Download 20111126114800_Asiignment__R_methodolg_I_unit

Jayaprakash K
Lecturer
Dept of dental materials
Yenepoya dental college
Part Internal candidate (Ph.D)
Reg.No Jan/022
Research Methodology
Introduction to research: General
Research is a scientific (or systematic) process of gathering information/refers to a
search for knowledge/art of scientific investigation/a movement from the known to the
unknown/voyage of discovery.
Research objective:
To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (exploratory or
formulative research)
To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with
something else.
To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group
Research approaches:
There are two basic approaches to research, viz; quantitative approach (inferential,
experimental & simulation approaches) & the qualitative approach.
The purpose of inferential approach to research is to form a data base from which to
infer characteristics or relationships of population. The experimental approach is characterized
by much greater control over the research environment & in this case some variables are
manipulated to observe their effect on other variables. Simulation approach involves the
construction of an artificial environment within which relevant information & data can be
generated.
Qualitative approach to research is concerned with subjective assessment of attitudes,
opinions & behavior. Such an approach to research generates results either in non-quantitative
form or in the form which are subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis.
Significance of research:
All progress is born of inquiry. Doubt is often better than overconfidence, for it leads to
inquiry, inquiry leads to invention. The role research in several fields of applied economics,
whether related to business or to the economy as whole, has greatly increased in modern times.
Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our economic system.
Research has its special significance in solving various operational & planning problems of
business & industry. Research is equally important for social scientists in studying social
relationships & in seeking answers to various problems.
In addition it has the following significance
 To those students who are to write a master’s or Ph.D. tyhesis, research may mean a
careerism or a way to attain a high position in the social structure.
 To philosophers & thinkers, research may mean the outlet for new ideas & insights.
 To professionals in research methodology, research may mean a source of livelihood
 Importance of knowing how research is done
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The knowledge of methodology provides good training specially to the new research
worker & enables him to do better research
 The knowledge of how to do research will inculcate the ability to evaluate & use research
results with reasonable confidence.
 The knowledge of research methodology provides tools to took at things in life
objectively.
 The knowledge of methodology helps the consumer of research results to evaluate them
& enables him to take rational decisions.
Criteria of good research:
 The purpose of the research should be clearly defined & common concepts be used.
 The research procedure used should be described in detail to permit another researcher to
repeat the research for advancement.
 The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance & the
methods of analysis used should be appropriate.
Conclusion should be confined to those justified by the data of the research & limited to
those for which the data provide an adequate basis.
Types of research:
Pure, applied & action research – research can be either applied (or action) research or
fundamental (to basic or pure) research. Applied research aims at finding a solution for an
immediate problem facing a society or an industrial/business organization, where as fundamental
research is mainly concerned with generalizations & with the formulation of a theory. “Gathering
knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed ‘pure’ or basic’ research. Research concerning some
natural phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics are examples of fundamental research.
Research to identify social, economic or political trends that may affect a particular institution or
the copy research or the marketing research or evaluation research are examples of applied
research. Thus, the central aim of applied research is to discover a solution for some pressing
practical problem, where as basic research is directed towards finding information that has a
broad base of applications & thus, adds to the already existing organized body of scientific
knowledge.
Kinds of research:
Diagnostic research:
Research can be field setting research or laboratory research or simulation research,
depending upon the environment in which it is to be carried out. Research can as well be
understood as clinical or diagnostic research. Such research studies follow case –studies methods
or indepth approaches to reach the basic causal relations.
Exploratory research:
The objective of exploratory research is the development of hypotheses rather than their
testing.
Descriptive research includes surveys & fact finding enquiries of different kinds. The major
purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs as it exists at present. The
methods of research utilized in descriptive research are survey methods of all kinds, including
comparative & correlational methods.
Research ethics: Animal ethics & human ethics
Animals or any other living thing for that matter do have a right to this earth as much as
we do. With that said, I do take the opinion that everything on this earth is for the utility of
humanity. This said does in no way shape or form give any one the right to abuse, destruction,
cruelty and any other form mischief. Animals should not be abused or made to suffer pain or as
least pain as possible. When they are slaughtered for food they should be done so with the least
painful method that will produce healthy meat. Past methods of slaughter that did not properly
drain the blood from the animal produced very unhealthy meat. Animals should not be made to
watch other animals being slaughtered. These methods of treating animals kindly have been
around with us for a long time.
The first ethical principle cited by the influential Belmont Report is autonomy, The
investigator must ensure that the participant has received a full disclosure of the nature of the
study, the risks, benefits and alternatives, with an extended opportunity to ask questions.
The second ethical principle is beneficence, which refers to the obligation on the part of
the investigator to attempt to maximize benefits for the individual participant and/or society,
while minimizing risk of harm to the individual. An honest and thorough risk/benefit calculation
must be performed.
The third ethical principle invoked in research with human subjects is justice, which
demands equitable selection of participants, i.e., avoiding participant populations that may be
unfairly coerced into participating, such as prisoners and institutionalized children. The principle
of justice also requires equality in distribution of benefits and burdens among the population
group(s) likely to benefit from the research.
Bio-safety in research: microorganism studies
Biosafety is a two way path - to be 'biosafe' implies creating a safe working
environment for all personnel and ensuring that the work being done does not impact the
environment. Biohazardous materials include any organism that can cause disease in humans, or
cause significant environmental or agricultural impact, such as:
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Bacteria
Viruses
Parasites
Prions
Fungi
Human or primate tissues, fluids, cells, or cell cultures/lines that are known to or are
likely to contain infectious organisms
 Human or animal tissues, fluids, cells, or cell cultures/lines that have been exposed to
infectious organisms
 Animals known to be reservoirs of zoonotic diseases
Scientific methods, components of scientific methods:
 It relies on empirical evidence
 It utilizes relevant concepts
 It is committed to only objective considerations,
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It presupposes ethical neutrality
It results into probabilistic predictions
Its methodology is made known to all concerned for critical scrutiny is for use in testing
the conclusions through replication.
It aims at formulating most general axioms or what can be termed as scientific theories.
Research process:
It consists of series of actions or steps necessary to effectively carry out research & desired
sequencing of these steps
 Define research problems
 Review concepts & theories & review previous research finding
 Formulate hypothesis
 Design research (including sample design)
 Collect data (Execution)
 Analyze data (Test hypothesis if any)
 Interpret & report
The following order concerning various steps provides a useful procedural guideline
regarding the research process.
 Formulating the research problem
 Extensive literature survey
 Developing the hypothesis
 Preparing the research design
 Determining sample design
 Collecting the data
 Execution of the project
 Analysis of data
 Hypothesis testing
 Generalizations & interpretation
 Preparation of report or presentation of the results, formal write-up of conclusions
reached.
Problem encountered by researchers in India:
 Lack of scientific training in the methodology of research
 There is insufficient interaction between the university research departments on one side
& business establishments, government departments & research institution on the other
side.
 Research studies overlapping one another are undertaken quite often for want of adequate
information.
 There does not exist a code of conduct for researchers & inter-university & inter
departmental rivalries.
 Library management & functioning is not satisfactory at many places.
 There is also the difficulty of timely availability of published data from the various
sources.