Download Milestones Master Study 2017

Science - the knowledge obtained by observing natural events and conditions in order to discover facts and formulate laws or principles that
can be verified or tested
Physical science - the scientific study of nonliving matter
A. Chemistry - the study of how matter interacts with other matter
B. Physics - the study of energy and how energy affects matter
Scientific methods - a series of steps followed to solve problems
Observation - the process of obtaining information by using the senses
Hypothesis - a possible explanation or answer to a question: it must be testable
Controlled experiment - compares the results from a control group with the results from an experimental group
Data - any pieces of information acquired through experimentation
Matter - anything that has mass and takes up space
Volume - the amount of space taken up by an object
A. Liquid volume - most often expressed as Liters (L) or Milliliters (M)
1. Meniscus - the curve at a liquid’s surface by which one measures the volume of a liquid
B. Volume of a regularly shaped solid object
Volume = length X width X height
C. Volume of an irregularly shaped solid object (page 40 paragraph 2)
1. You measure the amount of water the object displaces (take the before measurement and subtract it from the after
measurement. The measurement will be in ml, convert it to cm³ (1 ml = 1cm³)
Mass - a measure of the amount of matter in an object: Constant no matter where the object is located.
A. The SI unit for Mass is the kilogram (kg)
Weight - a measure of the gravitational force exerted on an object: An object’s weight can change depending on where in the universe it is.
A. The SI unit for weight is the Newton (N)
Inertia - the tendency of an object to resist being moved or, if the object is moving, to resist a change in speed or direction.
A. The more massive an object is, the greater the inertia
Physical property - a characteristic of a substance that does not involve a chemical change, such as density, color, hardness, malleability,
ductility, solubility, thermal conductivity and state of matter.
A. Density - is the amount of matter in a given space or volume
B. Thermal conductivity - the rate at which a substance transfers heat
C. Malleability - the ability of a substance to be rolled or pounded into thin sheets
D. Ductility - the ability of a substance to be pulled into a wire
E. Solubility - the ability of a substance to dissolve in another substance
Formula for Density
density = mass  volume
1. In a liquid, the denser layers will sink to the bottom
2. If the density of an object is less than the density of water it will float (water has a density of 1.0 g/cm³)
3. Each substance has its own density, so density can be used to identify substances
Physical Change - a change of matter from one form to another without a change in chemical properties
A. Freezing, melting, cutting, bending, and dissolving.
Chemical properties - a property of matter that describes a substance’s ability to participate in chemical reactions. They can only be
observed when a chemical change might happen.
A. Flammability - is the ability of a substance to burn
B. Reactivity - the ability of two or more substances to combine and form one or more new substances
Characteristic properties - the properties that are most useful in identifying a substance: They can by physical or chemical.
Chemical change - happens when one or more substances are changed into new substances that have new and different properties.
A. Seven Signs of a chemical change
1. change in odor
2. change in color
3. production of heat
4. Fizzing
5. Foaming
6. sound being given off
7. light being given off
B. Chemical changes are not easily reversed.
Composition - is the type of matter that makes up the object and the way that the matter is arranged
A. Physical changes do not change the composition of an object.
B. Chemical changes do change the composition of an object
3 States of Matter - the physical forms of matter, which include solid, liquid, and gas
A. Atoms and Molecules are always in motion
Solid - the state of matter in which the volume and shape of a substance are fixed
A. Definite shape, definite volume
B. Particles are very close together (stronger attraction than in a liquid or gas)
C. Particles vibrate but are locked in place by the particles around it.
Liquids - the state of matter that has a definite volume but takes the shape of its container
A. Definite volume but no definite shape
B. Particles slide past each other
Surface tension - the force that acts on the surface of a liquid and that tends to minimize the area of the surface
A. This is what causes water droplets to form
Viscosity - a liquid’s resistance to flow
A. Liquids with a high viscosity flow slowly (examples - molasses, honey)
B. Liquids with a low viscosity flow quickly (examples - water, vinegar)
Gas - the state of matter that does not have a definite volume or definite shape
A. No definite shape or definite volume
B. Particles move quickly, much weaker attraction than in solid or liquid
(Gas particles have a large amount of space between them)
Behavior of Gases (Temperature, pressure and volume of a gas are linked. Changing one of these factors changes the other two)
A. Temperature - a measure of how fast the particles in an object are moving.
B. Volume - the amount of space that an object takes up.
C. Pressure - the amount of force exerted per unit of area of a surface
Boyle’s Law - the volume of a gas is inversely proportional to the pressure of a gas when temperature is constant. (pressure
increases/volume decreases or pressure decreases/volume increases)
Charles’s Law - the volume of a gas is directly proportional to the temperature of a gas when pressure is constant. (temperature
increases/volume increases or temperature decreases/volume decreases)
Change of state - change of a substance from one physical state to another
A. All changes of state are physical changes
B. Particles of a substance move differently depending on the state of the substance
C. Particles have different amounts of energy in different states
Endothermic change - energy is gained by the substance as is changes state
Exothermic change - energy is removed from the substance as it changes state
Melting - change of state in which a solid becomes a liquid by adding energy
Melting point - the temperature at which a substance will melt.
Freezing - the change of state from a liquid to a solid by removing energy
Freezing point - the temperature at which a liquid changes into a solid
* Freezing and Melting occur at the same temperature
Evaporation - the change of state from a liquid to a gas by adding energy: It occurs at the surface of a liquid.
Boiling - the conversion of a liquid to a vapor when the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the atmospheric pressure.
A. Boiling point - the temperature at which a liquid boils
B. The change of a liquid to a vapor takes place throughout the liquid
C. Water boils at 100˚C at sea level (the higher the altitude, the lower the boiling point)
Condensation - the change of state from a gas to a liquid
A. Condensation point - the temperature at which the gas becomes a liquid
Pure substance – a substance in which there is only one type of particle (Can be either a single element or a single compound)
Element – a pure substance that cannot be separated or broken down into simpler substances
1. Metal – an element that is shiny and that conducts heat and electricity well (Strong and malleable)
2. Nonmetal – an element that conducts heat and electricity poorly (Brittle and is not malleable)
3. Metalloid – an element that has properties of both metals and nonmetals (Called semi-conductors)
Compound – a substance made up of atoms of two or more different elements joined by chemical bonds
A. Cannot be separated by physical means
Mixture – a combination of two or more substances that are not chemically combined
A. Can be separated by physical means
Dissolving – the process in which particles of substances separate and spread evenly throughout the mixture
Solution – a single substance composed of particles of two or more substances that are distributed evenly among each other
A. Solute – the substance that is dissolved
B. Solvent – the substance in which the solute is dissolved
Concentration – the amount of a particular substance in a given quantity of a mixture, solution, or ore
Solubility – the ability of one substance to dissolve in another at a given temperature and pressure
Suspension – a mixture in which particles of a material are dispersed throughout a liquid or gas but are large enough that they settle out
Colloid – a mixture consisting of tiny particles that are intermediate in size between those in solutions and those in suspensions
Motion - an object’s change in position relative to a reference point
Reference point - when you watch an object in relation to another object, the object that appears to stay in place is the reference point.
A. Nonmoving - the Earth’s surface, trees, buildings
B. Moving - a hot air balloon, a cloud
Speed - the distance traveled divided by the time interval during which the motion occurred.
A. SI unit for speed- meters per second (m/s)
B. Average speed = total distance  total time
Velocity - the speed of an object in a given direction
A. Velocity is different than speed, it must include a reference direction
B. An object’s velocity is constant only if its speed and direction do not change. Therefore, constant velocity is always motion along a
straight line
Acceleration - the rate at which velocity changes over time
A. An object accelerates if its speed, direction, or both change
B. An increase in velocity is often called positive acceleration
C. A decrease in velocity is often called a negative acceleration, or deceleration
final velocity - starting velocity
Average acceleration = ----------------------------------------Time it takes to change velocity
Centripetal acceleration - acceleration that occurs in a circular motion; its velocity is always changing, so it is accelerating
Force - a push or pull exerted on an object in order to change the motion of the object
A. Force has size and direction
B. Just because a force acts on an object doesn’t mean motion will occur
Newton (N) - the SI unit for force
Net Force - the combination of all the forces acting on an object
A. When the forces on an object produce a net force of 0 N, the forces are balanced.
1. Balanced forces do not cause a change in motion
B. When the net force on an object is not 0 N, the forces on the object are unbalanced.
2. Unbalanced forces cause a change in motion
C. Net forces acting in the same direction are added together (example p. 125, figure 3)




25N +
20N =
45N
D. When forces are in opposite directions, subtract the smaller force from the larger force
(example p. 126, figure 4)




20N
25N =
5N (net force)
Friction - a force that opposes motion between two surfaces that are in contact
A. The amount of friction between two surfaces depends on two factors:
1. The amount of force pushing the two surfaces together
2. The roughness of the surfaces (rough surfaces have more microscopic hills and valleys than smooth surfaces)
There are two types of friction:
A. Kinetic friction - friction between moving surfaces
1. Sliding kinetic friction - surfaces sliding past each other
2. Rolling kinetic friction - using wheels requires a smaller force than sliding friction, used in transportation
B. Static friction - when a force is applied to an object but does not cause the object to move
1. Static friction disappears as soon as the object starts moving and then kinetic friction immediately occurs
Three ways to reduce friction:
A. Lubricants - substances that are applied to surfaces to reduce the friction between surfaces (Examples: motor oil, wax, grease)
B. Switch from sliding to rolling friction, using wheels and ball bearings
C. Make the surfaces rubbing against each other smoother
Two ways to increase friction:
A. Make surfaces rubbing against each other rougher
B. Increase the force pushing the surfaces together
Gravity - the force of attraction between objects that is due to their mass
Law of Universal Gravitation - all objects in the universe attract each other through gravitational force.
Newton stated that the size of gravitational force depends on two things:
A. Gravitational force increases as mass increases (example: p.136, figure 3)
B. Gravitational force decreases as distance increases (example: p137, figure 5)
Objects fall to the ground at the same rate because the acceleration due to gravity is the same for all objects.
A. Acceleration depends on both force and mass
B. Heavier objects experience greater gravitational force but are harder to accelerate due to their greater mass (they have more
inertia),
so these forces balance out
Acceleration - the rate at which velocity changes
Acceleration due to gravity = 9.8 m/s²
Formula for calculating the change in velocity (V) of a falling object:
A. v = g  t
v - velocity
g - acceleration due to gravity (9.8m/s²)
t - time
Air resistance - the force that opposes the motion of objects through air
A. The amount of air resistance depends on the size, shape and speed of the object
Terminal Velocity - the constant velocity of a falling object when the force of air resistance is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction
to the force of gravity.
Free Fall - the motion of a body when only the force of gravity is acting on it.
A. Can only occur in space or a vacuum (A vacuum is a place in which there is no matter)
B. Astronauts float because of free fall
Orbiting - when an object is traveling around another object in space
A. An object in orbit is always in free fall
Centripetal Force - the unbalanced force that causes objects to move in a circular path
Projectile Motion - the curved path that an object follows when thrown, launched, or otherwise projected near the surface of Earth. It has 2
components.
A. Horizontal motion - motion parallel to the ground
1. Gravity does NOT affect the horizontal component of projectile motion
B. Vertical motion - motion perpendicular to the ground
2. Gravity pulls objects down at an acceleration of 9.8m/s²
Newton’s First Law of Motion - an object at rest remains at rest, and an object in motion remains in motion at constant speed and in a
straight line unless acted on by an unbalance force.
Inertia - the tendency of an object to resist any change in motion
A. The larger the mass of an object, the larger the inertia
Newton’s Second Law - the acceleration of an object depends on the mass of the object and the amount of force applied
A. F = m  a
Force = mass × acceleration
Newton’s Third Law - whenever one object exerts a force on a second object, the second object exerts an equal and opposite force on the
first (This law can simply be stated as follows: all forces act in pairs)
Momentum - a quantity defined as the product of the mass and velocity of an object
A. The more momentum an object has, the harder it is to stop the object or change its direction
1. p = m  v
(P) momentum = mass  velocity
The Law of Conservation of Momentum - any time objects collide, the total amount of momentum stays the same
Pressure - the amount of force exerted per unit area of a surface
A. P = f  a
pressure = force  area
Work – the transfer of energy to an object by using a force that causes the object to move in the direction of the force
A. For work to be done 2 things need to happen
1. The object moves as a force is applied
2. The direction of the object’s motion is the same as the direction of the force
B. W = F × d
Work = Force × distance
1. The SI unit for work is the Joule which stands for the Newton-meter (n × m)
Power – the rate at which work is done or energy transferred
A. P = W ÷ t
Power = Work ÷ time
1. The SI unit for power is the watt.
Machine – a device that helps do work by either overcoming a force or changing the direction of the applied force
A. Work input – the work done on a machine
B. Work output – the work done by a machine
Machines make work easier by changing the size or direction (or both) of the input force.
1. The same amount of work is done with or without a machine. What changes is how much input force you have to do.
2. When using the formula for work, if we are willing to spread the force out over a longer distance, the force needed goes down,
making it easier for us.
Mechanical advantage – a number that tells you how many times a machine multiplies force.
A. Mechanical advantage (MA) = output force  input force
Mechanical Efficiency – a quantity, usually expressed as a percentage, that measures the ratio of work output to work input
work output
Mechanical efficiency = ------------------ × 100
work input
Ideal machine – a machine that has 100% mechanical efficiency (that would mean that all work input transfers through as work output)
A. Ideal machines are impossible to build because a machine has moving parts, and some work input is lost to friction
B. One way to increase efficiency is to use lubricants
1. Lever – a simple machine that has a bar that pivots at a fixed point, called a fulcrum
A. First-class levers – the fulcrum is between the input force and the load
1. Examples: a balance scale, a seesaw, oars on a row boat, scissors
B. Second-class levers – the load is between the fulcrum and the input force
2. Examples: wheelbarrow, bottle opener, a door
C. Third-class levers – the input force is between the fulcrum and the load
3. Examples: shovel, lacrosse stick, baseball bat, golf club, canoe paddle, hammer, human arm
2. Pulley – a simple machine that consists of a wheel over which a rope, chain or wire passes
A. Fixed pulley – the pulley is attached to something that does not move
B. Moveable pulley – the pulley is attached to the object that moves
C. Block and tackle – when a fixed and moveable pulley is used together
3. Wheel and axle – a simple machine consisting of two circular objects of different sizes: the wheel is larger than the axle
A. mechanical advantage of a wheel = radius of the wheel ÷ radius of the axle
4. Inclined plane – a simple machine that is a straight, slanted surface (also called a ramp)
A. You use less force by spreading the force over a longer distance
B. Mechanical advantage of inclined planes = distance of ramp ÷ height of ramp
5. Wedge – a simple machine that is made up of two inclined planes that move
A. Examples: knife, axe, front teeth, doorstops,
6. Screw – a simple machine that consists of an inclined plane wrapped around a cylinder
A. Examples: a screw, a twist on bottle cap, a spiral staircase
B. The closer the threads are together, the greater the mechanical advantage
5. Compound machine – a machine made of more than one simple machine
A. The mechanical advantage of a compound machine is lower because there are more moving parts, so there is more friction
Energy – the ability to do work
A. Work like energy is expressed in Joules.
Kinetic energy – the energy of an object that is due to the object’s motion
mv²
Kinetic energy = ------2
mass × velocity²
--------------------2
Speed has a greater effect on kinetic energy than mass because it is squared.
Potential energy – the energy that an object has because of the position, shape, or condition of the object
A. An object accelerates as it falls due to gravity, so the higher an object is lifted above the ground, the greater the potential energy
Gravitational potential energy – when you lift an object, you do work on it. You transfer energy to the object.
A. Gravitational potential energy = weight × height
Mechanical energy – the amount of work an object can do because of the object’s kinetic and potential energies
A. Mechanical energy = potential energy + kinetic energy
Thermal energy – the kinetic energy due to random motion of the particles that make up an object
A. Temperature is a measure of thermal energy
Chemical energy – a form of potential energy that depends on the position and arrangement of the atoms in a compound
Electrical energy – the energy of moving electrons
Sound energy – vibrating objects transmits energy through the air around it
Light energy – energy produced by the vibrations of electrically charged particles
Nuclear energy – energy that comes from changes in the nucleus of an atom
A. Fusion – when nuclei join together
B. Fission – when a nucleus splits
Energy conversion – a change from one form of energy to another
Elastic potential energy – storing potential energy in a material that stretches and can return to its original shape
A. Examples are bow and arrow, crossbow, toy airplane, pulling a rubber band
Chemical energy of food is converted into kinetic energy when you are active
Photosynthesis - plants use light energy to make new substances that have chemical energy
Friction – a force that opposes motion between two surfaces that are touching
A. Not all potential energy is converted into kinetic energy; much is lost due to friction
Law of conservation of energy – states that energy cannot be created or destroyed but can be changed from one form to another
Perpetual motion – a machine that would run forever without any additional energy.
A. This is impossible since some energy is always lost as thermal energy
Energy efficient – a comparison of the amount of useful energy before a conversion with the amount of useful energy after a conversion
A. Energy conversions that are efficient waste less energy
Nonrenewable resources – a resource that forms at a rate that is much slower than the rate at which it is consumed (fossil fuels, nuclear
energy)
Fossil fuels – a nonrenewable energy resource formed from the remains of organisms that lived long ago
A. Coal, natural gas and petroleum (used to make gasoline, kerosene, wax and plastics)
Electrical generators – convert the chemical energy in fossil fuels into electrical energy
A. Water is pumped into a boiler
B. Coal, oil or natural gas is burned in a combustion chamber
C. Thermal energy is used to boil water and turn it into steam
D. Thermal energy is converted to kinetic energy as the steam travels through pipes and pushes against blades of a turbine
E. The turbine is attached by a shaft to a device called an electric generator (large magnet rotated within a large coil of copper wire)
F. Electricity is distributed to communities trough electrical wires
Nuclear energy – like a fossil-fuel plants, a nuclear power plant generates thermal energy that boils water to make steam.
A. Nuclear energy is generated from radioactive elements, such as uranium
B. Nuclear fission is used
Renewable resources – a natural resource that can be replaced at the same rate at which the resource is consumed
Solar energy – sunlight is changed into electrical energy through solar cells
Hydroelectric energy – falling water from a dam turns a turbine which is connected to an electric generator
Wind energy – the kinetic energy of the wind turns the blades of a windmill which turns an electric generator
Geothermal energy – thermal energy caused by the heating of Earth’s crust, the steam is used to turn turbines which turns an electric
generator
Biomass – organic matter such as plants, wood and waste that can be burned to release thermal energy
Atom – the smallest particle into which an element can be divided and still be the same substance.
Nucleus – an atom’s central region, which is made up of protons and neutrons
Electron cloud – a region around the nucleus of an atom where electrons are likely to be found
A. Electron cloud model - is the current atomic theory
Nucleus - the center of the atom which is composed of two types of particles
A. Protons – positively charged particles in the nucleus
1. Atomic mass unit – the SI unit of mass that describes the mass of an atom
a. Proton has a mass of 1 amu
b. Neutron has a mass of 1 amu
c. It takes more than 1800 electrons to equal the mass of 1 proton
B. Neutrons – particles of the nucleus that have no charge
Electrons – negatively charge particles found around the nucleus in electron clouds
Ion – if the charges are not equal between protons and electrons, you have a charge particle
Atomic number – the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom
A. The atomic number is the same for all atoms of an element
Isotope – atoms that have the same number of protons but have different number numbers of neutrons
A. They have the same atomic number but different atomic mass
Radioactive – an isotope that is an atom with a nucleus that will change over time
A. They spontaneously fall apart over time
B. They give off particles and energy
Mass number – the sum of the numbers of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom
Atomic mass – the weighted average of the masses of natural isotopes of an element
Forces in the atom
A. Gravitational Force – pulls objects towards each other
B. Electromagnetic force – opposite charges attract and same charges repel: holds electrons around the nucleus
C. Strong Force – keeps a nucleus with 2 or more protons from flying apart
D. Weak Force – allows a neutron to change into a proton or electrons in certain unstable atoms
Chapter 10
Conduction – the transfer of energy as heat through a material
Convection – the transfer of thermal energy by the circulation or movement of a liquid or gas
Radiation – the transfer of energy as electromagnetic waves
Chapter 13
Valence electron – an electron that is found in the outermost shell of an atom and that determines the atom’s chemical properties
Ionic bond – a bond that forms when electrons are transferred from one atom to another, which results in a positive ion and a negative ion
Covalent bond – a bond formed when atoms share one or more pairs of electrons
Chapter 14
Chemical formula – a combination of chemical symbols and numbers to represent a substance
Chemical equation – a representation of a chemical reaction
A. Reactant – a substance or molecule that participates in a chemical reaction
B. Product – the substance that forms in a chemical reaction
Inhibitor – a substance that slows down or stops a chemical reaction
Catalyst – a substance that speeds up a reaction without being permanently changed
Chapter 15
Ionic Compound – compounds formed of oppositely charged ions
Covalent Compound – compound formed by the sharing of electrons
Chapter 16
Half-life – the time needed for half of a sample of a radioactive substance to undergo radioactive decay
Nuclear chain reaction – a continuous series of nuclear fission reactions
A. Uncontrolled – atomic bomb
B. Controlled – nuclear power plant
Chapter 17
Law of electric charges – states that like charges repel and opposite charges attract
A. Electrical conductor – a material in which charges can move freely
B. Electrical insulator – a material in which charges cannot move freely
C. Static electricity – an electric charge at rest on an object
D. Electric discharge – the release of electricity stored in a source
Voltage – the amount of energy released as a charge moves between two points in the path of a current
Resistance – the opposition presented to the current by a material or device (measured in ohms)
Electric Circuit – a complete, closed path through which electric charges flow
A. Series circuit – a circuit in which all parts are connected in a single loop
B. Parallel circuit – a circuit in which loads are connected side by side
Chapter 21
Pitch – how high or low a sound is perceived to be
High frequency = high pitch
Low frequency = low pitch
Loudness is directly related to amplitude