Download Chapter 11: Sexual Orientation and the Struggle for Equality

11:
+ Chapter
Sexual Orientation and the Struggle
for Equality
“Homophobia alienates mother
and fathers from sons and
daughters, friend from friend,
neighbor from neighbor,
Americans from one another.
So long as it is legitimated by
society, religion, and politics,
homophobia will spawn hatred,
contempt, and violence, and it
will remain our last acceptable
prejudice.”
--Byrne Fone, Author, Emeritus
Professor
+
Chapter Outline
•
The Global Context: A World View of the Status of Homosexuality
•
Homosexuality and Bisexuality in the United States: A
Demographic Overview
•
The Origins of Sexual Orientation
•
Sociological Theories of Sexual Orientation Inequality
•
Prejudice Against Lesbians, Gays, and Bisexuals
•
Discrimination Against Lesbians, Gays, and Bisexuals
•
Strategies for Action: Toward Equality for All
•
The Impact of the Media on Attitudes Toward Homosexuality
+
Introduction

The term sexual orientation refers to a person’s emotional and
sexual attractions, relationships, self-identity, and behavior.

Heterosexuality refers to the predominance of emotional,
cognitive, and sexual attraction to individuals of the other sex.

Homosexuality refers to the predominance of emotional,
cognitive, and sexual attraction to individuals of the same sex.

Bisexuality is the emotional, cognitive, and sexual attraction to
members of both sexes.

The term lesbian refers to women who are attracted to same-sex
partners.

The term gay can refer to either women or men who are attracted
to same-sex partners.
+ The Global Context: A World View of the
Status of Homosexuality
 Homosexuality
has existed throughout human
history and in most, perhaps all, human
societies.
 In
79 out of 242 countries throughout the world,
homosexuality among males is illegal; in 45 of
these countries, homosexuality among females
is illegal.
 However,
in general, countries throughout the
world are moving toward increased legal
protection of non-heterosexuals.
+ The Global Context: A World View of the
Status of Homosexuality
+
What Do You Think?
+ The Global Context: A World View of the
Status of Homosexuality
 In
2009, the United States joined the majority of the
United Nations member states when President
Barack Obama supported the decriminalization of
homosexuality and the international expansion of
human rights protections for those who are nonheterosexual or gender non-conforming.
 Gender Non-Conforming: Often used
synonymously with transgender, gender nonconforming (sometimes called gender variant)
refers to displays of gender that are inconsistent
with society’s expectations.
+ Homosexuality and Bisexuality in the United States
Sexual Orientation: Problems Associated with
Identification and Classification

The classification of individuals into sexual orientation
categories (e.g., gay, bisexual, lesbian, or heterosexual)
is problematic for a number of reasons.
 First, distinctions among sexual orientation categories
are simply not as clear-cut as many people would
believe.
 The second factor that makes classification difficult is
that research with same-sex populations has tended to
define sexual orientation based on one of three
components: sexual/romantic attraction or arousal,
sexual behavior, and sexual identity.
 Finally, the social stigma associated with nonheterosexual identities.
+ Homosexuality and Bisexuality in the United States
The Prevalence of LGBT Individuals and
Same-Sex Couple Households in the United States

Reliable estimates of the percentage of the U.S.
population that is gay, lesbian, or bisexual (LGB) are
scarce.

It is estimated that there are more than 8 million LGB
adults in the United States, comprising 3.5 percent of the
adult population.

In addition, there are approximately 700,000 transgender
(T) individuals in the United States.

This means that approximately 9 million Americans
identify as LGBT, a number nearly comparable to the total
population of New Jersey.
+ Homosexuality and Bisexuality in the United States
The Prevalence of LGBT Individuals and
Same-Sex Couple Households in the United States
+
The Origins of Sexual Orientation

In the absence of compelling findings, many practitioners and
professionals believe that sexual orientation might be
determined by the interplay of environmental and biological
factors.

Further, most people experience little or no sense of choice
about their sexual orientation.
+
The Origins of Sexual Orientation
 Currently,
Americans are narrowly at odds over the
factors that contribute to someone being gay – 42%
attribute it to one’s upbringing and environment,
while 40% believe that people are born gay or
lesbian.
 Yet,
long-term, there has been a significant shift
away from the belief that homosexuality is a choice.
 In
addition, Americans’ views on what causes nonheterosexual orientations appear to be the most
strongly associated with their support for same-sex
rights.
+
The Origins of Sexual Orientation
+ The Origins of Sexual Orientation
Can Gays, Lesbians, and Bisexual Change
Their Sexual Orientation?
 Those
who believe that non-heterosexuals choose to
have same-sex attractions tend to think that these
individuals can and should change their sexual
orientation.
 Various
forms of reparative therapy, conversion
therapy, and reorientation therapy are dedicated to
changing the sexual orientation of individuals who
are non-heterosexual.
 The American
Psychological Association collectively
refers to these “treatments” as sexual
orientation change efforts.
+ The Origins of Sexual Orientation
Can Gays, Lesbians, and Bisexual Change
Their Sexual Orientation?
 Many
conversion and reparative therapy
programs view homosexuality as inherently
immoral and/or pathological and allegedly
achieve “conversion” to heterosexuality
through embracing evangelical Christianity and
being “born again.”
“treatments” have gone to unethical
extremes, using shame, physical punishment,
and other abusive methods to “convert” those
with same-sex attractions.
 Some
+ Sociological Theories of Sexual Orientation Inequality
Structural-Functionalist Perspective

Structural functionalists, consistent with their emphasis on
institutions and the functions they fulfill, emphasize the
importance of monogamous heterosexual relationships for the
reproduction, nurturance, and socialization of children.
+ Sociological Theories of Sexual Orientation
Inequality
Structural-Functionalist Perspective

From a structural-functionalist perspective, homosexual
relations, as well as heterosexual non-marital relations,
are “deviant” because they do not fulfill the main
function of the family institution—producing and rearing
children.

Clearly, however, this argument is less salient in a society
in which
 (1) other institutions, most notably schools, have
supplemented the traditional functions of the family,
 (2) reducing (rather than increasing) population is a
societal goal, and
 (3) same-sex couples can and do raise children.
+ Sociological Theories of Sexual Orientation
Inequality
Structural-Functionalist Perspective
+ Sociological Theories of Sexual Orientation
Inequality
Structural-Functionalist Perspective

The structural-functionalist perspective is also concerned with
latent functions, or unintended consequences.

A latent function of the gay rights movement is increased
opposition to gay rights.
+ Sociological Theories of Sexual Orientation
Inequality
Conflict Perspective
 The
conflict perspective frames the gay
rights movement and the opposition to it as a
struggle over power, prestige, and economic
resources.
 Conflict
theory helps to explain why many
business owners and corporate leaders
support nondiscrimination policies: It is good
for the “bottom line.”

The majority (89%) of Fortune 500 companies have included sexual
orientation in their nondiscrimination policies.
+ Sociological Theories of Sexual Orientation
Inequality
Symbolic
Interactionist
Perspective
 Symbolic interactionism focuses on the meanings of
heterosexuality, homosexuality, and bisexuality; how
these meanings are socially constructed; and how they
influence the social status, self-concepts, and well-being
of non-heterosexual individuals.
 The
negative meanings associated with homosexuality
are reflected in the current slang.
 The
symbolic interactionist perspective also points to the
effects of labeling on individuals.
 Once individuals become identified or labeled as
lesbian, gay, or bisexual, that label tends to become
their master status.
+ Sociological Theories of Sexual Orientation
Inequality
Symbolic
Interactionist
Perspective
 Symbolic interactionism draws attention to how social
interaction affects our self-concept, behavior, and wellbeing.
 When
gay and lesbian individuals interact with people who
express antigay attitudes, they may develop what is known
as internalized homophobia (or internalized
heterosexism)—the internalization of negative messages
about homosexuality by lesbian, gay, and bisexual
individuals as a result of direct or indirect social rejection
and stigmatization.
 Internalized
homophobia has been linked to increased risk
for depression, substance abuse, anxiety, and suicidal
thoughts.
+
Prejudice Against Lesbians,
Gays, and Bisexuals

Oppression refers to the use of power to create inequality and
limit access to resources, which impedes the physical and/or
emotional well-being of individuals or groups of people.

A person or group is privileged when they have a special
advantage or benefits as a result of cultural, economic,
societal, legal, and political factors.

Heterosexism is a form of oppression and refers to a belief
system that gives power and privilege to heterosexuals, while
depriving, oppressing, stigmatizing, and devaluing people who
are not heterosexual.

Prejudice refers to negative attitudes, whereas
discrimination refers to behavior that denies individuals or
groups equality of treatment.
+ Prejudice Against Lesbians, Gays, and
Bisexuals
Homophobia and Biphobia
 The term homophobia is commonly used to
refer to negative or hostile attitudes directed
toward same-sex sexual behavior, a nonheterosexually identified individual, and
communities of non-heterosexuals.
 When
prejudice is directed toward bisexual
individuals, this is called biphobia.

Both heterosexuals and non-heterosexuals often reject bisexuals; thus,
bisexual men and women can experience “double discrimination.”
+ Prejudice Against Lesbians, Gays, and
Bisexuals
Homophobia and Biphobia
+ Prejudice Against Lesbians, Gays, and
Bisexuals
Homophobia and Biphobia
+ Prejudice Against Lesbians, Gays, and
Bisexuals
Cultural Origins of Anti-LGB Bias

Religion
 Research has found that higher levels of religiosity are
strongly associated with negative attitudes toward
homosexuality, religious fundamentalism, and more
conservative political beliefs.
 Many religious leaders teach that homosexuality is sinful and
prohibited by God.
 Example: the Westboro Baptist Church (WBC), Reverend
Phelps and his followers picket funerals of American
servicemen and servicewomen, saying that U.S. military
casualties are God’s way of punishing the United States
for being “nice” to lesbians and gays. The group also
maintains a website called godhatesfags.com.
+ Prejudice Against Lesbians, Gays, and
Bisexuals
Cultural Origins of Anti-LGB Bias
GodHatesFags.com is
a website maintained
by Westboro Baptist
Church. The church
teaches that
homosexuality is an
abomination.
+ Prejudice Against Lesbians, Gays, and
Bisexuals
Cultural Origins of Anti-LGB Bias
 Rigid Gender Roles

Disapproval of homosexuality also stems from rigid gender roles.

Kimmel (2011), a sociologist who specializes in research on masculinity,
writes about the relationship between perceived masculinity and bullying:
“Calling someone gay or a fag has become so universal that it’s
become synonymous with dumb, stupid or wrong.”
+ Prejudice Against Lesbians, Gays, and
Bisexuals
Cultural Origins of Anti-LGB Bias
 Myths and Negative Stereotypes

The stigma associated with homosexuality and bisexuality can also stem
from myths and negative stereotypes.

One negative myth about non-heterosexuals is that they are sexually
promiscuous and lack “family values.”

Between 64% and 80% of lesbians, and between 46% and 60% of gay
men, report that they are in a committed relationship at any given time.
+ Prejudice Against Lesbians, Gays, and
Bisexuals
Cultural Origins of Anti-LGB Bias
 Myths and Negative Stereotypes
 Another
myth is that non-heterosexuals, as a
group, are a threat to children—most notably child
molestation.
 Having a non-heterosexual orientation is a separate
issue from when an adult acts on inappropriate
impulses with a youth who is not legally capable of
consenting to sex.
 Research has not demonstrated a connection
between an adult’s same-sex attraction and an
increased likelihood of molesting.
+ Discrimination Against Lesbians, Gays, and
Bisexuals
Workplace Discrimination and
 Most U.S. adults (89%) agree that LGB
Harassment
individuals should have equal job opportunities.
 Yet,
it is still legal in 29 states to fire, decline to
hire or promote, or otherwise discriminate against
employees because of their sexual orientation
and, in 35 states, it remains legal to discriminate
against an employee for being transgender.
+ Discrimination Against Lesbians, Gays, and
Bisexuals
Workplace Discrimination and
Harassment
+ Discrimination Against Lesbians, Gays, and
Bisexuals
Workplace Discrimination and
Harassment
+
What Do You Think?
+ Discrimination Against Lesbians, Gays, and
Bisexuals
Marriage Inequality

In 1996, Congress passed and President Clinton signed the
Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA), which

(1) states that marriage is a “legal union between one man and
one woman”;

(2) denies federal recognition of same-sex marriage; and

(3) allows states to either recognize or not recognize same-sex
marriages performed in other states.
+ Discrimination Against Lesbians, Gays, and
Bisexuals
Marriage Inequality

Approximately 50,000 same-sex couples have been legally
married, according to administrative data from the states of
Massachusetts, Connecticut, Iowa, Vermont, and New
Hampshire, as well as estimates for same-sex couples
marrying in California and the District of Columbia.

As many as 30,000 same-sex couples might have married in
other countries (e.g., Canada).

Another 85,000 same-sex couples have entered civil unions or
domestic partnerships in Vermont, California, New Jersey,
Oregon, New Hampshire, Washington, and Nevada.

These numbers do not take into account the number of samesex marriages that have taken place following the June 2011
New York State ruling that permits same-sex marriages.
+ Discrimination Against Lesbians, Gays, and
Bisexuals
Marriage Inequality
+ Discrimination Against Lesbians, Gays, and
Bisexuals
Marriage Inequality

Approximately 50,000 same-sex couples have been legally
married, according to administrative data from the states of
Massachusetts, Connecticut, Iowa, Vermont, and New
Hampshire, as well as estimates for same-sex couples
marrying in California and the District of Columbia.

As many as 30,000 same-sex couples might have married in
other countries (e.g., Canada).

Another 85,000 same-sex couples have entered civil unions or
domestic partnerships in Vermont, California, New Jersey,
Oregon, New Hampshire, Washington, and Nevada.

These numbers do not take into account the number of samesex marriages that have taken place following the June 2011
New York State ruling that permits same-sex marriages.
+ Discrimination Against Lesbians, Gays, and
Bisexuals
Marriage Inequality
 Arguments
 Opponents
Against Same-Sex Marriage
argue that granting legal status to
same-sex unions would convey social acceptance
of homosexuality and would thus teach youth to
view homosexuality as an acceptable lifestyle.
 They are also concerned that if same-sex
marriages are legalized, schools would be
pressured to treat LGB individuals as any other
minority group resulting in, for example, classes on
gay history, gay literature, and the like.
+
What Do You Think?
+ Discrimination Against Lesbians, Gays, and
Bisexuals
Marriage Inequality
 Arguments
in Favor of Same-Sex Marriage
 Advocates of same-sex marriage argue that
banning same-sex marriages or refusing to
recognize same-sex marriages granted in other
states is a violation of civil rights that denies samesex couples the countless legal and financial
benefits that are granted to heterosexual married
couples.
 Another argument for same-sex marriage is that it
would promote relationship stability among gay
and lesbian couples.
+ Discrimination Against Lesbians, Gays, and
Bisexuals
Children and Parental Rights
 According
to a recent poll, since 2007, the
percentage of Americans saying that the increasing
number of gay couples raising children is a “bad
thing” has fallen from 50 percent to 35 percent.
 Over
25 years of scholarly research on the children
of non-heterosexual parents has yielded clear and
consistent results that irrespective of whether
children were from divorced lesbian and gay parents
or born to lesbian or gay parents, studies have
shown that these children are at least as well
adjusted overall as those from opposite-sex parents.
+ Discrimination Against Lesbians, Gays, and
Bisexuals
Children and Parental Rights
+ Discrimination Against Lesbians, Gays, and
Bisexuals
Violence, Hate, and Criminal
Victimization
 On October 6, 1998, Matthew Shepard, a 21-yearold student at the University of Wyoming, was
abducted and brutally beaten. Media coverage of his
brutal attack and subsequent death focused
nationwide attention on hate crimes against nonheterosexuals.
 According
to the FBI, 18.5% of reported hate crimes
in 2009 were motivated by sexual orientation bias
involving 1,436 victims.
 Over half (55.6%) of the incidents were motivated
by antigay male bias.
+ Discrimination Against Lesbians, Gays, and
Bisexuals
Violence, Hate, and Criminal
Victimization
 Anti-LGB Hate and Harassment in Schools and on
Campuses
 Multiple suicides by LGBT youth has provoked a nationwide
dialogue about bullying, sexual orientation, and gender
expression.
 Gender expression refers to how a person presents her- or
himself to society as a gendered individual.
 A person may have a gender identity as male but
nonetheless present their gender as female for any number
of reasons.
 A national survey of students ages 13 through 18 and their
teachers found that actual or perceived sexual orientation is
one of the most common reasons that students are harassed
by their peers, second only to physical appearance.
+ Discrimination Against Lesbians, Gays, and
Bisexuals
Violence, Hate, and Criminal
Victimization
+ Discrimination Against Lesbians, Gays, and
Bisexuals
Violence, Hate, and Criminal
Victimization
 84.6 percent of LGBT students reported being
verbally harassed, 40.1 percent reported being
physically harassed, and 18.8 percent reported
being physically assaulted at school in the past year
because of their sexual orientation.
 72.4
percent heard homophobic remarks, such as
“faggot” or “dyke,” frequently or often at school.
 Nearly
two-thirds (61.1 percent) of students reported
that they felt unsafe in school because of their
sexual orientation.
 30
percent of LGBT students missed at least one
+ Discrimination Against Lesbians, Gays, and
Bisexuals
Violence, Hate, and Criminal
Victimization
 The minority stress theory explains that when an individual
experiences the social environment as emotionally or physically
threatening due to social stigma, the result is an increased risk
for mental health problems.
+ Strategies for Action: Toward Equality for
All
 Many
of the efforts to change policies and attitudes
regarding non-heterosexuals and gender nonconforming individuals have been spearheaded by
organizations that specifically advocate for LGBT
rights including:
 Human Rights Campaign (HRC),
 the National Gay and Lesbian Task Force
(NGLTF),
 Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation
(GLAAD),
 International Lesbian and Gay Association (ILGA)
+ Strategies for Action: Toward Equality for
All
+ Strategies for Action: Toward Equality for
All
Gays, Lesbians, and the Media
 The
media has been instrumental in the lives of
LGBT individuals for several reasons.
 First, it has provided LGBT individuals, most
importantly youth, role models for “coming
out.”

National Coming Out Day
 The
media has also provided examples of the
increasing social disapproval of LGB prejudice.
 Social media has been important in addressing the
needs of LGBT youth who feel the effects of
minority stress.
+ Strategies for Action: Toward Equality for
All
Gays, Lesbians, and the Media
+ Strategies for Action: Toward Equality for
All
Gays, Lesbians, and the Media
Since the 1990’s,
gay and lesbian
characters and
personalities of
various ages have
been increasingly
more visible on
television.
+ Strategies for Action: Toward Equality for
All
Ending Workplace Discrimination
 The
Employment Non-Discrimination Act (ENDA),
a proposed federal bill that would protect LGBT
individuals from workplace discrimination, has been
debated in Congress since 1994, but has never
been signed into law.
 Nearly
200 cities and counties prohibit sexual
orientation discrimination in the public sector.
 Don’t
Ask Don’t Tell: Not long after a poll
revealed that the majority of Americans (67 percent)
supported repealing DADT, DADT was repealed by
the Senate and subsequently signed into law by
President Obama in December 2010.
+ Strategies for Action: Toward Equality for
All
Law and Public Policy

Marriage Equality
 2004, Massachusetts became the first state to
recognize same-sex marriage. Several other states
have followed suit.
 Some states have civil unions - a legal status parallel
to civil marriage under state law, and entitles same-sex
couples to almost all of the rights and responsibilities
available under state law to opposite-sex married
couples.
 Some states, counties, cities, and workplaces allow
unmarried couples, including gay couples, to register as
domestic partners
 Respect for Marriage Act (RMA)
+ Strategies for Action: Toward Equality for
All
Law and Public Policy

Parental Rights:
 Large national organizations such as the Child Welfare
League of America, the National Association of Social
Workers, the American Psychological Association, and the
American Bar Association all support the suitability of
qualified unmarried and non-heterosexual couples to foster
and adopt children.
 Every Child Deserves a Family Act

Hate Crime Legislation:
 As of June 2009, 31 states and the District of Columbia had
hate crime laws that include sexual orientation, 14 states had
hate crime laws that did not include sexual orientation, and 5
states had no hate crime laws
 Matthew Shepard and James Byrd, Jr. Hate Crimes
+ Strategies for Action: Toward Equality for
All
Law and Public Policy
+ Strategies for Action: Toward Equality for
All
Law and Public Policy
+ Strategies for Action: Toward Equality for
All
Educational Strategies and Activism
 The
censorship of LGBT current issues,
historical figures and events, and sexual
health in both the classroom and in school
libraries is a heated debate across the
nation.
 Eighteen
states and the District of Columbia
have laws that prohibit discrimination,
harassment, and/or bullying of students
based on sexual orientation—16 of those
also prohibit prejudice and discrimination
+ Strategies for Action: Toward Equality for
All
Educational
Strategies
and
Activism
 A number of programs exist that aim to create a
“harassment-free” climate and promote
understanding and acceptance of sexual
orientation and gender diversity in the K–12
school setting.
 Many
LGBT-affirmative and educational initiatives
of middle and high schools also occur on college
campuses. Student groups in higher education
(i.e., colleges and universities) have been active
in the gay liberation movement since the 1960s.
+ Strategies for Action: Toward Equality for
All
Educational Strategies and Activism

Gay-Straight Alliances (GSAs): School-sponsored clubs led
by middle or high schools, that strive to address anti-LGBT
name-calling and promote respect for all students.

National Day of Silence: A day during which students do not
speak in recognition of the daily harassment that LBGT
students endure.
+ Strategies for Action: Toward Equality for
All
Educational Strategies and Activism
+
Understanding Sexual Orientation
and the Struggle for Equality
 In
recent years, a growing acceptance of
lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals as well as
increased legal protection and recognition of
these marginalized populations has been
witnessed.
 “Gay
Pride” Celebrations are marches,
demonstrations, or other cultural activities
promoting gay rights, are important in organizing
gay activists, but cannot be used as substitutes
for “conventional, boring, but essential”
political participation.
+
Understanding Sexual Orientation
and the Struggle for Equality
 As
both structural functionalists and conflict theorists
note, non-heterosexuality challenges traditional
definitions of family, child rearing, and gender roles.
 As
symbolic interactionists note, the meanings associated
with homosexuality are learned. Powerful individuals and
groups opposed to gay rights focus their efforts on
maintaining the negative meanings of homosexuality to
keep the gay, lesbian, and bisexual population
marginalized.
 But
political efforts to undermine gay rights and
recognition must realize that prejudice and discrimination
against individuals based on statuses over which
research suggests they have no control hurts everyone.
+
Quick Quiz
1. Negative viewpoints about homosexuality suggest
homosexuals are promiscuous, and avoid having
committed relationships:
A. is supported by most of the systematic research
on this subject.
B. is inconsistent with findings showing many if
not most homosexuals remaining in committed
relationships.
C. has not been investigated in systematic
research.
D. has been proven by the evidence of high
transmission rates of AIDS/HIV among the gay
and lesbian population.
+
Answer: B

Negative viewpoints about homosexuality suggesting that
homosexuals usually are sexually promiscuous, and tend to
avoid having enduring or committed relationships is
inconsistent with findings showing many if not most
homosexuals remaining in committed relationships.
+
Quick Quiz
2.
Approximately, how many Americans identify as LGBT?
A.
700,000
B.
4,000,000
C.
9,000,000
D.
13,000,000
+
Answer: C

Approximately, 9 million Americans identify as LGBT…this
roughly the population of New Jersey.
+
Quick Quiz
3.
According to the structural functionalist
perspective, why are homosexual
relations considered deviant?
A.
Homosexual behavior exacerbates
sexually transmitted diseases.
B.
They do not fulfill the family
institution's main purpose of
producing offspring.
C.
None of these choices.
D.
The dominant sexual orientation is
+
Answer: B

According to the structural functionalist perspective,
homosexual relations are considered deviant because they
do not fulfill the family institution's main purpose of
producing offspring.
+
Quick Quiz
4. Negative attitudes toward bisexuality and people who identify
as bisexual is known as biphobia.
A.
True
B.
False
+
Answer: A. True

Negative attitudes toward bisexuality and people who identify
as bisexual is known as biphobia.