decision. This
decision will be based on the internal and external analysis of Arla and the Chinese market, which
was made in the previous chapter.
The factors effect will first be discussed separately and then an overall decision on which entry
mode decision will be the best for Arla. The findings in this paper are consistent with the general
sense in entry mode theory that the findings are incoherence even though it is a topic that has had a
lot of attention. Some have found that cultural distance matters in the choice of entry modes and
others have not, and the same has been found when international experience has been tested
(Werner, 2002; Luo & Zhao, 2004). There are indications which suggest that the level of control
should be lower in the subsidiary other than it should be higher.
When arguing about JV or a partner, it is assumed that the JV or partner is with a local Chinese
business that can help mitigate the process of entering the Chinese market and help with the
differences and problems that can occur when doing business in a that particular market.
Page 51 of 66
7.1 Effect on Entry Mode Decision from External Factors
With the information identified in the analyzed section this following section will describe how it
impacts the ownership decision given the two theories described in the paper. The describing will
end with an advice on which entry mode is the best suited on the theories that have been used, and
if it fits according to Arla's entry mode.
7.1.1 Effect from Legal Environment
The legal environment in China is questionable especially within the property rights area and the
corruption area. Because these two parameters are poor in China, so this will increase the country
risk. In TCT, the level of control increases when the legal environment is poor. This is because, it
will be more difficult for firms to handle contracts with other partners, and it will therefore be more
costly to use any of the low entry modes, when the firm enters the Chinese market. When there is a
combination of assets specificity and country risk the firm should choose a higher level of control.
In ROT the legal environment will add value to the option to abandon. This is because the country
risk increases, and thus it becomes more uncertain to do business in China, and it can therefore be
necessary for an exit strategy. When a firm wishes to exit the country after having made some large
investments, it is unsure how much of the invested capital that can be recovered, when they are
leaving the market. Therefore they should make an IJV with a local as the highest control level and
make it possible for them to get out of the JV. There is also the option to learn which can have some
value. Since there are a high level of corruption and poor property rights, they can learn how to deal
with these problems with the knowledge that the local firms have.
There are no indications that the legal environment should make any entry mode more difficult and
should not affect the entry mode choice, which means that they are allowed to make a WOS in
China.
7.1.2 Effect from Sociocultural Distance
The sociocultural distance between Denmark and China is rather large. In Hofstede cultural
dimensions they are located at each end, it is only in the parameter uncertainty avoidance that they
are similar. Because of the large difference in the Hofstede cultural dimensions means that the
cultural differences in the two work markets are very different.
Page 52 of 66
In TCT the sociocultural differences are very difficult to measure, and it has therefore some
concerns associated with it. However the theory still predicts that firms should not use intermediate
levels of control but instead use high or low levels, when the cultural distance is large.
In ROT the large cultural differences will be seen as a learning option. This is an opportunity for the
firm to learn the culture in the new country. The theory suggests that when the cultural uncertainty
is high, the difference in culture between the two countries is large, and then they should choose JV.
This is because it will help speed up the internationalization process through a JV because the firm
can increase their commitment to the market by acquiring equity from their partner in a JV. The
firm will therefore seek to use a collaborative entry mode such as JV.
In overall Arla should choose a collaborative entry mode such as JV, because English is not seen as
a problem, as they will have less problem communicating with their partner. The partner can help to
negotiate the market when some problems occur, but it might also give some problems, since the
culture is very different, when they are working together.
7.1.3 Effect from Country Risk
The political environment in China scores very low compared to the western countries. Foreign
firms in China sees their political environment as a weakness, and it is therefore a concern that
needs to been considered when entering. Since China has an insecure political environment, this
will lead to a high level of political risk. The business environment is more open and stable in the
Chinese market when foreign investors what to start a business. It takes a relatively short time for
them to start a new business compared to other emerging markets, and since China joined the WTO
there have been some restriction from WTO to open the market, which they have been required to
fulfill and that has changed the way foreign investors enter the market.
From the TCT perspective the political environment and the business environment contradict each
other. Because there is some stability and the country is open for new firms to start business, Arla
should increase their level of control and thus take advantages of the open market. However with
the political uncertainty the firm should choose a lower level of control.
ROT will see the political instability as option to abandon. It can be difficult to determine how
much value to put into this option, but it has some value since it is deemed a weakness. With no
learning option and growth option Arla should choose JV as the highest form of ownership, if the
political instability is not valuable to the abandonment option. Otherwise they should choose one of
Page 53 of 66
the lower levels of control. Overall they properly should use a JV because of the openness of the
business environment, because it can lower the value of the abandonment option.
7.1.4 Effect from Economic Environment
The dairy market potential and conditions to do business in China is fast growing and compared to
the large population in the country, this market has the potential to one of the large dairy markets
for Arla. Therefore the frequency level of transaction is expected to be high. There is still some
volatile and concerns in the market that suggest for a lower level of control, however these are
considered to be in the low end. In TCT it states that firms should increase their level on control
when the market potential is large and thus gain a larger share of the profit compared to the other
entry modes (Brouthers, 2002).
The ROT will view this as a growth option. Because the Chinese market is in a growth stage, where
it has been in the past years, it has grown with more than 10% and the diary market has also shown
some good potential. The growth option will have a large value and ROT suggest that a high level
of control will be used. If the firm deems that there is no uncertainty in the market, they can choose
a WOS, but they must consider that this involves irreversible investments and the loss of flexibility,
when they gather more information. Based solely on the economic environment the only factor that
calls for concern is the education of the work force. Arla should seek to collaboration with a partner
until they have the required information, then they should use the growth option and acquire the
remaining part of the partners equity shares.
7.1.5 Summary of Effect from External Factors
The potential and market growth are both large meanings which potential significant revenue can be
gained by the firm, if they can make a successful market entry. Because of some of the obstacles,
which are stopping the firm from entering the market with no problems, are the best form of entry
mode based on the external factors a JV. Many foreign firms use JV to gain access to local
knowledge government inputs (Khanna & Palepu, 2010). The poor legal environment and the huge
market potential suggest that a higher level of control should be used in the TCT. From the country
risk the political instability and business environment contradict each other, however the political
risk is probably the one with the strongest effect and a lower level of control should be used. The
socioculture suggest that intermediate level of control should not be used but high or low level
instead.
Page 54 of 66
In the ROT framework there is a tendency that they should use JV. The poor legal environment
points to a JV or a lower level of control. The socioculture also suggest a JV because of the learning
option. The country risk and economic environment pulls in two different directions as country risk
focus on the abandonment option while the economic environment focus on the growth option.
Since the value of the abandonment option is probably not as high as the growth option from the
economic environment, they should therefore also choose a JV based on these two factors.
7.2 Effect on Entry Mode Decision from Internal Factors
As supplement to the previous section the following will discuss the firm's internal factors, and how
it will affect the ownership decision.
7.2.1 Effect form Assets Specificity
As Arla wants to keep growing in other countries and markets, there are some assets such as
machinery and production site that can have influence on entry mode. Anderson & Gatignon (1986)
made some propositions on what can be characterized as assets specificity. Arla has some kind of
proprietary products as they have focus on product development and research. It can be difficult for
a potential partner to share these assets because they do not know the value of them and should
therefore choose a high level of control. Since Arla is a well known brand in the dairy industry,
their products are well understood and there should be no problem to give the responsibility of the
product to another company, but a lower degree of control is recommended.
The product is not made to a specific costumer as powder milk is in several markets, thus the firm
can choose a lower level of control. The powdered milk is a mature product as the first was sold in
1952. This allows Arla to have a lower degree of control, since the opportunism is lowered because
the market is developed so a partner cannot benefit from acquiring knowledge from Arla.
Therefore based on the TCT Arla should choose a lower to medium level of control because the
only assets specificity that requires protection is their R&D area.
ROT focus on flexibility, and when there are a lot of assets invested to a specific market, they are
not flexible. Assets that are specific to an industry will be more difficult to sell in the open market
and production machinery and buildings are specially made to produce the powdered milk. It can
therefore be difficult for Arla to get their investment back if the market fails. There is the option, if
the Chinese market fails, that they can use the production facility in China to produce to other parts
of the world.
Page 55 of 66
Since Arla has no previous connection in China, it is assumed that they have no guanxi. This gives
them the possibility to learn these connections, if they collaborate with a local partner in a JV. That
will also give them the option of acquiring their investment back, if the market fails because they
have the option to sell it to their partner probably at a lower cost, but at a higher price than the
market will pay because they know the value of it.
7.2.2 Effect from Brand Value
Arla has a well known brand, and therefore it has some value for them that the expectation, which
Arla's consumers associate with their brand, is being met. Arla is expected to use a higher degree of
control to protect themselves from potential free riders, as it is recommended by the TCT. ROT
does not have any direct recommendation on what to do with a high level of brand value. The
general theory does still apply and if they choose a high control level such as WOS, they will lose
flexibility when more information becomes available, so it might show that a high control level was
not necessary, and they cannot change it because many investments are irreversible.
7.2.3 Effect from Financial Capability
The financial capabilities of Arla are deem not to have any restricting on the entry mode of the firm.
Because there are factors that suggest that a high level of control and resources is committed, there
are no reasons that the financial capabilities of the firm should limit the entry mode.
7.2.4 Effect from International Experience
Arla's international experience is high, when it is measured on the number of foreign entities. Most
of their foreign entities are in other European countries or Western countries. In the TCT framework
state that when the firm has a high level of international experience, which is measured on the
number of foreign entities, then Arla should choose high level of control. The benefits that
international experience gives the firm is that it enhances the firms understanding of the market,
which will help to improve their competence and estimate a more accurate anticipating of risk and
return.
In ROT international experience helps reduce uncertainty. Firms can learn from their own
previously experience in a particular country or in near countries. Arla has a lot of entities all over
the world, but they only have a few in Asia and countries similar to China. They have entities in
South Korea and Japan, which are countries that are similar in culture. Arla also have an entity in
Brazil, which also is an emerging market as is China, which can help them with the institutional
voids that is characteristic for emerging markets. With the experience Arla has on the global
Page 56 of 66
market, they should in a small degree be able to interpret signals from the market and the political
environment. Arla should use a collaborative entry mode, because they need a lot of experience that
is unique to the Chinese market and a good way to acquire knowledge about the market is through a
local partner.
7.2.5 Summary of Effect from Internal Factors
The internal factors of the firm point in both directions, some of the factors such as assets
specificity suggest a medium to low level on control, because there is limited asset that needs to be
protected. Other factors need to be protected from potential free riders.
7.3 Entry Mode Choice
The two theories are very different on how the external factors should be controlled. Where the
TCT framework see external uncertainty, which there is a high level of, as a problem that needs to
be protected with a high level of control. All of the external factors suggest that a high level of
control should be used except from the socioculture distance, which state that a low control also can
be used, only intermediate is not recommended. ROT on the other hand recommends that the
exogenous uncertainty should be overcome by staying flexible with JV. The large economic
potential in China shows that Arla should choose an entry mode, where they fast can take advantage
of the potential profit, and the fastest way is with a JV, where the firm is still flexible to abandon the
market, if the legal issue becomes too big of an obstacle, to form them. The large sociocultural
distance can best be overcome with collaboration with a local partner that knows the local culture.
The internal factors from the TCT framework shows that there are limited assets specificity that
needs to be protected only their R&D and brand. Real option also wants to minimize the level on
control, because the assets that are required to manufacture the dairy product require a large
investment, which will make the firm less flexible.
In summary it is suggested that the firm should choose to enter the Chinese market with a JV. Arla
has mostly WOS, but when they enter the Chinese market, it will be more effective to use a JV
because of the high level of external uncertainty. Even though the internal factor shows a lower
level of ownership the huge market potential will be lost, if they choose a lower entry mode,
because it will be more costly and take more time to change the ownership.
Page 57 of 66
7.4 Arla's Entry Mode
Arla entered the Chinese market in 2006, when they made a JV with China Mengniu Dairy. That
made Arla an indirect shareholder of China Mengniu Dairy along with Mengniu's largest
shareholder, COFCO Corp. which is a state owned company. Arla decided to enter China because
of the large growth rate that is driving the country forward, it is therefore important for Arla to get a
foothold in China. So even though the market was very potential Arla estimated that there was some
uncertainty in the market since they did not choose a WOS. It can be necessary for Arla to get milk
from local farmers and if all the farmers are connected with other dairy manufactures then it can
take time before Arla can persuade farmer to transfer to them. It is therefore required to make
collaboration with a local who has connection to the local farmers in order to get the milk (Global
Processing, 2012).
A JV with the largest producer of dairy products in China also helped Arla build a network of
connections in the market that is important, if they choose to start their own entity in China. Since
the JV is owned by Arla and COFCO it might not be possible for them to acquire more control of
the company, because it is the largest in China, and it is possible that the Chinese government wants
to have the majority of the shares. They can, however, expand the manufacturing facilities, which
they also did eight months after the opening of the JV. They decided to expand production by
30,000 tons so the total production was 40,000 tons (Arla, 2006).
To get a better understanding of Arla's entry mode decision, it is necessary for a deeper study of
Arla`s decision process and to understand which factors they have analyzed in order to asses which
entry mode was the best in their position.
8 Conclusion
A firm's entry mode decision is concerned with how the firm wishes to enter a foreign market. It has
been proven that a firm's entry mode decision is of significant value for the firm's performance in
the foreign market. When a firms has to choose their entry mode they have an array of different
ownership form to choose from. At the one end of the ownership possibilities the firm can choose
an ownership that requires very little resources but that also comes with a cost as the firm's level of
return and control is low. While at the other end the firm can commit a large amount of resources
which will result in a larger return but the firm then also takes a larger risk.
Page 58 of 66
A large number of theories have been presented in the entry mode literature trying to explain firm's
entry mode decision. Each of these theories has a different focus on the firm and environment
explaining firm's entry mode. This paper has applied TCT and ROT on a Danish dairy manufacture
that wishes to enter the Chinese Market. A problem with both of these theories is when there are
factors that are contradicting there are no weighing of the factors. For Arlas' situation in China the
entry mode decision has been made with some difficulties as the different factors pulls the level of
control in different directions as well as the two theories.
There are a number of factors that have influence on a firm's entry mode choice. The factors have
been divided into internal and external factors where the internal factors can be influenced by the
firm whereas the external can not. This paper has chosen eight factors four internal and four
external, by analyzing which factors are special concerning the dairy industry and the Chinese
market.
The paper shows that the Chinese market both attracts and pushes foreign firms from the Chinese
market. The attractive ones show a large market potential and the government attitude towards
foreign businesses and the other which shows a large amount of country risk and legal issues that
prevents firms from start operations in China. Choosing the right ownership is therefore difficult
and the two different theories provide different views on the level of control.
Arla has a high level of international experience with a number of foreign subsidiaries all over the
world, however only a few in countries that a similar to China. They also have good financial
capability along with a high level of brand importance. These three factors and the huge market
potential suggest that Arla should choose a WOS. However the high level of country risk and the
low level of asset specificity count towards a lower level of control, so in the overall a JV could be
used according to the TCT.
The large sociocultural distance should be overcome with collaboration with a local firm according
to ROT. The huge market potential should point to an entry mode that can take advantage of the
market if it proves to be profitable which can be a JV. The problem with the legal and the country
risk should be protect against either with a JV or with a lower entry mode depending on how large
the problem is estimated. In overall ROT suggest that Arla should choose a JV. The two theories
together recommend that the entry mode which Arla should choose for their entrance into China is a
Page 59 of 66
JV, where they can use a local partner's knowledge of the market and still has the possibility to take
advantage of the market potential.
Arla chose the entry mode that was also recommended by the two chosen theories. It is however
unclear which factors and considerations that they looked into when they made the choice. It is
unlikely that they can gain more control in their JV as it is with a state owned firm where Arla has
49% of the shares and the other firm has 51%. This however gives them some advantages as it help
them build network with people in the government and knowledge of the country that they would
not get if it was with a firm outside of China.
Page 60 of 66
9 Literature
Anderson, E., & Gatignon, H. 1986, Modes of Entry: A Transaction Cost Analysis and
Propositions, Journal of International Studies, Vol. 17, No. 3, pp. 1-26.
Anderson, O. 1997, Internationalization and Market Entry Mode: A Review of Theories and
Conceptual Frameworks, Management International Review, Vol. 37, pp. 27-42.
Agarwal, S. & Ramaswami, S. N. 1992, Choice of Foreign Market Entry Mode: Impact of
Ownership, Location and Internationalization Factors, Journal of International Business Studies,
Vol. 23, No. 1, pp. 1-27.
Arla 2012. Annual Report 2012.
Arla 2014. About us, History. (http://www.arla.com/about-us/history/)
Arla Brand. 2006, Arla our Brands 2006.
Arla Foods. 2006. Annual Report 2006.
Baskerville, R. F. 2003, Hofstede never studied culture, Accounting, Organization and Society, Vol.
28, pp. 1-14.
Bolton, K. & Graddol, D. 2012, English in China, English Today 111, Vol. 28, No. 3, pp. 3-9.
Brouthers, K. D. 2002, Institutional, Cultural and Transaction Cost Influence on Entry Mode
Choice and Performance, Journal of International Business Studies, Vol. 33, No. 2, pp. 203-221.
Brouthers, K. D. & Brouthers, L. E. 2001, Explaining the National Cultural Distance Paradox,
Journal of International Business Studies, Vol. 32, No. 1, pp. 177-189.
Brouthers, K. D., Brouthers, L. E. & Werner, S. 2008, Real Options, International Entry Mode
Choice and Performance, Journal of Management Studies, 45:5, pp. 936-960.
Brouthers, K. D., Brouthers, L. E. & Werner, S. 2002, Transaction Cost-Enhanced Entry Mode
Choice and Firm Performance, Strategic Management Journal, Vol. 24, No. 12, pp. 1239-1248.
Brouthers, K. D., & Hennart, J-F. 2007, Boundaries of the Firm: Insight From International Entry
Mode Research, Journal of Management, Vol. 33, No. 3, pp. 395-425.
Page 61 of 66
Buckley, P. J. & Casson, M. C. 1998, Models of the Multinational Enterprise, Journal of
International Business Studies, Vol. 29, No. 1, pp. 21-44.
Børsen,
2010.
Succes
for
danske
virksomheder
i
Kina,
Børsen
Investor.
(http://www.ecb.europa.eu/stats/exchange/eurofxref/html/eurofxref-graph-cny.en.html)
Canabal, A., & White, G. O. 2008, Entry Mode Research: Past and Future, International Business
Review, Vol. 17, pp. 267-284.
Chi, T. & McGuire, D. J. 1996, Collaborative Venture and Value of Learning: Integrating the
Transaction Cost and Strategic Option Perspectives on the Choice of Market Entry Modes, Journal
of International Business Studies, Vol. 27, No. 2, pp. 285-307.
Chinadaily,
2011,
China's
2011
average
salaries
revealed.
(http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2012-07/06/content_15555503.htm)
Coase, R. H. 1937, The Nature of the Firm, Economica, New Series, Vol. 4, No. 16, pp. 386-405.
Datamonitor, 2005. Dairy in China, Industry Profile.
Datamonitor, 2010. Global Dairy, Industry Profile.
De Vita, G., Tekaya, A. & Wang, C. L. 2011, The Many Faces of Assets Specificity: A Critical
Review of Key Theoretical Perspectives, International Journal of Management Review, Vol. 13, pp.
329-348.
ECB. 2014, European Central Bank. Exchange rates, Euro foreign exchange reference rates. Euro
vs. CNY. (http://www.ecb.europa.eu/stats/exchange/eurofxref/html/eurofxref-graph-cny.en.html)
Enderwick, P. 2007, Understanding Emerging Markets, New York: Routledge.
Erramili, M. K. & Rao, C. P. 1993, Service Firms' International Entry Mode Choice: A Modified
Transaction-Cost Analysis Approach, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 57, No. 3, pp. 19-38.
European
Commission.
2014,
Eurostate
news
release
euroidicators.
(http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_PUBLIC/4-03042014-AP/EN/4-03042014-APEN.PDF).
Page 62 of 66
Gatignon, H. & Anderson, E. 1988, The Multinational Corporation's Degree of Control over
Foreign Subsidiaries: An Emperical Test of a Transaction Cost Explanation, Journal of Law,
Economics & Organization, Vol. 4, No. 2, pp. 305-336.
Ghemawat, P. 2001, Distance Still Matters, Harvard Business Review.
Global Processing, 2012. Arla to make big invesetment in China, Business Source Complete.
Hansen, F. E. 2012, Emerging Markets Aid Carlsberg Profit, The Wall Street Journal.
Hofstede, G. 1983, National Cultures in Four Dimensions A Research-based Theory of Cultural
Differences among nations, International Studies of Management and Organization, Vol. 13, No. 12, pp. 46-74.
Hofstede Centre. 2014, Cultural Tools, Country Comparison, China & Denmark.
Huang, Y. & Sternquist, B. 2007, Retailer's foreign market entry decision: An institutional
perspective, International Business Review, Vol. 16, pp. 613-629.
Khanna, T. & Palepu, K. G. 2010, Winning in Emerging Markets. Boston: Harvard Business Press.
Kim, W. C. & Hwang, P. 1992, Global Strategy and Multinationals Entry Mode Choice, Journal of
International Business Studies, Vol. 23, No. 1, pp. 29-53.
Li, J. 2007, Real Option Theory and International Strategy: A Critical Review, Advances in
Strategic Management, Vol. 24, pp. 67-101.
López-Duarte, C. & Vidal-Suárez, M. M. 2010, External uncertainty and entry mode choice:
cultural distance, political risk and language diversity, International Business Review, Vol. 19,
575-588.
Lu, Y., Karpova, E. E. & Fiore, A. M. 2011, Factors influencing international fashion retailers'
entry mode choice, Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management, Vol. 15, No. 1, pp. 58-75.
Luo, Y., Huang, Y. & Lu Wang, S. 2012, Gunaxi and Organizational Performance: A MetaAnalysis, Management and Organizational Review, Vol. 8, No. 1, pp. 139-172.
Madhok, A. 1997, Cost, Value and Foreign Market Entry Mode: The Transaction and the Firm,
Strategic Management Journal, Vol. 18, pp. 39-61.
Page 63 of 66
MarketLine. 2013, MarketLine Industry Profile, Dairy in China.
Meyer, K. E. & Peng, M. W. 2005, Probing theoretically in Central and Eastern Europe:
transactions, resources, and institutions, Journal of International Business Studies, Vol. 36, pp.
600-621.
Meyer, S. C. 1977, Determinants of Corporate Borrowing, Journal of Financial Economics, Vol. 5,
pp. 147-175.
Ministry of Foreign Affairs Denmark. 2012, The Trade Council, Directory of Subsidiaries, Danish
Companies
in
China:
(http://um.dk/da/eksportraadet/markeder/markedsinformation/publikationer/2012/10/kinadatterselskabsliste/).
Ministry of Foreign Affairs Denmark (b). 2014, The Trade Council, China as a Market, Business
culture, (http://kina.um.dk/en/the-trade-council/china-as-market/business-culture/).
Morschett, D., Schramm-Klein, H. & Swoboda, B. 2010, Decades of research on market entry
modes: What do we really know about external antecedents of entry mode choice?, Journal of
International Management, Vol. 16, pp. 60-77.
Pan, Y. & Tse, D. K. 2000, The Hierarchical Model of Market Entry Modes, Journal of
International Business Studies, Vol. 31, No. 4, pp. 535-554.
Sharma, V. M., & Erramili, M. K. 2004, Resource-Based Explanation of Entry Mode Choice,
Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice, Vol. 12, No. 1, pp. 1-17.
Shan, He. 2013, China becomes the world's 2nd largest retail market, China.org.cn:
(http://www.china.org.cn/business/2013-07/05/content_29331612.htm)
Shaver, J. M. 1998, Accounting for Endogeneity When Assessing Strategy Performance: Does Entry
Mode Choice Affect FDI Survival, Management Science, Vol. 44, No. 4, pp. 571-585.
Shenkar, O. 2012, Beyond cultural distance: Switching to a friction lens in the study of cultural
differences, Journal of International Business Studies, Vol. 43, pp. 12-17.
Teng, B-S. 2004, The WTO and Entry Modes in China, Thunderbird International Business Review,
Vol. 46, No. 4, pp. 381-400.
Page 64 of 66
The
Heritage
Foundation.
2014,
Index
of
Economic
Freedom,
Data,
microdata.
(http://www.heritage.org/index/country/china).
The
World
Bank.
2012,
China
Country
Profile,
(http://microdata.worldbank.org/index.php/catalog/1559)
The
World
Bank.
2014.
Data.
GDP
Growth
(Annual
%):
(http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG)
The
World
Bank
(b),
2014,
household
consumption
based
on
2010
numbers.
(http://datatopics.worldbank.org/consumption/country/China).
The World Bank (c). 2014, Countries, China. (http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/china).
The
World
Bank
(d),
2014,
GNI
per
capital.
(http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GNP.PCAP.PP.CD)
Transparency
International.
2013,
Corruption
Perceptions
index
2013.
(http://www.transparency.org/cpi2013/results).
Uhlenbruck, K., Rodriguez, P., Doh, J. & Eden, Lorraine. 2006, The impact of Corruption on Entry
Strategy: Evidence from Telecommunication Projects in Emerging Economies, Organization
Science, Vol. 17, No. 13, pp. 402-414.
Werner, S. 2002, Recent Development in International Management Research: A Review of 20 Top
Management Journals, Journal of Management, Vol. 28, No. 3, pp. 277-305.
Williamson, O. E. 1979, Transaction-Cost Economics: The Governance of Contractual Relations,
Journal of Law and Economics, Vol. 22, No. 2, pp. 233-261.
Williamson, O. E. 1985, The Economic Institutions of Capitalism: Firms, Market, Relational
Contracting, New York: Free Press.
WIPO.
2013,
The
Global
Innovation
index
2013,
population
2014.
(http://www.globalinnovationindex.org/content.aspx?page=GII-Home)
World
Population.
2014,
World
population
review,
(http://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/china-population/)
Page 65 of 66
china
Zhao, H., Luo, Y. & Suh, T. 2004, Transaction Cost Determinants and Ownership-based Entry
Mode Choice: A Meta-Analytical Review, Journal of International Business Studies, Vol. 35, No. 6,
pp. 524-544.
Zhu, M., Wang, Z. J. & Quan, H. R. 2011, A Study of the Key Factors Influencing International
Franchisors' Choice of Entry Mode into China, Front. Bus. Res., Vol. 5, No. 1, pp. 3-22.
Page 66 of 66