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Yuan Dynasty
1
Yuan Dynasty
Great Yuan
大元
Dai Ön Ulus
←
←
1271–1368
→
→
Yuan Dynasty in 1294
Capital
Dadu (modern Beijing)
Languages
Chinese
Mongolian
Religion
Buddhism - Chinese and Tibetan
Taoism
Confucianism
Chinese folk religion
Tengriism
Christianity
Islam
Government
Monarchy
Emperor
- 1260–1294
Kublai Khan
- 1333–1370 (Cont.)
Ukhaatu Khan
Historical era
Postclassical Era
- Genghis Khan founds Mongol Empire Spring, 1206
- Formal establishment
December 18, 1271
- Battle of Xiangyang
1268-1273
Yuan Dynasty
2
- Conquest of Southern Song
February 4, 1276
- Battle of Yamen
March 19, 1279
- Fall of Dadu
September 14, 1368
- Formation of Northern Yuan Dynasty 1368-1388
Population
- 1290 est.
75,306,000
- 1293 est.
79,816,000
- 1330 est.
84,873,000
- 1351 est.
87,587,000
Currency
Predominantly Paper Currency (Chao), with a small amount of Chinese cash in use
Today part of
Burma
China
India
North Korea
Laos
Mongolia
Russia
Hong Kong
Macao
Vietnam
History of China
ANCIENT
3 Sovereigns and 5 Emperors
Xia Dynasty 2100–1600 BCE
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Warring States period
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Wei, Shu and Wu
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907–1125
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960–1279
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MODERN
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1949–present
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The Yuan Dynasty (Chinese: 元朝, p, Yuán Cháo, j, jyun4 ciu4; Classical Mongolian:
Dai Ön Yeke
Mongghul Ulus; Modern Mongolian:
Их Юань улс[1]) was the empire established by Kublai Khan,
leader of the Mongolian Borjigin clan, after he conquered Southern Song dynasties in China. Although the Mongols
had ruled territories, which included today's northern China for decades, it was not until 1271 that Kublai Khan
officially proclaimed the dynasty in the traditional Chinese style.[2] His realm – the Great Yuan Empire (t 大元帝
國, s 大元帝 国, p Dà Yuán Diguó) – was by this point isolated from the other khanates and controlled only most of
present-day China and its surrounding areas including modern Mongolia.[3] It was the first foreign dynasty to rule all
Yuan Dynasty
of China and lasted until 1368, after which its remnants in Mongolia were known as the Northern Yuan.
The Yuan is considered both a successor to the Mongol Empire and as an imperial Chinese dynasty. In official
Chinese histories, the Yuan Dynasty bore the Mandate of Heaven, following the Song Dynasty and preceding the
Ming Dynasty. Although the dynasty was established by Kublai Khan, he placed his grandfather Genghis Khan on
the imperial records as the official founder of the dynasty as Taizu.
In addition to Emperor of China, Kublai Khan also claimed the title of Great Khan, supreme over the other successor
khanates: the Chagatai, the Golden Horde, and the Ilkhanate. As such, the Great Yuan Empire was also sometimes
referred to as the Empire of the Great Khan. However, although this claim of the emperors of the Yuan Dynasty
was at times recognized by the western khans, their subservience was merely nominal and they each continued their
own separate development.[4][5][6]
History
Kublai Khan and Ariq Böke
In 1259 Great Khan Möngke died while Kublai Khan, his brother, was campaigning against the Song Dynasty in
South China and Ariq Böke, his other brother, commanded the Mongol homelands. A khuraldai, or the great
assembly of higher nobility took place in Karakorum, then the capital of the Mongol Empire, which proclaimed Ariq
Böke as the Great Khan in the traditional Mongolian style. Hearing of this, Kublai aborted his Chinese expedition
and gathered another great assembly at his headquarters in the city of Kaiping (Shangdu in present-day Inner
Mongolia) and, in 1260, he was proclaimed the Great Khan. However, this assembly convened by Kublai was
deemed illegitimate from the perspective of the Mongolian tradition of throne inheritance: the empire already had
Ariq Böke as legitimate Great Khan, who was in the capital.[7] In addition, it was said that that Kublai made
extensive use of bribery of princes. Ariq Böke sent an ambassador to his brother: "By the state's law, the Great Khan
is proclaimed by the great assembly, but you have ignored the supreme doctrine; sitting in China and, following
Chinese laws, you are acting autocratically."[8]
Kublai declared Ariq Böke to be a usurper, and, following the traditional Chinese custom, proclaimed the era name
to be "Zhong-tong". According to Chinese history, Kublai Khan gained the title of Emperor (huang di), although the
Chinese Song Dynasty at that time still resisted him in South China. In 1261–1264, he fought against his brother,
and eventually Ariq Böke was defeated and surrendered to Kublai. As the winning Great Khan, Kublai Khan now
expected the allegiance of other khanates.
However, at this time the khans of the Golden Horde and of the Chagatai Khanate did not recognize Kublai Khan as
the Great Khan. The conflicts between Kublai Khan and the khanates in Central Asia led by Kaidu had lasted for a
few decades, until the beginning of the 14th century, when both of them had died. Hülegü, another brother of Kublai
Khan, ruled his Ilkhanate and paid homage to the Great Khan but actually established an autonomous khanate, and
after Ilkhan Ghazan's enthronement in 1295, Kublai's successor Emperor Chengzong sent him a seal reading "王 府
定 國 理 民 之 寶" in Chinese script to symbolize this.[9] The four major successor khanates never came again
under true one rule, and border clashes also frequently occurred among them, although Yuan Dynasty's nominal
supremacy was recognized by the other three after the death of Kaidu.[10]
5
Yuan Dynasty
6
Founding of the Dynasty
From the beginning of his reign (1260), Kublai Khan had adopted
many customs from earlier Chinese dynasties, such as era names
and bureaucracy. He had several Chinese teachers attached to him
since his early years. Not only did they teach him Chinese history
and ideology, but permanently gave advice on governance.[11]
After winning the war against Ariq Böke, Kublai Khan began his
reign over his empire with greater aspirations and self-confidence.
In 1264, he transferred his headquarters to be near the capital of
the former Jurchen Jin Dynasty. In 1266 he ordered the
construction of his new capital at that site, in what is now the
modern city of Beijing. The city had been called Zhongdu
(Chinese: 中 都, lit. "Central Capital") during the Jin Dynasty,
and in 1272 it came to be known as Dadu (Chinese: 大 都;
Wade–Giles: Ta-tu, "Great Capital") in Chinese, Daidu to the
Mongols, and Khanbalykh ("City of the Khans") to the Turks.[12]
As early as 1264, Kublai decided to change the era name from
Kublai Khan, Genghis Khan's grandson and founder of
the Yuan Dynasty
Zhong-tong (中 統) to Zhi-yuan (至 元). With the desire to rule
all of China, Kublai Khan formally claimed the Mandate of
Heaven by proclaiming the new Yuan Dynasty in 1271 in the traditional Chinese style.[2] This would become the
first non-Han dynasty to rule all of China.
The official title of the Dynasty, Da Yuan (Chinese: 大 元, "Great Yuan"), originates from a Chinese classic text
called I Ching, "大 哉 乾 元" (dà zāi qián yuán), literally translating to 'Great is the Heavenly and Primal', with
"qián" being the symbol of the Heaven, and the Emperor. Therefore, Yuan was the first dynasty in China to use Da
(Chinese: 大, "Great") in its official title, as well as being the first dynasty to use a title that did not correspond to an
ancient region in China.[13] In 1271, Dadu officially became the capital of the Yuan Dynasty.
In the early 1270s, Kublai began his massive drive against Southern Song Dynasty in South China. By 1273, Kublai
had blockaded the Yangzi River with his navy and besieged Xiangyang, the last obstacle in his way to capture the
rich Yangzi River basin. In 1275, a Song force of 130,000 troops under Chancellor Jia Sidao was defeated by the
Yuan force. By 1276, most of the Southern Song territory had been captured by Yuan forces. In 1279, the Yuan
army led by the Chinese general Zhang Hongfan had crushed the last Song resistance at the Battle of Yamen, which
marked the end of the Southern Song and the onset of a united China under the Yuan. The Yuan Dynasty is
traditionally given credit for reuniting China after several hundred years of fragmentation following the fall of the
Tang Dynasty.
After the founding of the dynasty, Kublai Khan was put under pressure by many of his advisers to further expand the
sphere of influence of the Yuan through the traditional Sinocentric tributary system. However, the attempts to
establish such tributary relationships were rebuffed and expeditions to Japan (twice), Dai Viet (twice during Kublai's
rule[14]), and Java, would later meet with less success. Kublai established a puppet state in Myanmar, which caused
anarchy in the area, and the Pagan Kingdom was broken up into many regions warring with each another. In order to
avoid more bloodshed and conflicts with the Mongols, Annam and Champa later established nominal tributary
relations with the Yuan Dynasty.
Yuan Dynasty
7
Rule of Kublai Khan
Unlike his predecessors, Kublai established a government with institutions resembling the ones in earlier Chinese
dynasties and made reforms to maintain his centralized rule.[15]
Kublai Khan was seen as a martial emperor, reforming much of China and its institutions, a process that would have
taken decades to complete. For example, he consolidated his rule by centralizing [16] the government of China —
making himself (unlike his predecessors) an absolute monarch. He divided his empire into Xing Zhongshusheng (行
中 書 省), usually translated as "branch Secretariat" or "province", each governing the areas of approximately two
or three modern-day Chinese provinces, and this provincial-level government structure became the model for later
Ming and Qing dynasties. Kublai Khan also reformed many other governmental and economic institutions,
especially the tax system. Kublai Khan sought to govern China through traditional institutions,[17] and also
recognized that in order to rule China he needed to employ Han Chinese advisers and officials, though he never
relied totally on Chinese advisers.[18] Yet, the Hans were discriminated against politically. Almost all important
central posts were monopolized by Mongols, who also preferred employing non-Hans from other parts of the
Mongol domain in those positions for which no Mongol could be found. Hans were more often employed in
non-Chinese regions of the empire[citation needed]. In essence, society was divided into four classes in order of
privilege: Mongols, Semu ("Various sorts", for example: Central Asians), Northerners, and Southerners.[19] During
his lifetime, Kublai Khan built the capital of the Yuan, Dadu, which is present-day Beijing, and made Shangdu
(Chinese: 上 都, "Upper Capital", known to Marco Polo as Xanadu) the summer capital. He also improved the
agriculture of China, extending the Grand Canal, highways and public granaries. Marco Polo, a Venetian merchant
who served under Kublai Khan as an official, described his rule as benevolent: relieving the populace of taxes in
times of hardship; building hospitals and orphanages; distributing food among the abjectly poor.[citation needed]
He also promoted science and religion, and strongly supported the Silk Road trade network, allowing the contacts
between Chinese technologies and the western ones. It is worth mentioning that prior to meeting Marco Polo, Kublai
Khan had met Nicolo Polo, Marco Polo's father and Matteo Polo. Through conversation with the two merchants,
Kublai Khan developed a keen interest in the Latin world especially Christianity and sought to invite a hundred of
missionaries through a letter written in Latin to the Pope so that they may convince the masses of idolators the errors
of their belief. Thus Niccolo and Maffeo Polo served as ambasadors for Kublai Khan to the West. After having
completed their mission of accompanying a young Mongol princess to marry the Mongol ruler Arghun, their perilous
journey would end with them returning to Venice and meeting young Marco Polo of seventeen in 1271. The three
returned to the East and once again met with Kublai Khan, and it was said that Marco Polo served as an emissary of
Kublai Khan throughout his domain for seventeen years. Although Nicolo and Maffeo failed to bring back any
missionaries with them or a letter from the Pope due to the Great Schism, they were successful in returning with oil
from the lamp of God in Jerusalem.[16] Marco Polo's travels would later inspire many others like Christopher
Columbus to chart the passage to the "Middle Kingdom" the realm of the East, present day China in search of wealth
and splendor.
He issued paper banknotes known as Chao (鈔) in 1273. Paper
currency had been issued and used in China before Yuan time; by
960, the Song Dynasty, short of copper for striking coins, issued
the first generally circulating notes. However, during the Song
Dynasty, paper money was used alongside the coins. On the other
hand, Yuan was the first dynasty in China to use paper currency as
the predominant circulating medium. The Yuan bureaucrats made
paper bills from the mulberry bark paper.
Yuan dynasty banknote with its printing plate, 1287.
Yuan Dynasty
While he had claimed nominal supremacy over the rest of the Mongol Empire, his interest was clearly in China,
along with the areas in its traditional Sinocentric tributary system. From the beginning of his reign, the other three
khanates of the Mongol Empire became de facto independent and only one recognized him as Khagan. By the time
of Kublai Khan’s death in 1294, this separation has deepened, although later Yuan emperors had nominal supremacy
in the west til the end of their rule in China. The temple name given for Kublai Khan is Shizu (Chinese: 世 祖).
Early rulers after Kublai
Following the conquest of Dali in AD 1253, the former ruling
Duan dynasty were appointed as governors-general, recognized as
imperial officials by the Yuan, Ming, and Qing-era governments,
principally in the province of Yunnan. Succession for the Yuan
Dynasty, however, was an intractable problem, later causing much
strife and internal struggle. This emerged as early as the end of
Kublai's reign. Kublai originally named his eldest son, Zhenjin
(Chinese: 真 金) as the Crown Prince (Chinese: 皇 太 子) — but
he died before Kublai in 1285. Thus, Zhenjin's third son, with the
support of his mother Kökejin and the minister Bayan, succeeded
A Yuan Dynasty jade belt plaque featuring carved
the throne and ruled as Temür Khan or Emperor Chengzong for
designs of a dragon.
approximately 10 years following Kublai's death (between 1294
and 1307). Temür Khan decided to maintain and continue much of
the work begun by his grandfather. He also made peace with the western Mongol khanates as well as the neighboring
countries such as Vietnam, which recognized his nominal suzerainty and paid tributes for a few decades. However,
the corruption in the Yuan Dynasty began during the reign of Temür Khan.
Külüg Khan (Emperor Wuzong) came to the throne after the death of Temür Khan. Unlike his predecessor, he did
not continue Kublai's work, but largely rejected it. Most significantly he introduced a policy called "New Deals", and
the central of this policy were monetary reforms. During his short reign (1307 to 1311), the government fell into
financial difficulties, partly due to bad decisions made by Külüg. By the time he died, China was in severe debt and
the Yuan court faced popular discontent.
The fourth Yuan emperor, Buyantu Khan (Ayurbarwada) was a competent emperor. He was the first among the
Yuan emperors who actively supported and adopted the mainstream Chinese culture after the reign of Kublai, to the
discontent of some Mongol elite. He had been mentored by Li Meng, a Confucian academic. He made many
reforms, including the liquidation of the Department of State Affairs (Chinese: 尚 書 省), which resulted in the
execution of 5 of the highest-ranking officials. Starting in 1313 the traditional imperial examinations were
reintroduced for prospective officials, testing their knowledge on significant historical works. Also, he codified much
of the law, as well as publishing or translating a number of Chinese books and works.
The next emperor, Gegeen Khan, Ayurbarwada's son and successor, continued his father's policies to reform the
government based on the Confucian principles, with the help of his newly appointed grand chancellor Baiju. During
his reign, the Da Yuan Tong Zhi (Chinese: 大 元 通 制, "the comprehensive institutions of the Great Yuan"), a
huge collection of codes and regulations of the Yuan Dynasty began by his father, was formally promulgated.
8
Yuan Dynasty
9
Later years of the Dynasty
The last years of the Yuan Dynasty were marked by struggle,
famine, and bitterness among the populace. In time, Kublai Khan's
successors lost all influence on other Mongol lands across Asia,
while the Mongols beyond the Middle Kingdom saw them as too
Chinese. Gradually, they lost influence in China as well. The
reigns of the later Yuan emperors were short and were marked by
intrigues and rivalries. Uninterested in administration, they were
separated from both the army and the populace. China was torn by
dissension and unrest; outlaws ravaged the country without
interference from the weakening Yuan armies.
Regardless of the merits of his reign, Shidebala (Emperor
Yingzong) ruled for only two years (1321 to 1323); his rule ended
in a coup at the hands of five princes. They placed Yesün Temür
(or Taidingdi) on the throne, and, after an unsuccessful attempt to
calm the princes, he also succumbed to regicide. Before Yesün
Temür's reign, China had been relatively free from popular
rebellions after the reign of Kublai. Yuan control, however, began
The Bailin Temple Pagoda of Zhaoxian County, Hebei
Province, built in 1330 during the Yuan Dynasty.
to break down in those regions inhabited by ethnic minorities. The
occurrence of these revolts and the subsequent suppression
aggravated the financial difficulties of the Yuan government. The government had to adopt some measure to increase
revenue such as selling offices, as well as curtailing its spending on some items.[20]
When Yesün Temür died in Shangdu in 1328, Tugh Temür was recalled to Dadu by the Qipchaq commander El
Temür. He was installed as the emperor (Emperor Wenzong) in Dadu while Yesün Temür's son Ragibagh succeeded
to the throne in Shangdu with the support of Yesün Temür's favorite retainer Dawlat Shah. Gaining support from
princes and officers in Northern China and some other parts of the dynasty, Dadu-based Tugh Temür eventually won
the civil war against Ragibagh in 1329. Afterwards, Tugh Temür abdicated in favour of his brother Kusala who was
backed by Chagatai Khan Eljigidey and announced Dadu's intent to welcome him. However, Kusala suddenly died
only 4 days after a banquet with Tugh Temür. He was supposedly killed with poison by El Temür, and Tugh Temür
then remounted the throne. Tugh Temür also managed to send delegates to the western Mongol khanates such as
Golden Horde and Ilkhanate to be accepted as the suzerain of Mongol world.[21] However, he was mainly a puppet
of the powerful official El Temür during his latter three-year reign. El Temür purged pro-Kusala officials and
brought power to warlords, whose despotic rule clearly marked the decline of the dynasty.
Due to the fact that the bureaucracy was dominated by El Temür, Tugh
Temür is known for his cultural contribution instead. He adopted many
measures honoring Confucianism and promoting Chinese cultural
values. His most concrete effort to patronize Chinese learning was his
founding of the Academy of the Pavilion of the Star of Literature
Yuan coinage.
(Chinese: 奎 章 閣 學 士 院), first established in the spring of 1329,
and was designed to undertake "a number of tasks relating to the transmission of Confucian high culture to the
Mongolian imperial establishment". The academy was responsible for compiling and publishing a number of books,
but its most important achievement was its compilation of a vast institutional compendium named Jingshi Dadian
(Chinese: 經 世 大 典). He supported Zhu Xi's Neo-Confucianism and also devoted himself in Buddhism.
After the death of Tugh Temür in 1332 and subsequently the death of Rinchinbal (Emperor Ningzong) in the end of
the same year, the 13-year-old Toghun Temür (Emperor Huizong), the last of the nine successors of Kublai Khan,
Yuan Dynasty
was summoned back from Guangxi and succeeded to the throne after El Temür's death. Nevertheless, Bayan became
another powerful official as El Temür was in the beginning of his long reign. As Toghun Temür grew, he came to
disapprove of Bayan's autocratic rule. In 1340 he allied himself with Bayan's nephew Toghtogha, who was in discord
with Bayan, and banished Bayan by coup. With the dismissal of Bayan, Toghtogha seized the power of the court. His
first administration clearly exhibited fresh new spirit. He also gave a few early signs of a new and positive direction
in central government. One of his successful projects was to finish the long-stalled official histories of the Liao, Jin
and Song dynasties, which were eventually completed in 1345. Yet, Toghtogha resigned his office with the approval
of Toghun Temür, which marked the end of his first administration, and he was not called back until 1349.
From the late 1340s onwards, people in the countryside suffered from frequent natural disasters such as droughts,
floods and the resulting famines, and the government's lack of effective policy led to a loss of popular support. In
1351, the Red Turban Rebellion started and grew into a nationwide uprising. In 1354, when Toghtogha led a large
army to crush the Red Turban rebels, Toghun Temür suddenly dismissed him for fear of betrayal. This resulted in
Toghun Temür's restoration of power on the one hand and a rapid weakening of the central government on the other.
He had no choice but to rely on local warlords' military power, and gradually lost his interest in politics and ceased
to intervene in political struggles. He fled north to Shangdu from Dadu (present-day Beijing) in 1368 after the
approach of the forces of the Míng Dynasty (1368–1644), founded by Zhu Yuanzhang in the south. He had tried to
regain Dadu, which eventually failed; he died in Yingchang (located in present-day Inner Mongolia) two years later
(1370). Yingchang was seized by the Ming shortly after his death. Some royal family members still lived in Henan
today.[22]
The Prince of Liang, Basalawarmi established a separate pocket of resistance to the Ming in Yunnan and Guizhou,
but his forces were decisively defeated by the Ming in 1381. By 1388 the remaining Yuan forces in Manchuria under
Nahacu had also surrendered to the Ming Dynasty.
Northern Yuan
The Yuan remnants retreated to Mongolia after the fall of Yingchang to the Ming in 1370, where the name Great
Yuan (大 元) was formally carried on, and is known as the Northern Yuan (北 元). According to Chinese political
orthodoxy, there could be only one legitimate dynasty whose rulers were blessed by Heaven to rule as Emperor of
China (see Mandate of Heaven), and so the Ming and the Northern Yuan denied each other's legitimacy as emperors
of China, although the Ming did consider the previous Yuan which it had succeeded to be a legitimate dynasty.
Historians generally regard Míng Dynasty rulers as the legitimate emperors of China after the Yuan Dynasty, though
Northern Yuan rulers also claimed to rule over China, and continued to resist the Ming under the name "Yuan" or
"Northern Yuan".[23]
The Ming army pursued the Northern Yuan forces into Mongolia in 1372, but were defeated by the latter under
Ayushridar and his general Köke Temür. They tried again in 1380, ultimately winning a decisive victory over
Northern Yuan in 1388. About 70,000 Mongols were taken prisoner, and Karakorum (the Northern Yuan capital)
was sacked.[24] Eight years later, the Northern Yuan throne was taken over by Yesüder, a descendant of Ariq Böke,
instead of the descendants of Kublai Khan. The following centuries saw a succession of Genghisid rulers, many of
whom were mere figureheads put on the throne by those warlords who happened to be the most powerful. Periods of
conflict with the Ming Dynasty intermingled with periods of peaceful relations with border trade. In 1402, Örüg
Temür Khan (Guilichi) abolished the name Great Yuan; he was however defeated by Öljei Temür Khan
(Bunyashiri), protege of Tamerlane (Timur Barulas) in 1403. A few decades later the new khan Batumongke
(1464–1517/43) took the title Dayan meaning "Da Yuan" or "Great Yuan".[25] and reunited the Mongols. His
successors continued to rule until the submission to the Qing Dynasty, ending the Northern Yuan in 1635.
10
Yuan Dynasty
11
Impact
A Yuan Dynasty blue-and-white porcelain dish
with fish and flowing water design, mid
fourteenth century, Freer Gallery of Art.
Hand cannon from the Yuan Dynasty
A rich cultural diversity developed during the Yuan Dynasty. The
major cultural achievements were the development of drama and the
novel and the increased use of the written vernacular. The political
unity of China and much of central Asia promoted trade between East
and West. The Mongols' extensive West Asian and European contacts
produced a fair amount of cultural exchange. The other cultures and
peoples in the Mongol World Empire also very much influenced
China. It had significantly eased trade and commerce across Asia until
its decline; the communications between Yuan Dynasty and its ally and
subordinate
in
Persia,
the
Ilkhanate,
encouraged
this
[26][27]
development.
Buddhism had a great influence in the Yuan
government, and the Tibetan-rite Tantric Buddhism had significantly
influenced China during this period. The Muslims of the Yuan Dynasty
introduced Middle Eastern cartography, astronomy, medicine, clothing,
and diet in East Asia. Eastern crops such as carrots, turnips, new
varieties of lemons, eggplants, and melons, high-quality granulated
sugar, and cotton were all either introduced or successfully popularized
during the Yuan Dynasty.[28]
Yuan Dynasty
12
Archbishop John of Cilician Armenia, in a
painting from 1287. His dress displays a Chinese
dragon, an indication of the thriving exchanges
with the Mongols during the period.
Western musical instruments were introduced to enrich Chinese
performing arts. From this period dates the conversion to Islam, by
Muslims of Central Asia, of growing numbers of Chinese in the
northwest and southwest. Nestorianism and Roman Catholicism also
enjoyed a period of toleration. Buddhism (especially Tibetan
Buddhism) flourished, although Taoism endured certain persecutions
in favor of Buddhism from the Yuan government. Confucian
governmental practices and examinations based on the Classics, which
had fallen into disuse in north China during the period of disunity,
were reinstated by the Yuan court, probably in the hope of maintaining
order over Han society. Advances were realized in the fields of travel
literature, cartography, geography, and scientific education.
Certain Chinese innovations and products, such as purified saltpetre,
printing techniques, porcelain, playing cards and medical literature,
were exported to Europe and Western Asia, while the production of
thin glass and cloisonné became popular in China. The Yuan exercised
a profound influence on the Chinese Ming Dynasty. The Ming
Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang (1368–97) admired the Mongols' unification
of China and adopted its garrison system.[28]
The first recorded travels by Europeans to China and back date from
this time. The most famous traveler of the period was the Venetian
A plate made of lacquer, wood, and paper from
the Yuan dynasty. The Chinese were able to
perfect a method of making lacquer. Decorating
this plate are parrots and peonies. The parrot was
a symbol of fidelity; and because of its ability to
mimic human speech, it was believed to be a
suitable companion to a woman whose husband
was away from home. The bird would be able to
inform each person of the other's activities. The
peony was a symbol of female virtue. When
shown in full bloom, it is a token of love,
[29]
affection, and feminine beauty.
Birmingham
Museum of Art.
Yuan Dynasty
Marco Polo, whose account of his trip to "Cambaluc," the capital of the Great Khan, and of life there astounded the
people of Europe. The account of his travels, Il milione (or, The Million, known in English as the Travels of Marco
Polo), appeared about the year 1299. Some argue the accuracy of Marco Polo's accounts due to the lack of
mentioning the Great Wall of China, tea houses, which would have been a prominent sight since Europeans had yet
to adopt a tea culture, as well the practice of foot binding by the women in capital of the Great Khan. Some suggest
that Marco Polo acquired much of his knowledge through contact with Persian traders since many of the places he
named were in Persian.[30]
The Yuan undertook extensive public works. Road and water communications were reorganized and improved. To
provide against possible famines, granaries were ordered built throughout the empire. The city of Beijing was rebuilt
with new palace grounds that included artificial lakes, hills and mountains, and parks. During the Yuan period,
Beijing became the terminus of the Grand Canal of China, which was completely renovated. These commercially
oriented improvements encouraged overland and maritime commerce throughout Asia and facilitated direct Chinese
contacts with Europe. Chinese travelers to the West were able to provide assistance in such areas as hydraulic
engineering. Contacts with the West also brought the introduction to China of a major food crop, sorghum, along
with other foreign food products and methods of preparation.
The Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368) was the first time that non-native Chinese people ruled all of China. In
historiography of Mongolia, it is generally considered to be the continuation of the Mongol Empire.[31] Mongols are
widely known to worship the Eternal Heaven, and according to the traditional Mongolian ideology Yuan is
considered to be "the beginning of an infinite number of beings, the foundation of peace and happiness, state power,
the dream of many peoples, besides it there is nothing great or precious" which conquered the whole China.[32] In
traditional historiography of China on the other hand, the Yuan Dynasty is usually considered to be the legitimate
dynasty between the Song Dynasty and the Ming Dynasty. Note, however, Yuan Dynasty is traditionally often
extended to cover the Mongol Empire before Kublai Khan's formal establishment of the Yuan in 1271, partly
because Kublai had his grandfather Genghis Khan placed on the official record as the founder of the dynasty or
Taizu (Chinese: 太 祖). Despite the traditional historiography as well as the official views (including the
government of the Ming Dynasty which overthrew the Yuan Dynasty), there also exist Chinese people who did not
consider Yuan Dynasty as a legitimate dynasty of China, but a period of foreign domination. The latter believe that
Han Chinese were treated as second-class citizens, and China stagnated economically and scientifically. But there
are also other views.
Government
The structure of the Yuan government took shape during the reign of Kublai Khan (1260–1294). While some
changes took place such as the functions of certain institutions, the essential components of the government
bureaucracy remained intact from the beginning to the end of the dynasty in 1368.
The bureaucracy system created by Kublai Khan reflected various cultures in the empire, including that of the Han
Chinese, Khitans, Jurchens, Mongols and Tibetan Buddhists. While the official terminology of the institutions may
indicate the government structure was almost purely that of native Chinese dynasties, the Yuan bureaucracy actually
consisted of a mix of elements from different cultures. The Chinese-style elements of the bureaucracy mainly came
from the native Tang, Song, as well as Khitan Liao and Jurchen Jin dynasties. Chinese advisers such as Liu
Bingzhong and Yao Shu gave strong influence to Kublai's early court, and the central government administration
was established within the first decade of Kublai's reign. This government adopted the traditional Chinese tripartite
division of authority among civil, military, and censorial offices, including the Central Secretariat (Chinese: 中 書
省) to manage civil affairs, the Privy Council (Chinese: 樞 密 院) to manage military affairs, and the Censorate
(Chinese: 御 史 臺) to conduct internal surveillance and inspection. The actual functions of both central and local
government institutions however showed a major overlap between the civil and military jurisdictions, due to the
Mongol traditional reliance on military institutions and offices as the core of governance. Nevertheless, such a
13
Yuan Dynasty
14
civilian bureaucracy, with the Central Secretariat as the top institution that was (directly or indirectly) responsible for
most other governmental agencies (such as the traditional Chinese-style Six Ministries), was created in China. At
various times another central government institution called the Department of State Affairs (Chinese: 尚 書 省)
mainly dealt with finance was established (such as during the reign of Külüg Khan or Emperor Wuzong), but usually
became abandoned shortly afterwards.
While the existence of these central government departments and the Six Ministries (which had been introduced
since the Sui and Tang dynasties) gave a sinicized image in the Yuan administration, the actual functions of these
ministries also reflected how Mongolian priorities and policies reshape and redirect those institutions. For example,
the authority of the Yuan legal system, the Ministry of Justice did not extend to legal cases involving Mongols and
Semuren, where there were separate courts of justice for them. Cases involving members of more than one ethnic
group were decided by a mixed board consisting of Chinese and Mongols. Another example was the insignificance
of the Ministry of War compared with native Chinese dynasties, as the real military authority in Yuan times resided
in the Privy Council.
Society
Imperial lifestyle
Since its invention in 1269, the 'Phags-pa script, a unified script for
spelling Mongolian' Tibetan, and Chinese languages, was preserved in
the court until the end of the Dynasty. Most of the Emperors could not
master written Chinese, but they could generally converse well in the
language. The Mongol custom of long standing quda/marriage alliance
with Mongol clans, the Onggirat and the Ikeres, kept the imperial
blood purely Mongol until the reign of Tugh Temur whose mother was
a Tangut concubine. The Mongol Emperors had built large palaces and
pavilions, but some still continued to live as nomads at times.
Nevertheless, a few other Yuan emperors actively sponsored cultural
activities; an example is Tugh Temur (Emperor Wenzong), who wrote
poetry, painted, read Chinese classical texts, and ordered compilation
of books.[33]
Painting of Kublai Khan on a hunting expedition,
by Chinese court artist Liu Guandao, c. 1280.
Kublai and his successors kept a Tibetan lama of the Sakya order at court. Mongol patronage of Buddhism resulted
in a number of monuments of Buddhist art. Mongolian Buddhist translations, almost all from Tibetan originals,
began on a large scale after 1300. Many Mongols of the upper class such as the Jalayir and the Oronar nobels
delighted in patronizing Confucian scholars and institutions. A considerable number of Confucian and Chinese
historical works were translated into Mongolian language.
The average Mongol garrison family of the Yuan Dynasty seems to have lived a life of decaying rural leisure, with
income from the harvests of their Chinese tenants eaten up by costs of equipping and dispatching men for their tours
of duty. The Mongols practiced debt slavery and by 1290 in all parts of the Mongol Empire Mongol commoners
were selling their children into slavery. Seeing this as damaging the Mongol nation, Kublai forbade the sale abroad
of the Mongols in 1291, and likewise Ilkhan Ghazan (1295–1304) in Persia budgeted funds to redeem Mongol
slaves.
Yuan Dynasty
15
Culture
In the China of the Yuan, or Mongol era, various important developments in the arts occurred or continued in their
development. These developments included the areas of painting, mathematics, calligraphy, poetry, and theater, with
many great artists and writers being famous today. Due to the coming together of painting, poetry, and calligraphy at
this time many of the artists practicing these different pursuits were the same individuals, though perhaps more
famed for one area of their achievements than others. Often in terms of the development of landscape painting as
well as the classical joining together of the arts of painting, poetry, and calligraphy, the Song Dynasty and the Yuan
Dynasty are linked together. In the area of Chinese painting during the Yuan Dynasty there were many famous
painters. In the area of calligraphy many of the great calligraphers were from the Yuan Dynasty era. In Yuan poetry,
the main development was the qu, which was used among other poetic forms by most of the famous Yuan poets.
Many of the poets were also involved in the major developments in the theater during this time, and the other way
around, with people important in the theater becoming famous through the development of the sanqu type of qu. One
of the key factors in the mix of the zaju variety show was the incorporation of poetry both classical and of the newer
qu form. One of the important cultural developments during the Yuan era was the consolidation of poetry, painting,
and calligraphy into a unified piece of the type which tends to come to mind when people think of classical Chinese
art. Another important aspect of Yuan times is the increasing incorporation of the then current, vernacular Chinese
into both the qu form of poetry and the zaju variety show. Another important consideration regarding Yuan Dynasty
arts and culture is that so much of it has survived in China, relatively to works from the Tang Dynasty and Song
Dynasty, which have often been better preserved in places such as the Shōsōin, in Japan.
Social classes
Politically, the system of government created by Kublai Khan was the
product of a compromise between Mongolian patrimonial feudalism
and the traditional Chinese autocratic-bureaucratic system.
Nevertheless, socially the educated Chinese elite were in general not
given the degree of esteem that they had been accorded previously
under native Chinese dynasties. Although the traditional Chinese elite
were not given their share of power, the Mongols and the Semuren
(various allied groups from Central Asia and the western end of the
empire) largely remained strangers to the mainstream Chinese culture,
and this dichotomy gave the Yuan regime a somewhat strong
"colonial" coloration.[34] The unequal treatment is possibly due to the
fear of transferring power to the ethnic Chinese under their rule. The
Mongols and Semuren were given certain advantages in the dynasty,
and this would last even after the restoration of the imperial
examination in the early 14th century. In general there were very few
North Chinese or Southerners reaching the highest-post in the
government compared with the possibility that Persians did so in the
Ilkhanate.[35] Later the Yongle Emperor of the Ming Dynasty had also
mentioned about the discrimination existed during the Yuan
Dynasty.[36]
A white porcelain Buddhist statue from the Yuan
Dynasty
The Mongols had employed foreigners long before the reign of Kublai Khan, the founder of the Yuan Dynasty. But
during Kublai's reign a hierarchy of reliability was introduced in China. The population was divided into the
following classes:
• Mongols
• Semuren, including Uyghurs, immigrants from the west and some clans of Central Asia
Yuan Dynasty
16
• North Chinese, Khitans, Jurchens and Koreans
• Southerners, or all subjects of the former Southern Song Dynasty
Partner merchants and non-Mongol overseers were usually either immigrants or local ethnic groups. Thus, in China
they were Uighurs, Turkestani and Persian Muslims, and Christians. Foreigners from outside the Mongol Empire
entirely, such as the Polo family, were everywhere welcomed.
Despite the high position given to Muslims, some policies of the Yuan Emperors severe discriminated against them,
restricting Halal slaughter and other Islamic practices like circumcision, as well as Kosher butchering for Jews,
forcing them to eat food the Mongol way.[37] Toward the end, corruption and the persecution became so severe that
Muslim Generals joined Han Chinese in rebelling against the Mongols. The Ming founder Zhu Yuanzhang had
Muslim Generals like Lan Yu who rebelled against the Mongols and defeated them in combat. Some Muslim
communities had the name in Chinese which meant "baracks" and also mean "thanks", many Hui Muslims claim it is
because that they played an important role in overthrowing the Mongols and it was named in thanks by the Han
Chinese for assisting them.[38] The Muslims in the semu class also revolted against the Yuan dynasty in the Ispah
Rebellion but the rebellion was crushed and the Muslims were massacred by the Yuan loyalist commander Chen
Youding.
Administrative divisions
The territory of the Yuan Dynasty was divided into the
Central Region (腹 裏) and places under control of
various Xing Zhongshusheng (行 中 書 省 or 行 省)
or the Xuanzheng Yuan (宣 政 院).
The Central Region, consisting of present-day Hebei,
Shandong, Shanxi, the south-eastern part of present-day
Inner Mongolia and the Henan areas to the north of the
Yellow River, was considered the most important
region of the dynasty and directly governed by
Zhongshusheng (中 書 省, "Secretariat") at Dadu;
similarly, another top-level administrative department
called the Xuanzheng Yuan governed the whole of
modern-day Tibet and a part of Kashmir.
Administrative divisions of the Yuan Dynasty.
Xing Zhongshusheng (行 中 書 省, "branch Secretariat" or "en-route Secretariat"), or simply Xingsheng (行 省),
were provincial-level administrative organizations or institutions, sometimes roughly translated as "Province",
though they were not exactly provinces in modern sense. There were 11 Xing Zhongshusheng or Xingsheng in Yuan
Dynasty.[39]
1. Gansu Xingsheng (甘 肅 行 省) with Zhangye District as its seat of government. Under this came most of
present-day Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region (originally the Tangut territory), south-eastern Gansu Province, and
part of north-eastern Amdo.
2. Henan Jiangbei Xingsheng (河 南 江 北 行 省) with Kaifeng District as its seat of government. Under this
came the Henan areas to the south of the Yellow River, north-east Hubei, Jiangsu, the north-eastern part of
Jiangxi Province.
3. Huguang Xingsheng (湖 廣 行 省) with Wuhan of the present-day Hubei Province as its seat of government.
Under this came a part of south-east Hubei, Hunan, Guangxi, most of Guizhou, and parts of south-western
Guangdong Province.
4. Jiangxi Xingsheng (江 西 行 省) with Nanchang as its seat of government. Under this came part of present-day
Jiangxi and Guangdong Province.
Yuan Dynasty
5. Jiangzhe Xingsheng (江 浙 行 省) with Hangzhou as its seat of government. Under this came Jiangsu and
Anhui areas to the south of the Yangtze River, Zhejiang, Fujian, and a small area in the north-east of Jiangxi
Province.
6. Liaoyang Xingsheng (遼 陽 行 省) with present-day Liaoyang District in Liaoning Province as its seat of
government. Under this came north-east China and the northern part of Korea.
7. Lingbei Xingsheng (嶺 北 行 省) with Karakorum as its seat of government. Under this province came the
present-day Mongolia, northern Inner Mongolia and parts of Siberia.
8. Shaanxi Xingsheng (陝 西 行 省) with Xi'an as its seat of government. Under this came the majority of
present-day Shaanxi Province, the south-western part of Inner Mongolia, south-eastern Gansu, north-western
Sichuan, and a small part of Qinghai.
9. Sichuan Xingsheng (四 川 行 省) with Chengdu at its seat of government. Under this came most of present-day
Sichuan Province and parts of south-western Shaanxi.
10. Yunnan Xingsheng (雲 南 行 省) with Kunming as its seat of government. Under this came present-day
Yunnan Province, parts of western Guizhou and north-eastern part of Burma.
11. Zhendong Xingsheng (征 東 行 省) with Kaesong of present-day Korea as its seat. It was a special institution
set up when Kublai Khan attempted to invade Japan in 1281, with the king of Goryeo as its head. The setting of
this Xingsheng was considerably different from all other Xingsheng, and unlike other Xingsheng, Zhendong (征
東), literally "Conquer East" or "Eastern Expedition", was not a geographic name, and this institution was also
referred to as "Japanese Expedition Xingsheng" (征 日 本 行 省) or just "Japan Xingsheng" (日 本 行 省). It
was abolished when the invasion of Japan had failed, though set up again later.
Below the level of Xing Zhongshusheng or Xingsheng, the largest political division was the circuit (道), followed by
prefectures (府) operating under a prefect and subprefectures (州) under a subprefect. The lowest political division
was the county (縣) overseen by a magistrate. This government structure at the provincial level was later copied by
the Ming and Qing dynasties.
References
[1] Also the Yekhe Yuan Ulus. According to some sources such as Volker Rybatzki & Igor de Rachewiltz's The Early Mongols: Language,
Culture and History (p. 116), the full Mongolian name was Dai Ön Yeke Mongghul Ulus.
[2] Cambridge History of China, vol 6, p624
[3] Christopher P.Atwood – Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire
[4] Micheal Prwadin – The Mongol Empire and its legacy
[5] J.J.Saunders – The history of Mongol conquests
[6] Rene Grousset – The Empire of Steppes
[7] Dalai, Ch. The struggle for the Khaan throne during Kublai and his successors. - In: Tataro-Mongoly v Azii i Evrope. Moscow, 1977, p.325.
[8] Ganbold et al., 2006. Ganbold, J., Munhtsetseg, T. Naran, A.D. and Puntsag, A. 2006. Mongolyn Yuan uls [The Mongolian Yuan State].
Ulaanbaatar.
[9] Seal of the Ilkhan Ghazan in a 1302 letter to Pope Boniface VIII.
The seal, in Chinese script, reads "Seal certifying the authority of his Royal Highness to establish a country and
govern its people". Vatican Archives.
[10] H.H.Howorth-History of the Mongols, vol.II p.288
[11] Dalai, 1977, op. cit., p.324.
[12] Rossabi, M., Khubilai Khan, p131.
[13]
[14]
[15]
[16]
[17]
[18]
Zhu Guozhen (1557–1632), Yong Zhuang Xiaopin (涌 幢 小 品) Vol.2.
An earlier expedition had failed in 1257/1258.
The Cambridge History of China, Volume 6, pg 424
Wood, F. (1995). "Did Marco Polo go to China?", p. 1-7
Rossabi, M. Khubilai Khan: His Life and Times, p56
Rossabi, M. Khubilai Khan: His Life and Times, p115
[19] Ed. Herbert Franke, Denis Twitchett, John King Fairbank-The Cambridge History of China: Alien regimes and border states, 907-1368, p.
631
[20] The Cambridge History of China By Denis Twitchett, Herbert Franke, John K. Fairbank, vol6, p.551
17
Yuan Dynasty
18
[21] The Cambridge History of China By Denis Twitchett, Herbert Franke, John K. Fairbank, vol6, p.550
[22] 成 吉 思 汗 直 系 后 裔 现 身 河 南 巨 幅 家 谱 为 证(组 图)_新 民 网 (http:/ / news. xinmin. cn/ domestic/ zonghe/ 2007/ 02/
06/ 149732. html)
[23] The Northern Yuan rulers had also buttressed their claim on China at least up to the 15th century, who held tenaciously to the title of
Emperor (or Great Khan) of the Great Yuan (Dai Yuwan Khaan, or 大 元 可 汗). For more information regarding the use of the name Yuan
among Mongols and the memory of it in later ages, see (https:/ / qir. kyushu-u. ac. jp/ dspace/ bitstream/ 2324/ 9498/ 1/ scs14p065. pdf).
[24] Michael Prawdin, The Mongol Empire, its Rise and Legacy p.389. Collier-MacMillan Ltd. Toronto
[25] Memory of the Dai Yuan ulus (the Great Yuan dynasty) (https:/ / qir. kyushu-u. ac. jp/ dspace/ handle/ 2324/ 9498)
[26] Gregory G.Guzman - Were the barbarians a negative or positive factor in ancient and medieval history?, The historian 50 (1988), 568-70
[27] Thomas T.Allsen - Culture and conquest in Mongol Eurasia, 211
[28] C.P. Atwood - Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire, p.611
[30] Frances, Wood. "Did Marco Polo Go to China (London: Secker & Warburg, 1995)
[31] The Mongol Empire By Michael Prawdin, Gerard Chaliand, ISBN 978-1-4128-0519-3
[32] Ganbold et al., op. cit., 2006, p.20–21.
[33] Frederick W. Mote-Imperial China 900-1800, p.471
[34] Ed. Herbert Franke, Denis Twitchett, John King Fairbank-The Cambridge History of China: Alien regimes and border states, 907-1368, p.
491-492
[35] David Morgan-Who Ran the Mongol Empire?, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, No. 1 (1982), p.135
[36] In response to an objection against the use of "barbarians" in his government, the Yongle Emperor answered: "... Discrimination was used by
the Mongols during the Yuan dynasty, who employed only "Mongols and Tartars" and discarded northern and southern Chinese and this was
precisely the cause that brought disaster upon them". David Morgan-Who Ran the Mongol Empire?, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of
Great Britain and Ireland, No. 1 (1982), pp.124-136
[37] .
[39] Duosang Mongol History, Vol. 1; Zhong-gou Tong-shi; History of Zhong-gou Border Nationalities; The New Yuan-shih
Further reading
• Chan Hok-lam and de Bary, W.T., Yuan Thought: Chinese Thought and Religion Under the Mongols, (New
York: Columbia University Press, 1982). ISBN 978-0-231-05324-2.
• Cotterell, Arthur. (2007). The Imperial Capitals of China - An Inside View of the Celestial Empire. London:
Pimlico. pp. 304 pages. ISBN 9781845950095.
• Langlois, John D., China Under Mongol Rule, (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1981). ISBN
978-0-691-10110-1.
• Paludan, Ann. (1998). Chronicle of tasdasadtaehe China Emperors. London: Thames & Hudson. pp. 224 pages.
ISBN 0-500-05090-2.
• Rossabi, M., Khubilai Khan: His Life and Times, (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1989). ISBN
978-0-520-06740-0.
• J. J. Saunders, The History of the Mongol Conquests (1971; rpr University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001 ISBN
0812217667.)
External links
• Yuan Dynasty Earthen City Wall Park, Beijing (http://www.kinabaloo.com/yd1.html)
Preceded by
Song Dynasty
Jin Dynasty
Western Xia
Western Liao
Kingdom of Dali
Remnant of Tibetan Empire
Dynasties in Chinese
history
1271-1368
Succeeded by
Ming Dynasty
Coordinates: 39°54′N 116°23′E (http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack. php?pagename=Yuan_Dynasty&
params=39_54_N_116_23_E_type:country_source:kolossus-ukwiki)
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File:White Sulde of the Mongol Empire.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:White_Sulde_of_the_Mongol_Empire.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License
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(also known as Araniko) of Nepal, an astronomer, engineer, painter, and confidant of Kublai Khan
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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
File:Yuan dynasty banknote with its printing plate 1287.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Yuan_dynasty_banknote_with_its_printing_plate_1287.jpg License:
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