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HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE WALLACE E. CALDWELL, A. B. tn Ancient History, Cornell University University fellow in Ancient History Instructor in History, Columbia University Sometime Assistant SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN THE Faculty of Political Science Columbia University McMASTER UNIVERSITY LIBRARY :K JX 1941 C4 conceptions of peace c. 1 i 3 9005 0412 4969 3 i HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE WALLACE E. CALDWELL, A. B. Sometime Atsistant in Ancient History, Fellow in Ancient University History, Instructor in Columbia Cornell University History University SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN THE Faculty of Political Science Columbia University NEW YORK 1919 PREFACE Ancient Hellas with its its own social for its talent fatherland to citizen was subordinated all to the greater and Out produced the finest works of of such devastating wars products, Hellenic freedom In the early almost quent, ural part of ulations half of Greeks period of annual, and every handed down the that keen rivalry culture. which But from it its very the downfall of and civilization. Greek history ; The the fifth century B. great fre wars were of and warfare became a nat existence with careful rules and almost a sport. Persian war reg in the first C, however, brought home to the clearly the advantages and the disadvantages With the of war. came Hellenic occurrence the citizen's most which which which used better than it had been handed down ideals to trim. also came the state, and interests, The high dialect. that patriotism possess service of glorification own each city-states, own economic its and often small of systems, its customs, the est aim of land was a own political wars between Athens long and wearisome series of struggles and Sparta and for supremacy the which followed in the fourth century, there came a realization of the ruinous effects of strife, which led in turn to the growth of a strong solve the problem of ment of a fits, along pression history were peace movement and of variety of attempts to The develop its bene relations. for its perpetuation, found ex the writers of Hellas. In the productions of their age carry them a with an appreciation of with suggestions founded 399] inter-Hellenic desire for peace, in the to and into lay the the background methods on which which were their ideas developed execution. 5 to 6 [40 PREFACE , Much has been done in the study of the international law point of and practice of the Greeks from the institutional For this the view. national reader is referred to Phillipson, Inter Law and Customs of Ancient Greece (London, 191 1); Raeder, L' Arbitrage and Rome International chez les Hellenes (New York, 19 12) ; Tod, Greek International Arbitration (Oxford, 1913) On their conclusions that part . The this study which deals with those topics is based. purpose of this work, however, is to study rather the ideas than the institutions of the Greeks and to examine the re of sults of this it to their to is necessary to examine topic efforts review the attitude of the of war and peace. end of the classic period. of peace study. among themselves. the historical background secure peace writers This study toward the terminates Consideration in the Hellenistic Age is of the reserved For and general with the conceptions for a future TABLE OF CONTENTS Preface 5 CHAPTER I The Epic Age I. Minoan Civilization 9 The Mycenaean Period 3. The Invasions 4. The World of Homer 5. The Homeric Attitude toward Peace 6. Peace and War in the Epic Cycle 7. The Views of Hesiod 2. 11 14 15 and War 20 35 36 CHAPTER II The Early Period 1. 2. 3. City-State of the The Growth of the City-state Causes of Disunion Elements of Union 38 38 39 . Life and Literature in the Asiatic Cities 5. The Asiatic Cities at War with Lydia and Persia 6. Cultural Conditions in Sparta 7. The Significance of Theognis of Megara 8. The Development of Athens 9. The Greeks of Sicily and Italy 51 4. 57 59 62 63 65 CHAPTER III I. The Persian Wars 1. 2. Historical Survey of the Period Peace and War in Literature a. Aeschylus b. Bacchylides c. and Hellenic Peace 490-461 B. C 67 70 71 76 Pindar 77 d. Heraclitus 401] 79 7 . [402 CONTENTS g FAGS II. The Age 1. Athens 2. The Attitude 3. The Views Sparta, and of of 461-431 of Pericles 8 B. C 84 85 Sophocles Herodotus CHAPTER IV The Peloponnesian War 1. The Causes of the War and the Failure 2. The Events of the War and their Effects 3. Aristophanes and the 4. Thucydides 5. The Attitude and of the Peace of Arbitration Party 87 91 99 100 War Euripides 103 CHAPTER V The Fourth Century Peace, 404-338 B. C Peace in Fourth-Century Literature .J. Xenophon 1. Wars 2. War a. and and . . b. Demosthenes c. Socrates d. Plato Aristotle f. Isocrates Conclusion e. 3. 108 125 125 127 127 127 130 131 138 CHAPTER I The Epic Age The -earliest the ancient expression of thought known to Hellenes is to be found in the from us epic poets of the Middle Age: Homer, the writers of the Epic Cycle, and Hesiod. Many diverse elements, however, go to make up the ideas days, in the which and pictures of character of the poets of understanding out lived, life things material the poems, the traditions of incoming the and above all the and its from depth their of One may emotions. claim and earlier northerner, the society single archaeological evi dence that they belonged to earlier days; one may place political and social institutions in the time of the poets with It is some security. an impossible, fashion. that a much more task to treat the One may only which preceded the difficult, in many expression of endeavor to point out poets and venture respects ideas in this something of to draw conclu sions with reserve. Far in the background known and as the ^Egean, Mycenean from neolithic ranean race. of the poems lay the civilization divided usually into the Minoan The ^Egean basin was inhabited and periods. times, probably by members of the Mediter With the introduction of bronze, civilization developed among them rapidly until it reached its tion in the splendor of the Minoan Age, the center was the city of Cnossus on the island of Crete, culmina of which where Minos traditionally held sway and whence he extended his con quests and spread his culture. Legend records that he was the first to drive pirates from the sea 403] and to establish peace 9 With this in the trade wares while and kingdom in Cnossus appeared rial civilizations replete that wealth fear or disaster long wealth the professional eight, and rode hanging dances on frescoes its pomp the on animals and battle in the 1 2 the the In rather of the palace, upon, how like But figure a war and comparative to the merry life his tasks in times " than the peace and daggers of with marvelous In the weapons. Crete palaces of to be found. in the survived wore of The life of no the grandeur, its throngs of people, its and its games, is reflected in the many the palace the fish are guard and choros art of over baldrics, inlaid decorations the combat pictures of in his in the dance silver pleasures strife of called chariot. of more warlike reproductions of the its by shaped in his thoughts. ornaments and all power no stray marauders, built. A of shield, commoner plied from 2 raid When himself when youths workmanship," court with combat noble gave dress heavy share Memories comfort. necessary to the the court, and the gold, check supported and supplied his took its deeds had little court its and no wall was ordinary defense. noble security the a of mate luxury of Save for bastions to against were archery, of care ever, the interfere to influences such splendor and At the height shores. palace fortifications took with bring. of war could from its of the wealthy brilliant most the fleet ruled the sea and kept the as continent no might one of the for his markets Under Egypt. of of the Medi around found closest relations prevailed with the powerful there Minoan the Everywhere merchant development wide a came prosperity. and great terranean so [44 HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OP PEACE io walls. of the Plants and flowers, familiar the sea take the place of scenes of time.3 Thucydides, ed. Jones, H. S. (Oxford, 1902), i, 8. Iliad, ed. Monro, D. B. and Allen, T. W. (Oxford, 1902) , xvii 507 8. 3 Cf. publications in the Annual of the British School the lournal of Hellenic Studies, and elsewhere. at Athens THE EPIC AGE 405] The carvings on gems, in H the Minoans excelled, which deal mostly with religion, and here too nature is the domi nating factor. The figure-eight shield, token apparently of the youthful war-god, appears but seldom, and then usually in This conjunction with the omnipresent nature-goddess. great her divinity mother attendant doves, The appears or animals, the of she rules she the mountain-tops on under sits underworld with The dead were worshipped. and in for a their tombs That the future life. were spirit of her symbolic snakes. feared kinds were placed all with tree with Symbols prevalent religion was chthonic. kinds its a of and various courted, of objects needed the departed might have company and service, animals and apparently human beings were sacrificed. Jewelry and treasures in great abundance were impoverishment With rent of favorite with all the beside the corpse, to the placed ultimate of the realm. refinement and art brutality. sport. Boxing But there the with was a heavy cestus most popular of all was its opportunity for the display strong cur was a bull-leaping, of skill and agility and its concomitant danger of bloodshed and death of a most horrible kind. The legend of the tribute of human sacri fice of the Athenians to the Minotaur suggests the means by which the athletes were secured, and indicates at the cruelty in the treatment of subject When the Minoan crossed to the mainland he found there same a time different peoples.1 great race of people. In the middle of the third mil lennium B. C, northerners had begun to move down from the Danube valley across the passes of the Balkans into the peninsula 1 This lished to the of They south. Minoan culture archaeological material Athens, Hawes, the Journal of largely conjectural. and Mosso. occupied is based on a Macedonia study of the and pub in the Annual of the British School at Hellenic Studies, and on the writings of Burrows, The character of the sources makes the picture [406 HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OP PEACE I2 pushed down into Thrace and Phrygia the second millennium Greece, blending whom they found ture began to infiltration vasions, develop afresh. The blending of the to the of Attica ters of these earlier acted as a southern controlled buffer, and isthmus the the fertile trade routes cities of Minoan foundations into invitation to Corinth of land The and produced the new the val were the cen the cities were some of which in defense aid the southerner, his pictures, adornments, his sity here there in or the invader type the older civilization legendary Heroic Age furniture, jewelry, gold and silver of dwelling compelled arose of came through Crete, archi strongly of Greece. took over the material civilization of the northerner northern or itself, Boeotia of Possibly new people. tect, brought the influence bear and development.1 into the ruling family. In any case commerce with and doubtless also the presence of Minoan artist and to the of facilitated the under isthmus, leys through into south inhabitants earlier turmoil from fresh in a continuous the of Minoan control, as the Attic legend but surely under Minoan influence. The plain of the valley of the Eurotas, the Argive plain with its comer, possibly -roads farther and half the first gradual nature built the fortress were of peoples backward in civilization, valleys entered and side, these people Minoan cul and the and indicates, Messene, the with strategic points which fertile course Among there. protected and made possible At one penetrated they doubtless Thessaly, in process. In the other. the on Hellespont into the Troad the crossed the on Thessaly with walls personal work, but preserved his its central the erection of the mighty and and huge hearth. fortresses, elaborate own Neces and defenses iFor the invasions cf. Beloch, Griechische Geschichte (2nd Strassburg,ioi2), vol. i, pp. 67, et seq. On the condition of Thessaly Wace and Thompson, Prehistoric Thessaly (Cambridge, 1912) so ed cf THE EPIC AGE 407] familiar life, of the hence Cretans. vases, and Warriors the The The he use treatment of the features broken bonds the which siege of than among art cities appear on human are methods to his and refinements foe, sacrifice characteristic known as of the to of appease most the Heroic the dead, are Mycenae for their ties of kindred and tribe Trojan was overlord of services and of unity then than the indications developed. recited the glorious life in the period wars. art of by deeds of Under the strong in that A such poetry, to history have of warriors and the pre of the of court life poets splendors court.2 Cf. Chadwick, H. M., The Heroic Age (Cambridge, 1912) , This description of the Heroic Leaf, Homer .\ge is based in general p. 462. on Chad History (London, 1915). On Evans, A. J., The Minoan and and and on the Mycenean origins of the epics cf. " Mycenaean Elements in Hellenic Life ; call Hellas, conditions when the more gen 8 (1912) to enough appears the together. 1 I9I3), were Bound in the later legends epic wick, op. cit., 32 all, obtain them. of which appear Theban and to and good-will any later at there developed the of the Age.1 military necessity, royal one another. Visits were feeling vailed in peoples of equal rank and common ruler of eral own Minoan of the maltreatment monarchies were strong Minoan huge shield, families kept closely in touch with frequent between them, and marriages bound them Traditions recorded these things and indicated on all favorite the poisoned arrow, the heartless new conditions all and in the added of stage of civilization With was a natural part part warrior adopted conquered corpse, the enemy's the and chariot and character brutality. War larger shield symbol of the war god was a warfare, the barbaric Tiryns. and played a decoration. mural of Mycenae at and 13 " in the Journal of Hellenic Studies, Meillet, Apercu d'une histoirc de. la languc PP- 193-4- grecque (Paris, With strength islands the pied Marauding bands occu The Cretans, excluded expansion. came the iEgean. of [48 OP PEACE HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS I4 other regions and appeared in from those waters, turned to Internal dis Palestine. in Sicily, in Cyprus and in Spain, plunderers when and convention of ease caste brought Minos became a name and tion in embodied future sea were land fell while Arcadia people were for themselves were plunder were and record of than freely war-loving by work. practised, by which put an end the a was of the sought Robbery and on to Early earlier peoples. a Save in all was confusion. or land for better lands from the as and no rather by by sea piracy and late of All disgrace. the least slight the early days of of the conditions culture and plunged land soil. The impossible. resent description Mycenean Crete became confusion of to main settlers older sea. subsistence regarded in fresh the tribes seeking their accepted as a picture into its Middle Age. with appeared sought unnecessary and Thucydides' Hellas has been new they all was were either combat.1 pushed on. north Troad cities on looking either out men went armed and were quick with the that the isles barren Attica, migratory, or pushed Maintenance Fortifications tribes on prey to the invader and the out to seek homes beyond the a pushed lands. to the shores of confusion. mountainous The tradi a be handed down to In the twelfth century new elements invasions from the northwest. The old were swift. was Cnossus of even wanderings, Egyptian inscriptions in the end the hill of Hissarlik in the settlement on wealthy destroyed. power reached pirates Nile delta in their the the the way, and prepared the court poetry to The ages. had catastrophe Greece comers mingled and many cities and men, Cyprus received a colony The islands of the yEgean were tongues. of popu- 1 Thucydides, i, I, 2. THE EPIC AGE 409] lated, in foundations old the Anatolian on founded. size and new ones were took ments the central lines, parallel islands northern I$ the with general the move Thessalians occupying the the and the region called position, increased coast were In .^Eolis, Dorians to the Ionians, the A large south. ' amount fusion of the old with As the inhabitants * peace In the Minoan gradually died down and times of returned, civilization began to build south ideas, newcomer was while to the north which told of the sometimes mainland of old material as times Greece them 1 into In them The Homeric without that opinion Gilbert the new settlements on and Ionia the In the alike. the were products ' Homer took the and with finest the of epic fire of his poems.1 old poisoned arrow was question has been a subject so of the Achaean genius forged The traditional many things foreign to the the views that the the changes in the Murray in his Rise have been treated stories. more deadly, spirit of the the slaughter widely discussed and with has felt it best to adhere to the upheld by Botsford in his Hellenic History (in manuscript) entering into a discussion of the question. In accordance with varying opinion Odyssey these bards. stories contained such the and traditions afresh poet. language, Mycenean courts, and conditions. of songs and ^Eolis traditions of for the found their material, and into that warp they wove the ideas and customs of their The Iliad greatest in and treasured in all the bards songs own bards throughout the by sung or a nucleus the civilization of the One thing predominant. often the material customs and glories of were first in culture appeared These, reflecting mer glory. the centers of Mycenean where the epic poetry common and their new homes. of Minoan influence had been, of themselves movements comparative afresh. followed, both among writer by Oxford, 191 1), in his handling of the old matter and spirit of the tradition noted of the Greek Epic (and as a part of Homer's work ed. [410 HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE Z6 foemen knew of armor, his head defiled body When a placed upon left and in the slain raised while ; " and slaves, Messeis of the or another's bring and At the bier spared.2 captured warriors dogs they had the ground and not even war their far-off land a loom the and blows from the children not worth the mother's womb was hero and vultures. though unwilling stern The infant dashed to the with led into his wives, the very driven women were Hypereia, 1 of their by pieces in Argos ply on." presses were it his by fire, was wasted their husbands and of the stakes of presence bodies left to be torn to corpses the of wall and despoiled was dogs prey to the as a was captured city riors were The dead no mercy. water compulsion carrying off man-child in of were slain as a sacrifice The gods, too, demanded human purificatory rites for blood the dead. as the fallen to appease sacrifice and guilt.3 The strength of tradition prevented the omission of many things, though they were contrary to the spirit of poet. So many as he could, he omitted ; others he ex these of the He declared that cused or palliated on other grounds. gods themselves forbade the In his treatment of in the heat use of deadly drugs the stories, the captured on the arrows.4 were not slain, fiercest battle, but held for The suppliant, though he were one's dearest enemy, was al ways spared, for Zeus was his Despoliation and except ransom.5 of protector.6 defilement armor, 1 II. vi, were often threatened never performed. The but, save word for the taking which meant of defile- 456-8. HI. vi, 410-465; xvii, 125-7, 238-45; xviii, 176-7, 334-5; xix, 291-4; xxii, 59-76; ix, 590-4; vi, 55-60; xxiv, 730-1; Od. viii, 522 et seq. 3 Vide *0d. i, infra, p. 35. 260-3. 67/. ii, 229-30; xi, 131-5, * II. xxiv, 185-7. 104-106. 41 1 THE EPIC AGE ] decent ment was changed to mean truces The to were arranged Achilles. grief of serve sin.3 body the The feared, The of stories of omitted, funeral of made though the lot conquered Briseis human pyre of The stage of not is predicted, was laid entirely purificatory the twelve of appease pre a terrible over slaughtered captured certainly sacrifice and Patroclus than to any desire to to was deed in the excessive him from save and of dead.2 for lamentation in general, subject a the slaughter and to the intervened to gods forbade loud thanksgiving gods and more, the unharmed and In addition, of a grievous because was excused Nay The fate men. for the burial provide Hector's corpse, maltreatment of the mind of the poet, r-j covering.1 unhappy. rites were the noble youths at to rather grief and wrath dead.* the society which Homer represents was natural had seen the end of wanderings and the an age which first suggestions customs were days of just beginning the mighty of life. settled to Cities, assume stable the epic of warriors greater and stronger and more warlike Between the tribes there were past. ship dictated, Piracy mate without was trade a the cattle on the now," men are and peace as of The still existed a relation necessity declarations or profession recognized "than grouped and adventure and carried no parties seized man kept formalities forms. and when men were Communities of neither war nor peace. uals preyed on each other or governments hillsides individ or greed treaties. with disgrace. and sold legiti Raiding the herds into slavery, or wasted the harvest and carried off the The only recourse for the injured, the horses. oxen and 1 Murray, Rise of * II. vii, * II. xxiii, 24 4 On the the Greek Epic, p. 147. 375-8. et seq. subject of be seen, they are ; xxiv, 15-21these changes cf. thoroughly in Murray, consonance with op. cit., ch. v. the spirit of the As will poem. [412 HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE !g fare.1 Personal between strife hospitality was retaliation and open war individual, tribe or whether or family tribes.2 The family led to princes the violation of circle in the theft poet considered the invasion of the and between quarrels years' of Helen and a cause entirely the destruction of Troy. in the guiding power nations. Helen was but a cause of struction He Troy. their part bassy in the to avoid the destiny of " final the arbiter and hath 3 of inviolate and the final saw in his hands for the de under Odysseus The war. the visited act of existed and played The alleviation of strife. Menelaus it he swaying the Zeus, pawn was of many future interstate law was considered as when effort seeds of But back of war cities." brought down the head Yet the for the ten sufficient privilege of em protection of Zeus, in their Troy vain those Trojans who pro in the assembly that they be slain forthwith was held to be a foul Truces were frequently made, sur posed shame.4 rounded with religious was might address to the warriors, decide the issue strife. and The bond act and and might or be their binding buried, that champions might the host from further the truce brought force that Hector fight grievous was considered a craven renewal of the combat.5 guest-friendship existed and formed a foemen to spare each other in the to reconcile The respect which the strong sufficient and and save violation of irreligious The institution fight ceremonies, recognized, that the dead of to cause and generous man them.6 felt for a worthy foeman led to brief Later they might reconciliation and exchange of gifts. 1Il. re- i, 152-6; Od. iii, 103-6; ix, 252; II. i, 124, 2Chadwick, Heroic Age, pp. 331, et seq. "II. ii, 117, 177, 8; iii, 164, 5; ix, 337-41; ii, *Il. xi, 138-42. 5; xxiii, 341, 2; xi, 38-40. 5J7. iii, 250-311; vii, 375-8; iv, 86-222; iv, 220-239; ix, 'II. vi, 215-31; Od. xv, 196, 7. 338-41. 104-6. THE EPIC AGE 413] new the but for the time fight, fought for the sake of strife IO, " men might say, these twain then in heart, that tears the x Age with honor friendship joined together they received its due respect and gained for Eetion all the honors parted." burial from Achilles of a warrior's of Hector no avail. friendship when Between the deadliest sacked.2 was only was this it but Achilles refused, for nor could any agreement be offered impossible, was the made until one or high-gated Thebes enemies fell.8 other Warfare in the Homeric Age was a personal or tribal The poet represents the warrior of his day as fight matter. ing to protect his his parents, wives and children, to defend the honor for his chief/ He suf safety fered toil cheerfully that he might obtain booty and wealth for himself. Preeminence might be gained by oratory in of the council; allies or indeed many served only to Lands and rank accentuate dominions the in the be might glory summit of pleasures of //. vii, *Il, wick, of the most personal combat was men in the life, glory his for the ambition.7 2 feature of kydaneira, warrior. for For this he suffered all manner of characteristic The highest boast. proudest all gave His That his time all up hardships, //. vi, fight.5 in the first to stand which war as secure 288-302, cit., in the combat.8 celebrated everywhere and his xxii, 261-272, a op. obligated merit fighters renowned that respect, but that their preeminence glory to men, might giver of prowess 1 their and prove prize of all was the gain distinguished for their ability in were the to was the courted 416-420. heroic poetry, cf. Chad- p. 462. *//. viii, 55-57; xvii, 156-8, 220-8; i, 148-168; xiii, 266-71; xx, 661-6; xvi, 270 et seq. s //. i, * //. xii, 7 Chadwick, 490 ; ii, 202 ; iii, 204 et seq. 310-28. op. cit., p. 326. ; xiii, 260, et seq. ; i, 124, 5 ; xi, 407-410. HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE 20 death in his youth, live through the the power, the Zeus, from of men especial flower field of seemly The sight knows well him on without war it and prays of the in men they battle the to the as fosterling of the sharp spear in it is sure and by has To soul, Homer warrior The very sight of in the hero's spirit words in the ended and is council of no avail. the councillor express the spirit Then combat.* that pre The finds glory in grips used a special word the warrior's Charme, joy by it in the and men alike were possessed It brought lust for battle insatiate dear unwearying.7 the of native combat land.8 and made Under its influence and thought war When the favorable far omen, 1 //. vi, 492, 3 ; xiv, 84-89. 2Il. vi, 492; iii, 108-iio; ix, 39; xiii, 484; xiv, 85, 6; xxii, 59-76. * Od. xvi, 294. *//. ii, 473; iv, 225; xiii, 270-1; xv, 486-8; xvi, 8 77. xvi, 627-31. 'II. v, 608, a fight draws near, the man of is dear to him. He yearns for in the dread unwearied and were on war mingle Gods sweeter than it is highest stubborn the contest. fight by up the martial stir in the charge, Homer meUe of chief caution of age and secures to words battle.6 the young man, the hardy and contest.5 soul regards valor wherein stirringly describes. and eminence gained time for The If he falls torn When the becomes But he comrades.2 enough breast.3 might the poet, the of age.1 honorable battle, his fame is to his reaction is steel mind to of youth. for him distinction. the the youth reckless courage of sweeps death that his fame even chose ages. War, therefore, is, in business [414 etal. Ul. xv, 696-8. //. ii, 451-4; xi, 3-14; xiii, 636-9. 492-4. xvi, 626-31; THE EPIC AGE 415] the bird war god Zeus, brought the fervor of success, it was the Ares himself who entered into men and gave them of filled them And Poseidon powers.1 untold of 21 the with for will Oileus' the twain the Ajantes strengthened strife even with son, the and mighty Hector : swift-footed Ajax, was the first to know the god and instantly he spake to Ajax, son of Telamon. ". For lo ! the courage within my own breast is . up the roused . more for battle war and my hands above quiver with spake Telamonian Ajax. So while my feet below and eagerness." answering him, my hands invincible is arisen and my feet Then, " even now lust for the spear-handle, and my spirit beneath me. So do I yearn to fight the speed Hector, even of But the morale The of son of poet understands fighter. the pain of it to disaster of not and the thing. constant a disappear.8 defeat impends on When the death- the in thickly, all memory of the joy of the fighters think longingly of home and and peace.4 family and Death is dishonorable thing, Homer feels, when by Far more is cow family and home are no saved.5 means ardice that ous charge flees the fight disgraceful ; it is the that man who ards were can be most venom warrior.8 made against a a driven into the '7/. viii, 251-2; xv, center of the upon xii, 389-94; xvii, 602. 6 7/. xv, ' //. iii, 38, 620-39; xi", 721- 494-9. et seq. The cow there 379-80- 77. xiii, 73-80. Quotations from the Iliad are based lation by Lang, Leaf and Myers (London, 1917)II. xiii, The ranks whence 2 * Craven Hector.7 sorry figure beside glorious death.8 flees the combat is fit only for Paris is but 7/. unceasing arrows pour battle is lost this the effects Charme is a wound causes tide of battle turns and dealing rage Priam." 2 'II. i, 8 225-8. U. xii, 241-50. the trans [416 HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE 22 was no escape and in the of shame spur greatest fear and and strength Fear the of others from shame, fleeing " Atreides, shame 4 So Men are summoned be men in the stubborn more survive the spoke brave and death.3 or Of fight. in safety than are the evil and the hero The forth to of deeds." many of battle, the that drives with their the less the as hover poured the The II. xv, 502-13. II. iii, and 293-309. 318-32. 1-9. glory the seem the flowers of they as the goatherd fleeing or long-necked II. ' gleam and battle, of move sees as it blows great whirlwind The Trojans cave.6 to him like the cold of into cranes winter,7 as count has been 1 S7Z. ix, held are man and flies that 3 iv, to the Asian plain, plumage. and the milkman's pails when the milk from them, cranes or always word-pictures the master of shouting ocean leaves about finest flocks scurrying to that come to the the toilless gradually becomes the clamor and nor 5 west wind which across the sea and honor same He describes the hosts poets could paint. as the the die, must war, the glorification of the subjects were fight; in slain, knew it to be chieftain and men the good; both men fame arises neither Yet they felt the bitterness that justice did not " prevail. Equal lot falleth to him that remaineth goeth heart. of just. him that fear made life of risk at but for those that flee the fight there safety." This of the women, the and soul.2 warrior's the battle joined said fight.1 floor but to the battlefield, and there all must be laid aside and with eagerness weakness " Friends," to compelled eyes of comrades to the dancing to the not thus and the swans crying dazzling spring or as feathered birds, flying by the as wild geese or river Caystrus they fly, rejoicing in gleam of their bronze is like a their rav- //. Vi, 441-4 /Z. v, 528-32; xv, 561-4. //. iv, 273-82; cf. on xv, 379-389. THE EPIC AGE 417] aging fire in finest boundless forest a picture of is that all The mountain-top.1 on a Greek host in the thir the of 23 teenth book. Spear on spear made fence, close-set shield and serried on shield, buckler pressed on 'buckler, and helm on helm, and man on man. The horsehair crests on the bright helmet ridges touched other, their hearts In of battle the which wind stirs scenes and and glitter and details darts, Homer is the gleam fallen the black and The baldrick the breast the horse with dust, the of and as the hand of the did the listeners of greater he sees a fire that leaps the wind, or a cloud day the dust lies when battle the poet the of ancient devotes days. the But Beneath the than that. penetrates beasts, exhaustion of men and the on a by and modern reader still must thrill at the tales of combat as genius up stood each interlaced battle.2 lusted for itself, Homer they were roads.8 his highest art, the close bold hands of men and roars out with thickest on the To the by were steadfast and city dust nodded, so brandished the stress of upon a they each other as and spears to the darker side, the the mind-shaking confusion, the groans of the shall become wet on shattered arms, blood.4 shield shall he draws the man-sheltering become weary well-polished1 round the spear, chariot shall sweat, for the coming of night only shall and be drenched separate the and his warriors.5 In the battle-fever 1H- >. a 5 455-73; iv, II. xiii, 125-35 ; II. he sees Ares, bane 273-282; xvii, 735-41cf. xvi, 165 et seq. xvii, 735-41 ; xiii, 333-44- *Il. iv, 446-51 *7i.ii, 386-90. ; x, 297-8; xi, 163-4; xi, 53-55. of mortals, [418 HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE ~A -'4 dear Terror Rout and Strife, Eris and murderous own sister and mistress of and wounded among men. At first arise. It men. From she rears when the her the sight, one of melSe of the earth.1 grain in the rich man's fire field Ares nor Athena may de is glad; while of men, the heart may not sorrow at the even of of war and each man prays for gods from death escape and the great mighty in its dread battle-cry, but glory to men. On the other hand, Ares of cities, insatiate of war, reckless and raging, incessant is called the ruthless, all of sacker and destructive, and man-slaying glutted a blood-stained bane to mortals, with sounding, toilsome, grievous, bringing ous and other side of That war knows full long iv, a pitiable sleep, Od. iii, 100. full of loathsome, tears, ill- murder epithets which show hardship and toil as well as glory, He shows away from how the wife and 439-45; xviii, 535-8; xiii, 67-74, sad and evil, the combat. brings well.5 periods II. xi, the blood, warrior must child, 298-300. 150-162. 7Z. xi, 73-4; xiii, 343-4; iv, 539-44; xvii, 4 7/. ii, 400-1. 5 the to her Ares.4 bringer 8 strife then alone hard the the immortal always a lIl. little, and many adjectives are used in the poems for vivid in the description of war, furious and stubborn, keen A ness and but discord cast causes and she walks upon This is the final hazard sight.3 to Eris and declares, only poet Not reapers.2 crest she red cloak the thickets of trees before the wind rages or as before the spise as her not, drags the who first was she who beginnings small head towers towards heaven Men fall in battle Ares, through the melee, dead the the blood of with and hardy warrior, whose fury wearieth that terrifies even the Panic, son 360-5. Homer stay for and must refrain THE EPIC AGE 419] from honey-hearted forgetful and Ares of war. decrees.2 He might.1 rageth The lest he be wine his crippled of his courage forth the uncertainty men live or die as fate sets confusedly and has no favorites and he that would Then many a noble young man falls into his accomplishments are of no avail and the war god killed.8 kill is darkness; all leaving soul, of 25 manhood and Hades' youth, departs wailing to lands.4 The body is left realm, that most wretched of all far from loving hands for the birds that eat raw flesh to it shroud day, for a would were it be make and covet are left at dren the prattle on dread len, and his knees away return of when The aged he the needy which Nor and Parents, picture. the absent comes father praise warrior.8 the ever one brings do his back from whose sons chil war and have fal for their nurture, is broken with sorrow, Or if sons remain at kinsmen divide his property. never repaid ii, the are 134-7, 291-8; vi, ' Od. xi, 534, 5; 77. xi, ' II. xviii, 309. 4 II. v, 47, 68, 82 xi, 241-a 262, 36 The the possessions grief unspeakable. combat." home, they lll. the and home. joy, but his death, and go eyes of still another side of children and depart disheartened the glorious rewards of in the but for empty.7 long wait so mourn Such burdens on.6 make a man all worth while But there is wives to to however, it living may ever presses enough not a shame In the end, The wings.5 the foeman fears booty their with 7/. xi, ones, false-tongued, 264-5. ; xi, 161 et seq. ; xvi, 856-7 ; Od. 225-33. 291-8. 7/. ii, 354-6; xiii, light- 407-410. 391-5.450-4. 7/. xix, '7/. ii, et seq. shameful 266-71 ; xiv, 84-9. 7/. v, 407-9, 479-81; ii, 699-702; v, 687-8; xvii, 34-37. xi, 488 et seq. ; hearted heroes But the doom dance.1 the of husband, brothers, father, woman who sees all, slain, her infant vengeance captivity suffers the The lament hardest lot of all.2 the finest touches of While the poet, nature and uses His life, true to the evil to presents Achilles. achievement and present And the age. " For in their warrior's is the task war life dwell in who boast.4 in the forefront Bravery figures their was of the may the of most ex pitch of poetic men, but Ilium," me, among those contrast. the noblest was often poems forth his careers of all by the great call human of war, he glorious sentiment of They one of literature.3 him to the highest arouse the is is all sides of the then in and understanding treatment of the two Iliad, Hector and language, his feeling in both captive son and conqueror, of Andromache in his the true own attitude and pressive of of make more vivid be found in his pride. human deep deep the the of warrior hurled from the walls, son [420 OF PEACE CONCEPTIONS HELLENIC 26 ideals choice and most of all Hector's Trojans for proud was the lesson he had learned in the battles he had fought for his father's glory and his chieftain for his son, the poem, of Zeus some one comes the from foeman, II. ii, 354-6 '//. xxii, The highest the and I, grant me prayer this I most splendid of may he rule aspiration of war and brings the for Astyanax pray. 477-515- * II. vi, 5 //. vi, 440-65. 6 II. vi, 476-81. 492-3. May the Trojans valiantly in Ilium. bloody arms when then may his mother rejoice in her : this, my and of as And then and as he has ix, 590-4 ; heart.6 xix, 292-4 ; Od. viii, 522 he slain v, 152-8; xiv, 501-5; xvii, 301-2; xxiv, 253-62. ; vi, 410-65 ; the most genuine expressions say, better far is he than his father ; 7/. v, 23-4; vi, 127; * gods, even as mighty power, may one of is to be found in his and ye other son, become own.5 et seq. 421 THE EPIC AGE ] Ability, booty, fame, courage, 27 what else is there to and glory everlasting of the Iliad. wish for! The Achilles, choice of instead a short age, is the keynote of uneventful old Until his quarrel with of war and was Twelve raids. from land life Agamemnon he the leader of cities of men the he ever Greeks in sacked bore the brunt their plundering from shipboard, and After the quarrel, when angry pride kept him from the combat, he was consumed with longing.8 eleven.1 Then when fired with wrath at the death of Patroclus, he became invincible. The plain was covered and the river choked with all rejected ransoms, the with the bodies poet's every men he had He slain. covenant and was refused ready to fight himself.8 river god All the of magic is in employed the description of they fight. Hector is a storm-cloud of war, like unto a fleet wave or a ravening lion, or destructive fire " hills.4 on the Foam came about his mouth and his eyes these heroes as gleamed under above his grim from heaven was brows, Hector the temples of and terribly the helmet shook he fought, for Zeus himself When Achilles fought on the as ally." his plain, as through deep glens mountain side and the rageth deep fierce fire forest burneth on some parched and the wind driv he every way with ing it whirleth every way the flame, on the men he hard his spear, as it had been a god, pressing Even as when one with blood. ran slew and the black earth so raged yoketh wide-browed bulls to tread white barley in a 'stablished threshing floor and quickly it is trodden out beneath the feet of the loud-lowing bulls, thus beneath the great-hearted Achil les, his 1 7/. 7J. ix, whole-hooved 338-9 ; i, xx. "7/. xv, 606-11. 165. horses trampled t corpses and shields to- n- ". 771-9 ; i, 47/. xv, 605-36. 490-2. and with gether, the that rims horses' the [422 HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE 28 blood the hooves splashed But the wheels. below axle-tree was sprinkled and the car, for blood drops from the them and blood drops from the tires of round ran everlasting, flecking The horror of the Peleus son of with gore sight but pressed on to the adds to win him glory hands.1 his irresistible the mighty marvel of man of arms. Glory everlasting destiny will of die without a struggle up all he attained else was but in hear.2 that men willing to mortal gods were minded As these so men are is it est hero's death, but men yet unborn might gave the was in the the to Hector bowed to aim. deeds some was that Achilles When it had been death accomplish subjects of might not of arms whereof For this it hold dear. accept he that prayed whenever the im it.3 the poet's greatest joy, fitting they be likewise the subjects of his great grief. The lament over the death of Hector is one of that the most seen, moving of tragic verses. The daughters carried rior's sword and tured.4 preserve divine be torn to But this is the before Achilles. the old man see, full many ills, of away, ere he shall fall and must still The body of pieces greatest by sons a the sorrow, Priam has perishing and prey to the war dogs he has nur when Hector falls themselves take pity on him, his son and send him forth under gods it. The king of mighty Ilium descends to clasp the knees and kiss the hands, terrible slaying hands, of Achilles the victorious. guidance to ransom man- Fear thou the gods, Achilles, and have compassion on me, be father. thy Lo, I am yet more piteous than he have braved what none other man on earth hath braved thinking and 1Il. xx, 8 thee of 490-504. 7/. xxii, 365-6. 77. vi, 486-9; xxii, 7/. xxii, 59-76. 4 304-5. THE EPIC AGE 423] before, to slayer of forth my hands towards the face stretch "Yet remember: There my life too He knows that his sorrow. In the approaching. fate. the of sons.1 my Achilles, too, has his is 29 over his glory he death and forceful must needs midst of hang too me cometh morn or eve or some take in some man shall when noon-day 2 He thinks of melted they weep together the old and the his son, the other for his father's Homer portrays the final grief of war. young, grief of him within aged father in his battle." halls, his heart is the his time own and the one for Even they Homer's as immortal their chosen against a by its swayed rescue some side, mortals, the to their again Homer's impending death, to take finally and gods even part in the to fight to fight for the most miserable of and war and war.8 ate of bully, was battles.5 Athena hailed as the Cypris, however, penser of war now stir against each up fight other, sake of pitiful mor Then they creatures.4 to war and withdrew He was was the stormer of cities, insati driver of protectress of the spoil the city for the Greeks by the Trojans.7 was a coward goddess and not one of to men, 1 II. xxiv, 477-9, 503-6- 3 II. xxiv, of the warriors.8 Zeus, ruled over all and swayed *n- xxi, 1 10-2. 4 II. xi, 3-14; xxi, 462-7; ii, 451-4; v, 23, 24, 732; xiii, II. v, 889-91 ; xi, 3-14; 73-74- 269. vi,297. 87/.v, 330-3. 125-135. those the dis the 507-12. 6 T7/. the war; Discord kept up the war. Ares, unpopular because he loved strife that have mastery in battle 'II. vi, The gods. upon quiet seats while the braggart and was so were passions, and interfered now to favorite from foolish thing for tals, heroes, looked down from Olympus gods were So sake.8 battle [424 HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE 30 of spear faint-hearted. " Ever is the men, for he driveth wit of It another. way and now Ajax and the bow now one of was Teucer men taketh away the victory and then fight." l Apollo killed Patroclus his tor to gods and Above tiny death.2 from on Truly " high they valiant. or death iously than the and rouseth easily men to on the knees of the a victory." of descries Des vision escape, be he coward or be will accept its decree of life or did Hector heart Hector Athena betrayed Hec lie the poet's may gainsay The hero warrior aside.4 stronger the threads without question and meet as turn it guide gods and men alike whom none he and broke the made in flight again the issues who and Zeus wit of valiant he and In the " it for Achilles, fearlessly and glor not even Zeus may contemplation of such a power What the thing is man after all, the most miserable of all creeping things, born unto pain, living like leaves in glowing life consuming the fruit of the poet's sinks. a pitiable death." earth, then sinking unto is but " one avail. One omen 5 is In the last best, analysis to fight for there native land." 6 But life is not all interest war, even in heroic times. The theme Iliad is war, yet there appear peaceful scenes. As well as the Charme of battle the many poet knows the happiness of peace. On the shield of Achil and central les beside the city 1Il. xvi, 1 19-21; the at war with marriages and ways and men of there is another dances, contending in the xv, 462, 3; xvi, 2 II. xvi, 787-793 ; xxii, 214 3 II. vii, 99; xvii, 514-5. 5 II. xxvii, 446-7; xxiv, 520-6. 1 II. xii, 365-6. peace, happy standing in the door market 656, 688-90. et seq. *Il. vi, 486-9; xi, 329-332; xxii, 243. women at freshplace; the THE EPIC AGE 425] field, plowed herd and demesne land rich teeming plenteously with kine beside the murmuring river, folds.1 thatched huts and In the in the dream of love rather and than of fight is going strife a of Menelaus in the doughty and hateful of sleep him.8 against men, while the rejoiced in Even contest.2 battle may wish for his song and dance delectable only must be remarked, Homer a when man who always the loves the most considers tribeless, lawless, homeless strife.4 store of and of nature from the The fighting, and civil sheep midst of war, but only, it loves bitter and white settlement, the host relief and of sweet wars From the clusters, the strife when champions appeared and were prospects of silence man the midst of in reaping king a of of there fill the the vineyard time, 31 his knowledge of peaceful conditions 5 drew many of those similes artistic his scenes of battle, the poet make so vivid and so which winds fleet waves, the birds, the leaves and the flowers in their season, the flies hovering about the herds and the man's clouds, the pails, the wide-browed barley. When in the battle he sought to mark from the battle to the the of meal.6 bulls yoked to tread white thrilling description of the noon-day hour, his mind turned midst of a the picture of woodsman in the dells resting and making ready his mid-day The startling transition presents such a contrast of mountain colors as daring master may only the attempt, and the more successful therefore. In the 1Il. xviii, Odyssey, on the 8 467-608. It must be noted Homer used. is travel 1 1 1-2. that many of the similes may tional material which *Il. xi, 84-90. 7/. iii, the theme 47/. ix, 63-4; i, s7/. xiii, 636-9. 0 hand, other 176-7. belong to the tradi [426 HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE oo War and adventure. leading war the lines of the over in the could a broods is over, yet its spirit It is an ever present memory The the time were those great men of in the war, while Agamemnon's fame The most welcome news greatest under Odysseus longer play still heaven.1 the was part no glorification poem. minds of men. had taken who that The role. its and to the bring Achilles shade of that was Neoptolemus, his son, had distinguished himself in feats of Odysseus, too, was by no means a peaceful man. arms.2 Athena deeds him that he chided war were of ever too ready to was in his heart.3 especially in the boast in Ithaca in disguise : pride appears arrived of fight, for the The strong man's Odysseus when he But then verily did Ares and Athena give me boldness and to hurl through the press of men, whensoever I chose courage the best warriors at an my foes. No fear of ambush, sowing the death was ever in my for seeds of evil lordly heart, but I leap out on the foremost and slay with the spear whoso foes was less fleet of foot than I. Such an one was I in my war, but the labor of the field I loved not, nor homekeeping would of thrift that breeds brave children, but galleys and ished shafts and darts, baneful things wars and pol whereat others used to shudder.4 Thus boasted circle round as well as ingly safe of 1 the him the sacrifice glory. But of his while men remembered the ix, with him in the wide land Od. xi, 513-37. 264. Od. iii, 103 ; iv, 97-99- and pain would will Troy.5 Od. the have riches to men who perished of old *0d. xii, 1 16-7. *0d. xix, 216-226, trans, by Butcher 5 the wars Nestor declared that he two-thirds those brave home from warrior marveled. Lang (London, 1917). THE EPIC AGE 427] 33 The society of the Odyssey shows the warlike state of Princes wore their swords. Spears were carried into the assembly and to the dining-hall, where they were the times. So familiar stacked. great hall )(ln dreamy troubled home at picture of and those the of furnishings of the comment.1 to the tumult and the shouting, the contrast Greeks in the of wanderings and sad the strife his feature a that their absence occasioned the suffering and glory they were home-comings the memories of the war, of the the warriors, war, Homer drew ideal people, the Phaeacians. Far from strife and contention, they enjoyed eternal peace and pros for none should ever be able to perity, bring war against them.2 rather Masts than the accoutrements them regard by strife boxing and the best of and the harp and contrast the old of the 8 seamen, nor the tradition, and dear to in her sunny Od. Od. vi, * Od. viii, i, 99; ii, northern religion this: the gods 1 the joys are 10; xix, 5 et prayer. more brutal 148 et seq., 246 et seq. parts of realization peace, those well as background the almost glorious in her stormy Some of the The poet. the certainly and dwell heavens seq., xxii, 74. 201 et seq. of love marked of a people at peace? seems of as and ideal it is in in Hector's of war and the may be due to the 1 is the banquet us ever poet's rejections of moods, and this ideal dream of runners these peaceful sentiments, this similes of nature of For wrestlers, but speedy was the dance and changes of raiment expressed came horrors treatment not excluded. wrestling If this be the to that Whence did inglorious, " and boxers we are no perfect sleep." attention poet but worthy The highest honor among them was to be hand and foot in the games from which of and their Yet the of war. as coward weaklings or of all praise. achieved the and oars and ships engaged result on the happy mountain-tops, Destiny all tection the of The bow. must fill spirits pro with connected ceremonies the suppliant, the hospitality, of before and nature, all rites [428 OF PEACE CONCEPTIONS HELLENIC 34 peoples.1 burial arts doubtless, in the are interpreting His in this. the finest sentiments immortality hold pictures the thoroughly human; they and they penetrate to the depths his own age, the wanderings in whose life of so were fine the courts a days the more stirring of the sang because of human the heroes were days old with of still pray for the warrior's glory and lived in no millennium of peace. to the old seek strife and let Ithaca at " peace and sides wealth love ended songs them to men were no over, Athena was So may both on it, for they they had been. Those noble days were past. days had come and the poet saw peace at hand. the con looked back as blessing. settled Such and caused often But over, the aristocrats and perfection longing, fire in their breasts roused the martial were joy As to sorrow. The so are human approaching Men The source they of summit advantages of peace. literature.2 them, himself poet own age. for the development essential flower of his of most part ceased. poets learning and were ditions great had for the the the of Homer find their men all reach Most and of and nature art. genius of of tradition ancient in Minoan the northern of appreciation work of the greatness and to the belong evident so peace of of characteristic all are Other features may reflect the love and the it longer Newer When her with' one another as of old abundant be their * portio Thus may the apparent contradiction between Hector the Phaeacians be accounted for.4 and 1 C/. Schrader, Die Indogermanen (Leipzig, 1911), passim. 2Croiset, Histoire de la litterature grecque (Paris, 1887), vol. i, 9 Od. xxiv, * This appears to the writer so-called expurgations Murray, op. p. 86. 485. cit., ch. v. as a more than that of satisfactory explanation of the ascribing them to later periods cf. THE EPIC AGE 429] The those things Epic the poets of influence the of Cycle, ^Egean but few fragments. are probably directly under more in their preserved survivals, Homer deleted. which 35 Of these epics there poems In Alexandrian times they were cut Iliad and the Odyssey to form and arranged around the up Of this, a complete story. later writer, Proclus, wrote an have survived along with a a epitome of which some parts few snatches of the poems dramatists the aid of the jects in the poems, ideas the The too had migrations many people on Trojan war. who was made Athens of the Epic convinced the weary Trojans.2 ened doe, gain some conception of these that there men they by the burden The on a sacrifice of of men the war, large wandering over Helen as his with number of Iphigeneia Achaeans Aulis, at weak in the later telling by the story of the substitution of a the sacrifice of Polyxena before the return home, the wounding of Philoctetes, Achilles from blood-guilt after the appearance of instances the of death of Priam at Andromache, hurled from ghost of the Minoan influence. of were conceived a curious Odysseus' curious are by sub Cycle.1 earth and her bosom, Zeus had brought tool, and thus had removed and to possible and found their who Malthusian theory as an explanation for In answer to the appeal of Mother Earth, the prototype of the it is of the poets of With these themselves. poets presented the fall the Achilles to survival of earlier The and purification of the of Troy, murder of the Thersites, murder of the tales in the Agamemnon, warn which suggest bloody mournful Astyanax detail the captivity when he " heartless was Fool comment, tower, 3 ish is he who, slaying the father, spareth the Of the Theban epics with their tale of the ill-fated family with Lawton, Successors * Ibid., Andrew ton, of Homer (London, 1898). p. 16. Lang, World op. cit., pp. ift 32. of Homer (London, 1910), chs. Lawxv, xviii; HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE 36 of Oedipus long list its and contains the curse which battle strife and but pictures set As Homer of the and which was sons, voice of conditions in higher and with their peaceful of and the wars in humanity which Homer. martial longings, Hesiod is With the the The care of to settled farmer might return the his of security to buildings, thin, life soil was calendar was no and and the time for desires of the rulers and the disputes involved him. As his the martial boundary ever-present of These the representatives hard ; in the farmer's were them.1 between circumstances his land his two upon their later woes, that are common man. for the future. might plan the relief down called cause of all once again with some amount the cultivation fates Oedipus his fellow bards and the himself turn horrible crimes, little is known One fragment which survives should ever continue the princely courts the of later treatment. through save [430 spokesman, Hesiod protested against that strife which ex in evil and multiplied wars and contentions through ulted the will of the immortal In ness of man. been olden Golden Age a lands their with gods.2 days, when men all good brought the beginnings of The fault so the lived in peace and quiet on and the Bronze Age had created a race of warlike men terrible and delight The was race stroyed after before or 3 strong whose in insolence. and heroes had war and followed, but they had been de battle before Thebes and Troy, and come the culmination was wrong. op. cit., pp. 9 et seq. Hesiod, Erga, ed.fczach et seq. Ibid., dolorous Ares of evil in the rulers He bewails the fact that he had not died been born after the race of Iron.3 In that race he that Lawton, 2 14 by works of own age. saw all 1 of them had his of in the wicked sang, there had The Silver Age had things. evil, lay in the poet 109 et seq. (Leipzig, 1908), trans. Mair (Oxford, ' 1908) *""'> THE EPIC AGE 431] Might shall be 37 Neither right and one shall sack the other's city. there be any respect of the oath-abiding or of the just or the good. Rather shall they ever honor the doer of evil and shall of the insolence. Right be no man of lie in the might of causes of war and of woe. But he Reverence shall These the the flourish cities is hand at war are which solution, for shall is justice. Where that is Peace, and people prosper. and them.2 hand and more.1 points to practised nurse of children, keeps famine away, and Zeus never decrees But where the spirit of contention prevails there follow and Oblivion and tearful Griefs and Wars and Murders and Manslayings and Quarrels and false Speeches and Disputes and Lawlessness and Ruin, of one char painful Battles Toil and acter one with another and which most afflicteth men on earth when any of Of like his falsely.8 will sweareth character are the gods Hesiod whom represents watching rejoicing in war ; Athena Tritogeneia, driver of the spoils, a dread goddess, wakener of battles and leader of the host, the unwearied one whose pleasure is over and as battle ; Ares, insatiate of war, sacker of shields, with his children, Rout and Fear, in din and war and cities, piercer of who them drive in he confusion sings the those of of state in always which companions they 1 Hesiod, Erga, 189 8 Id., Theog. * Ibid., 901 et each contrast to of bright Zeus, Eunomia, law, Dike, and Themis, who is justice personified, justice, and Eirene, peace, who care for tal men, In ranks of men. children the works of mor other.4 of Happy dwell ! 2 et seq. Ibid.. 225. 226. seq., 924 et seq., 933 et seq. ; Erga, 225 et seq. the CHAPTER II The Early Period The in great basis of all and the many caused concentration the ical Since and religious. and all The necessity for social and the of union transferred all the old thought and action city-state. political tribal days into the larger were City-State Hellenic life, the classic period was the defense of the advantages small better fortified institutions in the tribe of villages of of To it city. the tribe polit the were a part of they lived in the city or in the sur while all political life centered in the rounding country, city, the city and the state became synonymous. The tribal organization whether deity became the founder and protector of the city. Tribal feeling was transformed into local patriotism, which rested on loyalty to local divinities, a great sanctification of terri tory and withal a The clusiveness. how small, to others became ical life. strong sacred right of rule itself and to the fundamental It formed the independence attitude of no matter any city-state, keep itself apart principle of all greatest obstacle from Greek to any ex- and all polit attempt at union.1 Nature made the Greeks communication union. were accentuated. ences by land difficult and kept in their little valleys, and aided in this dis Diversities of dialect surviving from tribal days apart in time Local variations and ritual of religious lCf. Zimmern, Greek Commonwealth 38 in the calendar, differ festivals, (Oxford, separate I9i5),2nd ed., pp. [432 sys- 64,5. THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE CITY-STATE 433] terns of coinage and weights and producing distinctions inevitably followed, which domination, without the the Nature furnished Greeks life the of another cause whence them food in was munities. possession might of be for union were action, on its it war when refused Even in the days food. the very commerce widespread depended the control of valleys That city which controlled to dominate all the neighboring com secured. a position Most early wars, therefore, were fought for the of territory. After the development of com the desire for the merce other city-state lasting of of dissensions. sufficient supplies of the development after of quarrels the fear and freedom of precious prolific causes of wars and to the impossibility apparent sacrifice The distrust. the desire for fertile in were measures, and mutual 39 control of trade-routes added an disputes.1 basis for The city-state, however, was productive of most that was best in Hellenic civilization. Concentration within narrow limits wrought a greater consciousness of political to to glorify the secure led to The the for it be preferable statesman of finest beautify those the city and arts of peace and of war works of The happiest after a children higher The de Hellenic genius. native was city far whom the Death for the polis he who, his a caused man comfortable develop, died in life in battle for homeland.2 Certain 1 was seen life, in turn Greek's devotion to his the to banishment. knew gods, to in the the overestimated. Which he had his leadership of political which art of government. its state and production of intensity cannot feeling, in the manifold experiments sire intensity Zimmern, elements of concord existed op. 'Herodotus, Rawlinson, G., cit., 2 mitigate the evils ch. v. Stein, H., 2 vols. (Berlin, vols. (New York, 1910), i, 30. ed. to 1869-71), translated by strife, the of continuous Apollo and of had been the invite custom Some of numerous important longed the tribes Apollo at Delphi, Out the of festival The of local games at tilities Greece Heralds were laid aside; were the tribes to Delphic, Among be which and which controlled Thermopylae at on Olympia there came a religious proclaimed the to the to of Delos.2 the duty season the Ionians, of great Hellenes took which all embassies island the and the composed of Apollo festival truce became cities. they amphictyonies. the Delian, the shrine of sanctity that tribe, but of had been the formation called Olympian Zeus in earlier Hellenic and the which met at to important local fes all Anthela of It footing. result were of central Demeter of Zeus shrines of send sacred embassies more one any The organizations them the most shrines not of around them. dwelling in part exclusive, and met on a common shrines were of such in the possession, jealous At the all. for tribes to to take neighbors tivals.1 Hellenes all were to great gods were accessible of which was re important most Though local divinities ligion. the [434 PEACE HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF 40 part. for all all ; hos games might pass hostile territory in perfect safety under the protec the god. The greatest disgrace, exclusion from the through tion of games, against every was visited as a punishment upon the truce. state. monized, ing them ment.3 and Views were met any the were set Matters with his of up in the shrine interest to Following all to leading the were set men were tables of har record ensure their Greeks close on Booths wares. who offended exchanged, differences agreements were consummated and discussed. trader At Olympia fulfil were announced diplomat up came the and goods 1Grote, History of Greece (Boston, 1851), vol. ii, pp. 243 et seq. 2Botsford, "Amphictyony in Encycl. Brit, xi. ed. (1910). 'Von Scala, Staatsvertrdge des Altertums (Leipzig, 1898), p. Collitz, Sammlung der Dialektinschriften (Berlin, 1884-1911), 1150. ex- " 24. THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE CITY-STATE 435] The foundations for direct changed. here in the creation of did this part came to be dating Argos, demand for commerce were So products. festival play in Greek life that it in later days as the foundation for the used interest.1 legendary Pheidon, The early in it saw an secure domination over it. The rising king of opportunity for the unification of Greece under his influence and to laid vital a quadrennial of events of general the 41 endeavored Sparta power of drove him back, and never again was any man so presump Though Sparta had aspirations of the same sort, tuous.2 the little Elis state of its guarded prerogatives so and fostered the public opinion of that Sparta itself was not able violated Of than the sacred local importance council the of new a Greek the were adapted member of of states, for and though settlement was ical matters, but in absolutely to 1 2 was bring All zealously became of when it of more the important Old tribal rules of be All were cut off from running who no attempt to prevent war among the to the for zealously any ed. Blass polit the religious character of the preserved and it failed political union. pp. 236 et seq. et seq. 49. Aeschines, Orationes, council arbitra occasionally brought to bear in about water laws.4 these violated was no general agreement general of No thereby laid. members pledged themelves to those most the warfare the foundations Holm, History of Greece (London, 1894), vol. i, Beloch, Griechische Geschichtc, vol. i, 1, pp. 332 'Thucydides v, * alone cases were often referred there Influence organization might upon There was, however, tion. Delphic influence. interstate law ground. war carefully the penalty escape new conditions and the league sacred so mainland secured representation on to the or razed to the wage and amphictyony. science Greeks truce.8 the amphictyonies, the states of to the (Leipzig, 1908), ii, 115. [436 HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE 42 beyond the The oracle, however, spread its influence far the influ under dwellers around and, except when it fell preserved its reputa ence of some powerful state or party, It tion for impartiality. Lydia of Greek, Phrygia and of to and brought to the each it by as well as sought its gave kings humblest the Disputes answer. were settlement and wars were averted or for god the wealthy by was courted delayed hos ended. Unfavorable tilities. Its disfavor its in the ending of interstate anarchy among the. Its position was rather one of influence than of part Greeks. utterances or prevented In these feared. was it ways played power.1 The furthered by To festivals. it to make the traffic. possible for combined effect with many of for the trader to the the citizen the The walls in the the gods noble of at all seasons of hung of in the trade and of interstate city-state industry life, to re which Pri relations. Criminal justice in the hands of took the place of the old-time feud. secured protection no of conditions field an end. magistrate and ness. and as well and aided organization the development vate war came the the festivals of the of Nemean together.2 political flected themselves in The and was built along the main lines of in purpose, they formed good religious changes state under in honor Isthmian to travel embassies the mainland growth games the games roads were Though binding The of Olympic the prosperity advance routes of communication in the which were added sacred year by development the Pythian god, to begun union of work longer his his armory, for life and went armed property from about his busi swords and spears and shields on whence he took them only at the 1 Botsford, op. cit. 2Curtius, History of Greece, 5 vols. (New York, 1907), vol. ii, p. 42. THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE CITY-STATE 437] behest had so that the developed Mining be the glory of the man to in the the armies to Egypt Interstate Oriental the of organized city-state make and and shifting tribes keep of earlier Samos, took the these practised when to be ceased place the place of the raiding more sudden raid of a sin to injure them The importance the growth of of the the war always 1 - according to Beloch, Ibid., op. cit., pp. 315 i, 1, et seq. and piracy, to laws by regulate local resulted in a ob heralds took the Heralds were of the defence, type 316 et seq. it barbarians.2 of state led to this rather and battle fought well-established practices. seq., appli all which of the of the gods and if they for their Corinth the JEgean rid the time of Achilles. even pp. 281 et Greece Polycrates by rules were of general of the of profession. fields to the life phalanx unwieldy formation as scale and well- occupation of and custom combined were in foreign a mainland and envoys were under the protection was The execute by honorable Minos Formal declaration served. large The Delphic character of war. cation, but there an live men a ancient of Religion pests. on enlist than had been the With the days. country migratory had ceased. No longer did to able agreements movements on of new colo to Babylonia to kings.1 better was to of found plenty the relations entered upon a new epoch. policy, to except adventurer still unsettled regions of while men went nies, duty the individual leader called state and not The individualist war. of excitement then ceased to the upper classes and became the The citizen. The newly important in battle than war. Fighting caparisoned nobles. warfare cheapened armor fit himself for to be more phalanx came character of had industry and commoner could magnificently every The very of state or party. changed. 43 The battle [438 PEACE HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF 44 over, it was the for the custom which side had held the of captured field successfully to erect a trophy composed Religion then enjoined a truce for the burial arms. The life dead. of the enemy wounded the fallen foe over unseemly in ransom at regular the and barbarian a of mutilation and the Jubilation rates.1 held for oners were of was spared and pris his were corpse forbidden to absolutely a Greek.2 The formal declaration war of brought to period when a natural state of war existed and to a formal treaties earliest take treaties tablets that the provided but factors tionship as tageous. nobles ful for a were also made were tending to Olympic the Ionian definite term to cities 'Herodotus vi, in 3 ii, von altars.8 of years only. the states into Many such close rela league. The of The threat close touch of compulsion of a power defense, and the in the Boeotian Lydia and of with each other. rewards and Pelo- Persia kept Small states 79. Herodotus ix, 79; of the lyric poets are vol. that any from the consummate alliances. to the necessity leagues. of oaths and formal treaty necessary and advan of interests bound the Thessalian Community a authorities should excluded of successful aggression resulted ponnesian of The were not regarded as permanent bring to make a together into state added be should were made Treaties drawing-up and set the transgression the treaty Such agreements, however, affairs in the up in the shrines thus became their guarantors. One of the cognizance of violator of peace religion played a great part. were engraved on the gods, who of for arrangement In these, too, treaties. the end an led naturally Archilochus, fr. made 64. according to 3d ed. (Leipzig, 1914), Scala, op. cit., p. 24; vol. Collitz, iii, 2nd ed. 1150. References to fragments Bergk, Poetae Lyrici Graeci (1882). THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE CITY-STATE 439] frequently made mutual aid with A strong force in in districts, the veloped daring bringing the cities, of civil strife overabundance of find which could exigencies of trade and far shores of peoples, the The itself, peace and democrats other cities for binding force point under to the of alike seized the selves by citadel armed dangerous. this or react on states was Civil unification. wars, nevertheless friendship. strife aided Aristocrats, men of their the oli own class sympathy they found home. Cities tended to com when their compelled the hazards of its highest powerful demagogues Unless necessity dictated The governments. reached unscrupulous force, to ties between but help sympathy To these men, were and whole.2 as a class and the The mingling of combined in the settle looked to at finally, Hellenes to the Mediterranean could not character of the tyrants. wealthy traders and, the support and themselves in difficulties bine according adventurous life in the individual bloody body highly de sea. states strengthening influence in garchs and in the found was in the close social and religious though it caused interstate and agricultural more home, Euxine frequently many colony, the growth of political cause of the and energy carried western end of the colony and the mother city, the relations among the Greeks another together in the no outlet at industry recesses of the since ment of a states Over-population in presence of unwelcome elements the result the hidden friendship neighbors.1 renewed expansion. politic as for peace, agreements their 45 to maintain war or nobles, who might the prize had them prove war- Phillipson, The International Law and Custom of Ancient Greece Rome (London, 191 1), vol. ii, p. 54; cf. Hicks and Hill, Manual of Greek Historical Inscriptions (Oxford, 1901), no. 9Phillipson, op. cit., vol. ii, pp. 115 et seq.; Curtius, op. cit., vol. i. 1 and pp. 491 et seq. their ranted or positions were tended to avoid the position of of other to [440 HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE 46 their The cultural Prominent other means. to the brilliance horizon better and of their with resul their courts, of men invited artists and philosophers, were interchange commercial their own influence and advance by cities states, poets, come and add tant to war and the tyrants sufficiently secure, mutual understanding. cities was widened by wise the In advancing their own power they Thus Periander of Corinth developed other states as well. acted as arbiter in He Isthmian games. affected measures. frequently the disputes between warring brought his state into close Cleisthenes states. relation with others in the first Sacred War leading part Sicyon of by taking a a mar by securing family of Athens. Similar feeling of dependence among the and riage alliance with a powerful ity of position produced a They tyrants themselves. changed ideas between their The in the the tyrants cause of of the gods, the stories of early heroes furnished to the Greeks that basis the war represented a national effort of any thrill of pride one city, that was poems were so don of The It in its was these Argos to his Hellenic, men 1 cit., vol. great into his a nation. not the Already all these localities it in their which inspired un own Phei- attempt. Beloch, op. cit., vol. i, 1, things given in Herodotus. op. in used and employed tales, possibly, and the Greek felt a local. not poems were used as evidence Beloch, wars movement, glories widely known that derstood the language writings.2 and The of common spirit of which alone makes a people The Trojan ex Panhel- the epic tradition. of legends tory, forth, cities.1 in their treatment was and and methods and established a sort of entente greatest work of lenism back sent envoys i, p. 356. 1, pp. 309 There et seq. for the are many settlement of instances of these 44 1 ] THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE CITY-STATE disputes * logue and all of ships that the noble Greek Still it in the was sang the lays. rhapsodist their endeavor to break down the festivals and at them the re were The tyrants in of the prestige the made cata court of They garded as the possession of the aristocracy. created new in the states sought a place in the Iliad. 47 epics nobles the heri of every man. Tradition ascribes to Peisistratus of Athens the writing down of the poems that all might have tage a correct version.2 Language ently knew came no guage or which only Greeks dent to form an added bond. difference between Greek The religion. were growth of admitted, Homer and appar Trojan in lan oracle, of festival to and of mart, made evi community of language. In this the epic played a leading part. Hesiod and Archilochus were the first to a Greeks.3 However, it was apply the term Hellenes to all when the Greek came into contact with the outside world, with people whom therefore his applied kinship however, he the with all could not understand and name barbaros, the Greeks. that there is On Phrygians same rules of relations Greeks The and ' evident that Lydians and courted, and that the the gods on the by barbarians and important and ever-present after religion was as among the L' impulse to to be found in Arbitrage international ches peace commerce. les Hellenes Its (New York, ii. p. 373. 19- 2Busolt, Griechische Geschichte (2nd 5 be remembered, must were enforced between Greeks most Raeder, p. he keenly for ascribing to this later philosophers for bar and respected warfare whom most themselves.4 unity 1912), both by it is the contrary, were It to no evidence period the contempt expressed barians. that he felt Hesiod, Erga 653 ; Archilochus, ?Herodotus vi, 48; vii, 136. ed., f r. 52. Gotha, 1895), vol. interests in in the festivals ; it were served in the the cause and ties, those of part in the development also the cause of that a quarrel Eretria, over a most of the mythical were Greek a held family of trading states of the duty the closest the greatest states was for the inter commercial Chalcis cities, and Euboea, involved that day in the semiof compelled a partial abandonment of of custom of consulship. of such men in the treat markets. the situation, the old To satisfy time- and guest-friendship was developed States secured guest-friends, proxenoi, from among the prominent was rival by the island the foreign trader in the city form by played which religion enjoined the religious exigencies into it war.1 the rigid exclusiveness honored together between the cities plain on prominent Lelantine added trade and of the markets them between two little Commercial necessity ment of wars of factor it interstate relations; but it of bitter So closely selves. states self-interest; the highways control of ests mutual was a vital many colonies; of success to the tyrant's zeal; it bound It [442 HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE 48 to look citizens of other states. after the interests of the they befriended, to take care of its citizens when they arrived, to see that they were justly treated, to represent state them in the courts their business. and to aid them in the transaction of Save in Sparta, where strangers were un frequently invited by the ephors to de welcome and were part, was accordingly the appointment of proxenoi kept in the hands of local authorities, the state to be and where represented chose stowed became its hereditary prized possessions of established own guest-friend. and institution in the of 1 treaties. Busolt, of century, the the It one the Proxenia became sixth right of a citizen and a part of the enforcement usually the family. The right thus be a most well- recognized machinery used to secure created in the state a party op. cit., vol. i, p. 456. THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE CITY-STATE 443] favorable to the foreign state, deterrent to The war and an aid existence of a to difficult for was large number in other The war. to one state disputes.2 cause of as their consequent Champions in the Hellenic length Thyreatis strife three when Spartans.3 number of followed was to defend chosen shedding and Sparta of blood, over the tale of which another and the a curious was settled two case of dogs.4 by a battle between the equal a fight be This method Thyreatic the to the Herodotus tells Indeed, in by struggles and an in the Chersonesus not avail. world. over an hundred Argives fought tween two men, two horses did were the of between Argos war decision use of other means cities and prevent useless in the famous as a evenly-balanced of secure a the uncertainty of success led to the settle frequently which acted alliances.1 states produced a sort of equilibrium It 49 war armies of it the Recourse was therefore had to arbitra opposing states. tion. Later Greeks ascribed the origin of this institution to The earliest cases reported among men are The first historical case was in a quarrel legendary. purely Andros over the village of Acanthus Chalcis and between in the Chalcidice, which was settled in favor of Andros by the the gods. Samians, Parians, the cided question possession of disastrous over 1 ' war the had failed to the control of Phillipson, Raeder, i, pp. 147 op. cit, p. 145- v, 1. 'Raeder, 'Ibid., op. pp. 17, cit, pp. etseq. Athens accomplish a 16, Athens over the after a long and decision.6 between Athens war Herodotus, i, 82. 'Id., of and the Hellespont on a op. cit., vol. Five Spartans de Erythreans/ Salamis in favor arbitrated ander and between Megara et seq. et seq. basis and Peri- Mytilene of status quo, HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE 50 victory for a virtual to bring to and The boundaries of by Olympic victor, between Athens an of these of the states of the arbiters involved, disputes of have which century it had become the Ionian revolt the Persians to was employed at hand, In ordered interests doubtless were this means be the end of the the that after under states in this way.5 from the It evidence prevent wars. these movements Greek, Platea.4 over to the by By arguments in the direction The regular and continuous. the were Corinthians recognized however, judging more, spite of all of their settle all to end than to wars were acter ended survived. sixth and the last the decision There final. so well control the Thebes all except was accepted as few these sides but in good offices Arcadia and and cases concerned matters vital instance other many their Elis and settled a quarrel his used between Miletus Pyttalus,3 fixed All he an end a profitless struggle Lydians.2 the Mytilene,1 [444 the preference of peace, aggressive which he char showed for fight' settling by arguments involved him in broils and barbarian. War rather a with than by a compromise his neighbors, both Hellenic remained a customary part of the citizen's existence. The influences which were affecting the relations the Greeks with each other, religion, politics and com of merce, same reflected Wealth, luxury the themselves in the and refinement, older civilizations the city, its gods and of its aesthetic contact life of the people. through trade with Orient, the desire to glorify victorious athletes, to sing the the 1 Raeder, op. cit., pp. 20, et seq. Busolt, op. cit., vol. ii, p. 466. 3 Raeder, op. cit., pp. 22 et seq. iIbid., p. 23. 2 r' Herodotus, Antiquity" vi, 42; in Classical cf. Westermann, "International Arbitration in ii (1906-7), pp. 197, et seq. lournal, THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE CITY-STATE 445] leader praise of and of found inspiration men they all led to the In the great epics of delight. and different fields. sought hexameter party, literature. new period of art and They 51 outburst of But for a old, themselves the stately made mock of Batracho- by writing such comic epics as the myomachia, the Battle between the Frogs and the Mice. Then in varying meters they sang songs of party strife, of love and wine and the defense of native land artistic sense expressed beautifully in viduals of how a great and why, a Discovering the filled they began a mutual need ; statues and to philosophy devel these artists, wherever which all could and understand, they epic Greeks bond the poets and went common no of art less than of all property In the of union. they presence language they became, age, the the great poets of the and an added spoke in indi the questions ask ready welcome; in many quarters their earnestly solicited; they was Their themselves as new science of expression of their age, philosophers found itself in temples, in universe, and rallied their countrymen to against present enemies. painted vases. The oped. or nature, endeavor to they thought, it is necessary to something remember that we have but the barest fragments of their find of what out be drawn works and conclusions must is to is possible as indicated in notice the general what evidence there The leaders in this fresh life great were of intrigues, 1 their of intellectual of change and Wars there ment." with the were threatening Symonds, Studies of the All that opinions hand. to be found in the coast of of colonial prosperity, of political transformation, 1 at wealthy trading cities along the " a period It was a stirring age, tyrannies, states, trend is and Minor. social sparingly. of courts Asia and animation, development, of of religious uncertainty in every depart aplenty, between neighboring powers of Greek Poets Lydia (London, and 1893), vol. Phrygia, i, p. 239. [446 HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE 52 invading Cimmerians, the with Persia, power of side of there the with .Egean, in the with the overwhelming the aggressive cities of to addition adventurers were later who civil strife at looked farther western Yet home. They afield. into the colonies, they filled the armies of the x Saite kings with mercenaries; and the brother of the poet Alcaeus won great renown by fighting a giant in far-off thronged Babylon.2 To these same cities came all and of new for luxury All Of the lived about to them a synonym in the literature reflected the poets, hundred B. seven Callinus C, of swept over the of Ephesus, who but one there remains threatening Ephesus. to battle in a stirring poem, the and people which are oldest of The Cimmerians had elegy. Magnesia They ascribed became elegance.3 age. his industries. the products of and refinement and these things of Tradition the Orient. Mediterranean the foundation the Lydia, destroyed Callinus were main called thought of are at is : The enemy then ? Do wasting the land. are Cease to slumber, but peace you arise and think fight ! you When the fates will, man must die, and there is no escape. He who dies war is mourned by all, while he who wins and lives is held in divine.4 as almost Language and that the city to be Closely 1 Collitz, 2 Alcaeus, When it is defence, on which op. cit., ii, remembered poem seems build to were effete and Callinus in thought, Busolt, this the as peace-loving.5 more vigorous in p. 479. 33. and 4 Callinus, fr. 6 Cf. Busolt, in its Ephesians to akin 5261 ; cf. sBotsford Homeric. sufficient evidence that the fr. are was successful hardly sumption idea Sdhler, Hellenic Civilization (New 1. op. cit, vol. ii, p. 464. York, 1915), p. 203. THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE CITY-STATE 447] personality, and certainly the stands his Paros, colonizer of native younger city, The restless he is the livelihood, range personality him from the poems, fables importance satires, Greek to in his the and a wine long to so doing soldier and Enyalios He is as and I " a poet. am skilled wrote keen for a fight I as a as an the of older lovely servant of the thirsty man for a " the are knock them down. drink.8 Hearten 4 and moderation. Endure, endure setting thy firm stand 2 His the All victory." of the gods. They set men up The only remedy that he finds is durance lord Muses." in the hands things thy himself gift of philosophy is that of a soldier of fortune. young warriors but trust to the gods for and literary is the first He described himself the am his religious The shipwreck. the fact that he broke the bonds in the of differentiate series of personal poems meters and created new standards. as a Born in force poems He epopee. work rests on in and age slothful aggressiveness. vigorous the poetic medium to express use individual, his of the and expressed topics varying from on Greek personification of writers of as no contemporary Thasos with the willing consent of his warrior depending on his lance for his he which of Archilochus.1 his interests of product 53 and en my soul, disquieted breast against and close thou conquerest, the amid exult not by griefs beyond remedy foe, hold thy ground, taking the openly, spears and of if thou the enemy. art If conquered, meet down in thy house and mourn. Rejoice in that which is for rejoicing and grieve not overmuch at calamities, but learn what condition prevails lie not He laughs at the 1 loss of men.5 among his shield, that Hauvette, A., Un poete ionien du ses poisies (Paris, 1905)Archilochus, fr. 'Id., fr. 55. 1. VIIe siecle, greatest of Archilogjue; ' ' Id., fr. 68. s Id., fr. 6. dis- sa vie et [448 HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE His the sense of fitness eternal for later lyric a precedent thereby creating graces, things of poets.1 him that warns " it His men." is to not noble ideal man, full is the true man buckler make mock of his with of the inspiration Of the His and which wrote chief a war poem name dened by was has was not with heart he turned Ares. seventh century, Colophon of the richness of a proverb fleeting hand, language, His greatest and youth. for luxurious verse, joys are troubles, other Ionian heroes. war, but love the on Se- satire on avoidance of Mimnermus, into passed reflections on the wonderful with martial virtues of theme, however, His feet, service of Mimnermus philosophy war was praising the his The former is best known for his one.4 of on life in the of side Amorgos representative. women. little excelled most as a poet when the Muses to the peaceful of monides of firmly swash the looks, but disdainful who stands He courage.3 the prancing not warrior, curls and bow-legged, dead among the of youth and the sad sure steady progress of old age and death. They (his poems) breathe the air of sunny gardens and cool banquet rooms in and which we picture oring to haunted crowd and made wrinkles and These the poet his hours lingering life, endeav kinds, yet ever out a pensive with pleasures of all fretful among his roses by the thought of death.5 men are the earliest signs of the transformation from Homeric days. Of the in the 1 era of adventure and political strife which ushered sixth Arch., 'Id., fr. century the best proponent f r. 66. 2 /rf-j Al- fr ? 58. 4lCroiset, Histoire de la litterature grecque pp. 192 et seq. 6 is the Lesbian Symonds, op. cit, vol. i, pp. 227 et seq. (Paris, 1891), vol. ii, THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE CITY-STATE 449] caeus. A noble, vivant, he is the a ranks with the ical thought. ous life traveler, height a the at and one of the period in the of But Alcaeus the field bon its of seven of polit represents all sides of the vigor He took the time. of best a soldier, Mytilene Pittacus, law-giver greatest splendor. sages, a politician, product of 55 part in the war with Athens Sigeium where, like Archilochus, he lost his shield after an honorable defeat. After this episode he was driven into exile by the success of the democratic tyrants. Travels in Egypt followed, till he was pardoned and returned to home and a settled life.1 His poems of love and wine are over best known, but they He was possessed by show even fools had thrown her into the righteousness of his strife with which party fire. martial though party's his with shields mets, corselets, which he held ready for the day garded as the allotted task of grown and On the estate.4 their rushed swords their rank full of of of an affair men, task in of the hel Chalcis, War he use.8 youths who assumed a into the first fully songs comrades are the bronze and of his and cause, rallied His halls flashed greaves, He believed confusion.2 he character. love for his country and a men he regarded as an ardent desire to fight for her his one side of only re befitting not theirs danger threatened, when recking little of themselves, he bestowed the highest honors For himself, Athena was polemadokos, that he might. war.5 giver " of Ares." 8 Yet the 1 Easby-Smith, Songs Botsford Ibid., glorious same man called 1 and For it is Sihler, of Alcaeus op. cit, p. to die in friends (Washington, out to service sail on 1901). 194. p. 194. ' Edmonds, J. M. in Classical Review, 8 Alcaeus in Bergk, 0 Id., fr- 30. op. cit., vol. iii, f r. vol. xxx 9. (1916), p. 100. to the [450 HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE 56 bay in the morning or to join in wrote beautiful poems of and drinking bout a pleasant The spring.1 outlook of men was ever widening. contemporary of Alcaeus, the happy freedom and wealth of the of She lene. stands supreme among the social me 'tis the heart's beloved host a a one of whom her face than beaming men of Erotic poetry Thrace, reached Teos.3 of from Teos ships, navy I would rather its culmination His life he took typical was part in for this century in the age. Driven of settled wars with at Abdera in the native Thra- After his poetry became famous he spent many court of that piratical despot and adventurer, Samos. Polycrates of Athens. at to the clung and epigram golden Dionysos of He did not care I do not the Botsford his most man Ibid., pomp happiness all.4 above loved divinities. In an evil, for it took away the left the coward in his Sihler, old-style poet with who, drinking war, but he his tales from a of war. full cup, tells who remembers to mingle op, cit., p. 195. 197. of Greek Literature (New et seq. p. 104. 'Bergk, and and power and war as an for the love the and glory he went place.3 Ibid., Wright, History p. court of city's youth and of strife and grievous 2 to the there tranquility were he scenes of splendor and envied not mean, he described bravest From Amid wealth, but desired * foot in the Hippias 1 brightness chariots and armoured local disturbances he by where cians. years " horse of Lydia.2 Anacreon Eros the all love. of the sweet sound of her footfall and the sight of the of of Myti- life poetesses of The fairest thing in all the world some say is men, and some a host of foot, and some again but to a product more was Sappho, op. cit., Anacreon, fr. 101. York, 1907), pp. 102, THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE CITY-STATE 45 1 ] the glorious gifts of the 1 cheer." lovely In his He shield.2 The and experience Alcaeus willing to leave with their he followed by throwing away to those war who fight.8 to wished was Aphrodite and of military Archilochus the precedent of his Muses own 57 broadening lectual life deepening and produced at the the of time same intel currents of Thales. a This man, merchant,^ traveler, statesman, engineer, mathema tician, astronomer and physical philosopher, was the em bodiment of the best sides of Ionian life. He drew inspira who was tion from every source, with its to the their advantage of in success and urged upon for the in of of a small part of Anaximander to the a map physical however, 4 is confined work His successors, themselves Anaximander of as It was, known. well activities.4 the knowledge the and social pleasures of detract from the Ionians. 1 his His rather produced the many trav Miletus.8 The intellectual otus himself for advantages of union freedom. philosophy, though which embodied all elers of under science Anaximenes, and pursuit of and He apparently took an his country against Lydia and preservation of peace and the founder Miletus war. the Ionians the however, but and What he learned he turned his fellow-countrymen trade and in the defence active part Persia, Egypt, Babylon, Lydia, widespread commerce. Lack of union, subjection of called and most Herodotus, i, 74, 75, 6 Marshall, cit, 79- of a prosperity did not, fighting pp. of Greek 170. 7 et seq. zeal of the bravery, drew them people whom Herod of warlike ' s Herodotus, i, lack Lydians, 94. Id., f r. 92. Marshall, A Short History op. not the the bravest Anacreon, fr. patriotism or all Asia.8 Id> fr- ^ Philosophy (London, 1898), p. 2. Lydian interests demanded commercial For the cities. each successive reduce to Alyattes, which seems by to long a for itself independence A terms.1 to have been formed commercial under the league leadership of was apparently of no avail in military Lydian control came after Croesus had culmination of singly and subdued again all but He followed his conquest up by making treaties the made war upon Miletus. cities islanders of alliance with the such centers of Greek influence a result of his his desires to rule was so the request of Croesus, Cyrus for the Cyrus win of the Greek After the to refused with cities were friendship cities refused by its to old revolt at them to In terms. They ex spite of all Miletus, whose resist. retain kingdom, far the feeblest with no great cities save they lacked, they determined allow the burden to overthrow of Lydian the which was granted fact that these Greek states, showering favors upon Delphic oracle. As by as Persia. accordingly Miletus, and light that the their former arrangements of Still compelled matters.2 Phocaea cept the of Miletus, by city. preserved favorable and an alliance on The Lydia found himself Greeks again, city the resistance king the coast horsemen were, no match. small city-states of control of and chariots magnificent inland kingdom the of [452. HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE 58 the support fortified their towns, held meetings to secure united action and sent abroad to Sparta for aid. It was on this occasion that Thales ad- Vised the as union of its center, the was not the cities forthcoming Ionians into a single state with retaining their local and unity was autonomy. impossible.3 Teos Help Harpagus, Cyrus, attacked and took the cities one by one. Though they resisted bravely and with many feats of arms, they were no match for the might of Persia. Their general of war- 1 Busolt, op. cit, vol. ii, p. 19. Hill, Historical Greek Coins (New York, 3 Herodotus i, 170. a 1906), pp. 8, et seq. THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE CITY-STATE 453] forced into the riors were the were placed under the of " Herodotus, ceived to endeavored thence and mere of to rule to himself put an end One Ionia over more effort his to and made was mainland islands, the of said human birth who con the sea of islands." the and the of the design of gaining the empire aspired cities " Polycrates," itself. mainland the first was control domination secure their and tyrants. control of native the period of Persian During Polycrates Persia armies of 59 l and Treachery attempt. Greeks the Asiatic by to freedom in the famous Ionian revolt, led by Miletus.2 Against the advice of Hecataeus, Aristagoras of secure the their historian, strong,8 feat unity in getting The burning refused. Ephesus, near Athens cities. were the promise their union. secured and and they were was followed by they dispersed to their a de own was won defeated sold city after besieged. Not even the fleet, however, into democratic upon too tribe after tribe and badly were enjoined was Sardis of Discipline in the its inhabitants Persia among themselves and from Athens after Sparta Miletus itself cities were restored to tion aid favorable treatment of weak and of action after which withdrew, taken, city and secured successful were had they thought Miletus too who at Lade. slavery. Greeks from could not be Miletus fell Though the government and arbitra them for the settlement of their disputes, the Ionians had fallen forever from their high estate. As the result of this subjection, the name Ionian became a followed reproach all spirited and the Ionians cultural who were With Ionia in the development wealth and 1 luxury in Herodotus iii, Busolt, cit, op. early times 122. ii, 'Herodotus v, 15- pp. 54 et seq. leadership left, of art and ranked of Hellas to the West. literature, in Sparta. Agricul- HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE 60 ture in the fertile valley ishing pottery to the manufacture tradition, literary Ionia,3 " the where clear- Muse voiced the of spear deeds." fiery Archilochus, fair 6 athletic which appear He is happy 7 who the The same cheerily In the for expansion was about own " good twenty habitants to opening war, reduced to 1 On the birthplace of his and and next century. webs of desire for valley, the his days wealth was was desire for room the militarization of 9 plant," plow of and the finally serfdom.10 Fowler and Wheeler, A York, 1909), p. 468 n. * Ibid., p. 209. Wright, op. cit., p. 106. 4Bergk, op. cit., Terpander 5 the weaves years' after a maidens Sparta.8 its the the and dancing, ceryl birds themes of love, pleasure led to the first step in Messenia, invaded power contemporary same period to narrowness of Sparta. has in the broad streets, in Ionian poetry in the weakness and talent Alcman,5 unweeping." threatening men of sleeping nature, girls," peace " of Crete.2 for the Spartan wrote " lyrics, choral local and seated 4 upholder of righteous the flour According warrior justice, and a Terpander, who came thither in from Lesbos, described it as the the early seventh century city probably wealth.1 imported from and probably developed. were and brought in were artists from Crete men Eurotas the of [454 good seventh to century and, its in captured and Some three Handbook of Greek generations Archaeology (New fr. 6. Alcman and Tyrtaeus, cf. Botsf ord and 'Sihler, Christ, Geschichte der griechischen Litteratur, revised by Schmid (5th ed. Munich, 1908-1913), vol. i, pp. 170, 207. Botsford and Sihler, op. cit, p. 13. op. cit., p. 12; ' Ibid., p. 186, 8 Ibid., p. 185, 9 Bergk, Busolt, 10 of op. op. Alcman, fr. 4. Tyrtaeus, fr. 3. cit, ii, Tyrtaeus, f r. 5 ; Botsford and Sihler, cit, vol. i, pp. 588, et seq. op. cit, p. 185. THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE CITY-STATE 455] broke thereafter a revolt to They crush. juncture the warrior, appeared the out which driven back were Spartans were unable loss. with great 6l In this poet, Tyr statesman and With taeus. a martial poem whose fervor is magnificent he urged the Spartans into the fight for native land.1 Under his leadership they Local disorder, of the war, he osophy followed by quelled his greatest virtue a man could beautiful sight in his as a result of poem Martial was military. Messenians. resubdued the rallied and which Eunomia.2 courage possess.8 eyes was the the he His the fitting and of a youth who had most fallen in battle that his country might live.4 The conquest of Messenia marked the beginning downfall of Spartan durance the large of surrounding the to the military artists no marvel of service longer found Cynuria taken from it. to the formation Peloponnesian later the a welcome power Failure This rigid the individual Foreign Argos of poets broken was of conquest and Ex and in Arcadia led the development famous in alarm beside the Eurotas. of alliances and league. keeping military Literature and ages. state. of the the growing stern subjection of of The followed. of forced Sparta into that way before the art gave The necessity number of serfs and states system which was pansion culture. phil regarded as The body hardships the of organization was purely military in its character and was under the leadership All the states of the Peloponnesus save Argos of Sparta. and the little defence of Sparta to cities of the land. on the north were had equal rights of Plato, 4 Tyrtaeus, f r. Laws 629. 10. All discussion Bergk, op. cit, vol. ii, Tyrtaeus, fr. 10. Tyrtaeus, fragments, i-7- Botsford and Sihler, 5 joined for held in Corinth settle questions of war or peace. represented and 1 Achaea Congresses op. the or states were with major- cit, p. 184. [456 HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE 62 ity the lot was of save all, loosely-knit by that all furnished troops to the army, This the Spartan kings. command of the which was under courted independence was no tribute and complete There rule. was military backbone of Greece, desired aid. But culture had been sacri the body all who ficed to military Elsewhere on the prowess.1 mainland culture was school of athletic sculpture under developed, the and for later heights careful study Poets of art. the of spell the is most significant. games had the way body paved flourished in Of these, Theognis A talented noble of in Boeotia. even the best known and of the and poetesses Argos, in Megara and A developing. position, he began his life under the most favor conditions, which he prayed Zeus and Apollo to main wealth and able tain free from his delight, ing power of Music, evil.2 knowledge his He lamented the it which made money wine and amours were poetry, quest.3 grow for the wealthy To the possible but baser element the between the nobility and the commercial class he to maintain an intellectual superiority. But strife to intermarry well-born.4 with endeavored when he the blow came and forced into was dered at the down the in Thebes many property He tune, 1 took Busolt, 2 righteous.5 and part op. Ibid., in a war vol. 183-192. 373, to his of et seq. was seized and endeavored Muse, which upheld The time Euboea. cit., vol. Bergk, cit., 'Ibid., 531-4. 5 recourse Zeus his the to though he won wicked and cast exile was spent There he for the defence i, p. 610. ii, Theognis 1-10. of he reconcile first Then he followed the footsteps litterateurs to Sicily. op. 'Ibid., by plan of exiled aristocrats were overthrown poverty. fell into the direst himself to the loss the flight, his regained Syracuse, of for secured THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE CITY-STATE 457] pardon and a return to his land, native the Persian menace sweep down see widespread which he of popularity his possibly lived to country. The the the readiness poems and in his was welcomed and upon 63 is wanderings with evidence of how strong a bond of union these new poets had become. The man he honored most was not the warrior of Tyrtaeus Archilochus, but him who remained faithful and firm, by honor, steadfast through good and ill, impreg nable alike to danger and to War, save in defence He went into of native land, seemed to him utterly useless. or bound gain.1 it by shamed May the call of the herald rather than from any longings. martial peace and wealth possess the state, that I may revel with Give not thine ear too much For we do not join battle when the herald shouts loud and far. for our fatherland. Yet is it disgraceful when one is present others, for I do evil war not love. and mounted on a swift-footed steed not to look upon tearful war.2 When the threat Greece he charm he the prayed people prayed Medes in to Persian into fearlessness he of the disunion of arrogant the over be inspired to might To Apollo the danger. his city from the of hanging advance was to the gods that save spite of army Greeks, the of which he feared.8 The last great state though Thucydides the the first to united At Ibid., aside that and the new life Attica the city-state of period the 756-768, Athens, least from were therefore attain whole Athens, partly by conditions district peaceful a Ibid., 885-890. 4 Thuc. i, 6. 77-86. 773-782. was suffered Athenians their arms and very early a into the Theognis, ' lay enter upon states invasions, recurrent peace.4 to of was per- HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE 64 suasion and aged such partly expansion Mountain barriers discour force.1 by Sparta as [458 was and undertaking the Athenian nobility turned themselves to securing control of The ever-present necessity the best lands of Attica itself. for food than Attica more For this mercial growth. session of Athens of trial and it the island and was resulted in a the Athenians led which commanded control of their neighbor, Megara. long-drawn-out were so inevitably an essential element was Salamis of in the commercial produced badly guerilla to the pos the attempt port indus flourishing An com to take warfare, in which defeated that the ruling class, interested in agriculture, forbade any one The result effort to secure the island. another suggesting was a shattering of Athenian commercial interests, which who were more doubtless became of Draco saw the and With his factor in the felt the disgrace the people up to the success encouraged the Sea A desire for and the the ium in the in the It rich there to be trade the Troad com thus displayed. market-place Salamis.2 This ventures over with gained the establishment of a northwest corner of Hellespont. cowardice he sang in the recapture of statesman Athenian of Athenians to further a share advantages food-supply, led to the of led to the laws The latter possibilities warlike elegies which stirred seas. the and crisis which Solon. reforms of necessity merce and he a the the Euxine in the way of garrison at Sigeat the mouth of colony but a fort for the pro tection of trade. At the same time it broke the connection between Megara and her colonies in the Pontus.3 This un was not a dertaking, in which Athens had the support of her sister city, Miletus, led to that war between Athens and Mytilene which was settled by the arbitration of Periander. Civil 1 Busolt, op. cit., vol. ii, pp. 90-93. Bergk, op. cit., vol. ii ; Solon, fr. 3 Ibid., vol. ii, pp. 249-254. 2 1 ; cf. Busolt, op. cit, vol. ii, p. 247. THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE CITY-STATE 459] troubles and the The put an end footing foreign the Euboic standard, on a industry Athens feud on the Solon laid Peisistratus built the foundation for later He attracted the Athenian and which was the to last dependence the off the until to Athens coinage system and ^Eginetans He these foundations. on lost.1 both thereby cutting Megarians yEgina with were and commerce. artisans and organized Salamis to this movement. Hellespont administration of Athenian of temporarily on the 65 fifth starting century.2 established the farmer in security and gave to Athens the backbone Under his guidance Athenian vase manufac the state. peasant of ture and trade expanded to his to court Athenian gave him full Sestos His made the He writer in thought. control the Thracian friendly was on Lacedaemonians, prepared and A way f>r Mytilene the foundation and of over the Hellespont coast became later Athenian terms with and endeavored the to among the Ionians through leadership the new war with Sigeium, control over Athenian relations with policy. and artist leadership He invited wide proportions. secure. Thessalians and for Athens secure relations with the Delos.'1 shrine of At the Ionian end of the century the Athenians took revolt and waged successful war against for the control of ownership of Plataea the Lelantine vigorous and warlike, quer, and the The Greek great 2 Bury, History Busolt, 'Ibid., *Ibid., days of Sicily under Lydian and The people were strong. ii, p. 307. pp. 44L -et seq. for new fields to lay just ahead. Italy had expanded Here Ionians or the Thebans Chalcidians for the Persian of Greece (London, 1913). 17- ii, Athens in the the abroad and powerful. op. cit., vol. vol. plain.4 looking colonies of become wealthy lack of freedom 1 and with part P- 196- who rule con and felt the found that HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE 66 they desired ; here which ever and party, Magna Graecia became the many poets and luxurious of the overland luxury trade her of in later exiles were welcomed cities Hard by city for the simplicity of its life, discipline and the success of its athletes. the into broke war most and the controlled of Croton, re its strictness of In the year 510 Though Sybaris between them. out of effeminate ease and smaller nowned B. C. what home byword among the Greeks a the was which The Italy. became from second wealthiest Sybaris, was with western citizens days.1 The philosophers. [460 put field, according to tradition, an army of three hun dred thousand men, the Crotoniates, led by their famous the athlete, fallen Milo, In seventy days Sybaris had were successful. been destroyed. and Its inhabitants into slavery or scattered into its ruin, love of luxury exile.2 wrought the classic example of a When the fall world. had learned too object lesson in the train 1 Botsford 8 Grote, was the fate because of was loss of to the entire Hel followed, the of a captured city. all It arrogance.3 a shock Miletus to teach them sold the evils which Greeks A great followed of war. and op. well of killed, Truphe kai hybris had and overthrown Its fate brought warlike vigor. lenic city were Sihler, cit., vol. op. iv, cit., pp. 205, et seq. p. 413. 3Diodorus Siculus ed. Vogel-Fischer (Leipzig, 1888-1906), xi, 90, xii, Strabo, ed. Meineke (Leipzig, 1904-9), vi, 263. 9, 10; CHAPTER III The Persian War The in the movements sixth of success fifth a toward century by the union and peace which appeared to be were Politician developed into a measure Persia in the first half war with Foreign danger century. time. Hellenic Peace and to was unite to and writer were the Greeks for doctrine the preach of the among the Hellenes and war upon the barbarian. experiences of the war were to teach man most clearly of peace The the blessings The of peace and advance the cruelty of war. the Persians found the Greeks divided of Athens had just finished wars with Thebes and and was quarreling with JEgina. Sparta, under the in vEgina and had leadership of Cleomenes, had interfered as usual. Chalcis defeated Argos the' height throw this League, power by the tyrants. of League, forces thon its of of The again. Peloponnesian Athens Darius the for party strife, for Xerxes was Athens measures. isthmus of Corinth patriotic states. 461] The story the period used a the Not steps of 481 congress of over until taken Mara following the islanders .Egina. were autumn after her membership in to Sparta for aid when the aggression against assembling In the Athens threatening. a renewal of the war with was ground of appealed needs no retelling. strength of had been brought to the addition of On the were element one which and for the army of for defensive there assembled on the of This assembly formed deputies an of Hellenic all the League, 67 was which The virtually the of armies organization were under new Argos, Thebes, outside because of to the claims the com command harmony. Many states re of jealousy for Athens; Sparta; those of Thessaly out her hatred of her yielded the fleet in the interests mained Peloponnesian. the of extension an Athens Sparta. mand of of [462 HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE 68 of The out of necessity, because of their exposed position. It was this western Greeks were in difficulties of their own. however, alliance, began To it ^Egean. It cities. tween bone Athens were admitted and They Nor not under to and island were the As the leader Persia. unite Hellenes in the all extra- interested in Spartan leaders immediate The Lacedaemon policy. Peloponnesian separate alliance with when Athens, defence the affairs of distant Hel control of forces overseas states they a success when the officials of therefore willingly surrendered to mand of Asiatic cities of keep were not the against Peloponnesian a narrow endeavored They and Asia Minor, however, Sparta Conservatism and the menace of the helots failure. lenes. the larger should which free the and dictated less. Plataea nominally in force until the breach be Sparta in 461. Sparta had been the back Hellas in the defence of ^Egean ians and remained of an organization was a fought Salamis which the movements of retaliation on the other side of the objected Athens Ionians, the to the were the state. the com already in leadership of Pausanias. As long as Athens remained a friend and an ally busied herself in Asiatic affairs Sparta had nothing to fear. The result was the formation of the Delian Confed eracy. Projected by Themistocles, it was organized by the and wisdom of Aristides. a number of pendent, was states, It for the defence to be consisted of all of which were of of perpetual union of to be equal and the yEgean against a general congress of the presidency the Athens, in the members which all inde Persia. There at Delos membershad under an equal iii! THE PERSIAN WAR AND HELLENIC PEACE 463] vote, to decide Delos to the fleet ; the The larger tion of determining Aristides, to was entrusted who the confederacy carried was Eurymedon in 468, when of each state the Persians work of the battle after until on satisfac Cimon the of ships according to their duty the twelve furnished fulfilled it to the Under the generalship of all. states smaller paid contributions The task by administered was and Athenian Hellenotamiae. resources. The treasury questions of peace and war. was established at 69 of from were excluded iEgean.1 the From the very beginning the confederacy was dominated by Athens. The Athenians were able to control a sufficient number of the finances, dividual this As league an as was Athenian supported Sparta. by Cimon of vol. in the power iii, pp. Sicily of 1, and a Persia reduced and The was from culmination Hellenic abroad and at Athens by the was Sparta revolt peace came united Busolt, to at op Spartans request of helot peace of and led to breach between Athens Hellenic cf. secede next period. war had been this period et seq. the in The first the policy of the the the addi empire came attempt the time of the period of of history at Cimon Thus the On the ; in expedition sent at The Greeks 1 was followed: namely, the overthrow et seq. down this condition of a subject state. Cimon with to her. Athenian To this the democratic party The failure and mistreatment posed. treaties that the danger from put In members. close of an movement was reached long home. convinced Cimon alliance. Naxos to the of development the con managed and tired of making contributions, tried to past and the bound them states which Naxos, when the payments of made separate commercial step in real majority in the secure a treasurers as served collecting the tion, Athens to small states Athenians gress. and an end. before this time, op. cit., vol. ii, pp. 557, [464 HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE 0 for the Theron men part most Akragas of had mastered the might by Gelon and their own of tyrants, great These able had brought under their of cities, the two Syracuse. themselves to control the neighboring cities, had bound gether by marriage alliances, and had accomplished by force that union of bring ties Carthage success with The the defeat of courts the the all the freedom The period. and appreciation and to states the great resulted in the most held brilliant found there and artist which a congress was compose matters and ence of all The 461 474. at could tyrannies was followed overthrow of the fusion that in this Cumae in were dramatist to the Gelon, followed the Etruscans Sicilian tyrants Poet of of was stopped favorable trea and secured successor of Persia of Together they Himera at Hieron, peace. of the threat which in the iEgean. about armies of Hellenes be desired. by of all such con the Sicilian to re-establish the independ cities.1 deeds of the foreign a wave of religious wars in Greece devotion, an and Sicily increase in Hel lenic self-confidence, which stimulated all activities but found its best expression in literature and art. The writers the of deeds the period reflect the spirit of their age, the glory of the heroes, the value of Hellenic unity, of the horrors Pindar of war and withal itself. ),2 lyric poets, was a Though his city Medized, he himself was thoroughly patriotic. Much of his life was spent in the courts of the Sicilian tyrants. He was an aristocrat to the native of ( 522-442 the greatest of Thebes. delighted chiefly in the noble achievements of young aristocrats in the service of their states, in the games and in war. His extant poems, ranging in date from 502 core 1 2 32, and Grote, op. cit., vol. v, pp. Wright, op. cit.. pp. 119, et seq. 236, et et seq. seq.; Botsford and Sihler, op. cit., pp. THE PERSIAN WAR AND HELLENIC PEACE 465] to 452 B. He C, in are praise of praised the victors by legends recounting Bacchylides (ca. 507-428), Hieron. Pindar's, the master of Simonides, suc He, too, sang of the Contemporary and great deep feeling center of with the new and same as originality the literary stage.1 ^Eschylus, the pre of an old Eupa- Native Panhellenism and battles visited written service Sicily. his and in his state in war literary He took Salamis, writings. His epitaph, himself, indicated to abroad. Marathon of tributions to the which that he and ^Eschylus, who part in the his military Like the lyricists, said to have he is valued more highly his than the renown of termed his own dramas know.2 morsels Homer, followed his master in stirring pictures of The Seven against Thebes was filled, said the ancients, Ares.8 The heroes are pictured as the fire of mailed 'Jebb, Bacchylides (Cambridge. 1905), Introduction. 'Glover, From Pericles Aristophanes ed. to his great con world. Here Aeschylus lies in Gela's land of corn, Euphorion's son, in far-off Athens born ; That he was valiant Marathon could show, And long-haired Medes could tell it, for they s of delightful though they are. poets. Drama was there these men was age. experiences are reflected he the general of Eleusis, family, educated as befitted a noble, in athletics, music Homer, he was a follower of Cimon in his conservatism home at in the classical lyric of to occupy the cursor of trid subjects are graceful and poet, He is the last after His but they lack the ancestors cities. nephew ceeded to the older poet's position. glories of their of great games. heroic glorifying their the ancient and the victors in the ji Philip (NTew York, 1917). Hall (Oxford, 1902), Frogs P- 43- 1021. from war. with men HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE 72 of might and valor whose song the of chariots, the chorus one delight is in battle. the whirling wheels, the shriek of the Through the hear the thunder still may the air battlements. No less thrilling is the description in the Persae, of Greeks, the crashing the wailing of the against the the the Salamis of the high- the advance, the struggle, the ships, the victory of stone Persians, the preparations of the spirited pseans of confused rattle of moans of spear-shaken and [466 Persians till night Greeks the of put an end and to the battle.1 Yet there is little Warrior himself, triumphs of the attendant other to in the participant sufferings and the Persian War, ^Eschylus knew full well hardships both to victor and to vanquished. and the Persae present the results of war, king is returning victorious, the which suffers under ruinous defeat. Even have been made for the rhetorical or dra a people whose a nation when allowances matic a in the tragedies. of war the The Agamemnon the one to the glory of values, enough remains to make one feel the terrible side of war. The Agamemnon the while at Troy. king riors the are sufferings. battlefield * pictures the -Id., seq., 203 Agamemnon, 'Ibid., of as 437-44- calamity ed. ct seq. 63-63. of fails and war war-spears clash.2 the brave pyre-ashes.3 Cly- place of the wife, who is com from her lord and is (Oxford, ct seq. winning glory evil, set those terrible grap the apart Sidgwick ; 553 the host of foreboding where men's strength in the house Aeschylus, Tragoediae, et think return still yearning hearts in forth but an urn of cold pelled to sit alone 1 nebes, 152 They comes to man who went temnestra are with an air of in the dust crushed Then there before the his followers The chorus, forth their ples of and opens 1899) Seven against 467] THE PERSIAN WAR AND HELLENIC PEACE driven many times by suicide.1 of In their heart-shaking grief the for the execrate their rulers rumors people of woe the 73 to the verge outraged nation they have brought upon them. The war-god who exchangeth Men's lives for gold, And where the mad spear rangeth The scales doth hold, Sends back to hearts that For a brave man's return, Filling Pyre yearn one small sad urn ashes cold. With sighs love tells their story: In battle bold Was one : one fell with glory With garments rolled In blood : and each man died All for another's bride! In whispered pain Is the tale told. and pride While here grief's hushed defiance Chides bitter-souled Atreus' avenging scions, There lapped in mould, They, round In death yet the The land they Doth them Amid these ing army. steep, won and keep enfold.2 plaints there comes He, too, has his dier's life, the embattled comely sleep; tale the herald of the of the hardships more vivid when one remembers return of a sol that it is a soldier who writes them. 1 Aeschylus, Agamemnon, 859-865. 2 Ibid., 437-455. Way, Aeschylus in English Verse (London, 1908). [468 HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE 74 Of travail might I tell, bleak bivouac, Of iron-bound coasts, hard-lying, groans on through the straitened days. Who knows how Then came new ills on land to vex us more : groans many? Hard foes' by And dews from heaven Down-drizzled, lay; walls through the night we our and reek from the marshy mead clammy-cleaving, rotting vest, And making man's hair like the wild beast's fell. But O to tell of winters that slew birds, By snows of Ida made intolerable, Or heat, when on his noon-day couch, the sea Unrippled sank and slept, and no breath stirred. Yet is his home attitude that of overcomes all other What boots to Why of the victor. His joy at his return thoughts. grieve o'er these? Our toils those wasted lives take nice are past. accounts ? The Argive host is victorious, the gain outweighs the loss. At his tale of victory the people, too, lay aside their mis givings.1 This comfort comes not scribes the to the The vanquished. poet de scene when With clouded brow a herald brings Hideous disaster from a field of rout, And speaks a nation stricken with one wound, Speaks many a light of many a home doom-banned Ares' twy-lashed scourge of fire and steel, By Twin slaughter-curse, blood-boultered chariot pair.2 To the Persian and wives and mothers who counting the days till their comes the messenger death, and grief overwhelms for her young 1 Way, 2 Ibid., 638-643, 3 op. cit., sons of Agamemnon Aeschylus, Persae 44, spearmen shall Xerxes killed with the and 555-584. 61-64, have been sighing 532-547- his tale land.3 return, there of defeat and The land. cries out the pall of death covers it.1 No word of cessive report A WAR* THE PERSIAN 469] tells Trojans in to the Thebans, victory lightens the gloom but of new losses and brings fresh fate than this worse the should the Seven less babes gifts, the warriors, the of In this maids.4 matrons and the scene which Homer himself deplored has mind the destruction Miletus of ascribes threatens for the and all too of help the captive vivid picture of a not the poet in Sybaris, may he survival of barbarism ? and and of be protesting against such a Though the dramatist regards the dead hero not of ruin of murder of the slavery, the terrible fate and sorrows.2 take the city, the plundering of earth's precious city, the death 75 each suc the Persians /Eschylus of Agamemnon,3 wealth, the destruction an ancient AND HELLENIC PEACE still as despises the cowardly, skulking stay-at-home, comely heart,5 yet he realizes the other ^Egisthus womanlike in and side of the picture, the danger to the state in the loss of As long as its men remain, the flower of its manhood. he writes, its bulwark is sure, but when they are gone it? low." So the Suppliant Maidens pray strength is brought for Argos that the flower of Ares, bane her of humankind, may and consume youth the never pluck choicest of her men.7 War in defence tified; war law.8 His as 1 8 4 the on own part greatest act of Aeschylus, Persae Id., Id., of native behalf Agamemnon Seven of in his land, life." in Of ' h 8 103-5, 349- Id., Suppliants 661-5. Id., Suppliants, passim. Vide wars supra, p. 71. good 2 710, 640, 673. Thebes regards as ordered Hellas he 326-9. against as the defence of 321 et seq. Id., Agamemnon 1224-5, Choephoroi, *ld., Persae ^Eschjdus suppliants 305. by jus divine esteemed cause, Ibid.. 909 wars et seq. foreign with foes, thuraioi, Athena in her in the Eumenides those in whom them that in the the city to the [470 HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE 76 be promised fierce love the Athenians of of burned, glory speech to satisfy assured and to Useless peoples.1 the uncrowned amid condemn ; such wars as Persian, the Theban, fought for a woman; the quarrels enough glorious strife of wars she would not allow poet would seem arrogance wonderful conquest; caused brought on Trojan^ foundation whose civil strife ; above all, the wars by by was brothers' Of passion. disputes Ares, who sells men's lives for gold, is a No witnesses or payments of money bitter these arbitrator.2 does he accept, but by the death of warriors he decides the cause.3 In the solution path of of the and with aliens weal may keep justice and moderation By problem. the the government state without Fame .Eschylus dealings righteous which seeks calamity in the finds the at home common peace.* above measure given Brings man but woe : Zeus' Full in his eyes levin Flasheth its glow. Let mine unenvied weal Nor crush with armed heel Cities, Nor Bacchylides and The few represent attitude odes and survive are eloquent in feel thralldom know.5 Pindar lyric Muse in their ature. nor conquest toward the culmination of war as well as fragments of praise of peace. the in liter Bacchylides which He disliked to sing 1 Aeschylus, Eumenides 858-869, cf. Way, op. cit. Id., Agamemnon 448, Persae, passim, Seven against Thebes seq. ; Eumenides 858, et seq. 2 et 'Id., Seven against Thebes 934, Agamemnon 4 Id., Suppliants 698-703. 6 Way, op. cit., Agamemnon 467-474. 437, Suppliants, 934 933-7. THE PERSIAN WAR AND HELLENIC PEACE 471] war; for "the of choral the of too, wrote, lyre, the of the clear strains of accord not with the grievous stress of song clash voice hath arms the uncertainty of kinsmen in the fight but x amid of death-dealing as He discerns which war, the sends battle festivity." place no 7y no missiles foe.2 In a lyric treatment of the em blindly against the of Menelaus and Odysseus to Troy he represented the bassy as their Trojans hands to the gods in prayer for rest lifting from their " 3 with forth the sets of thighs of In land the one of altars and flutes and shields heart with at the Pindar, the wealth youths revels. and spiders weave feasting though his of his poems he the full mortals and delight themselves their lyre even Bacchylides xiii, 'Ibid., v, 'Ibid., xiv, 40-56. i-V-35- *Ibid., fr. 1. in glorious the 12- No blast of which The brazen trumpet streets are deeds in the the flame games filled forth.4 led him of their ancestors the Sicilian in the fact that Ares left of destroys the comforteth praise of youths rejoiced violent r6. with athletic webs and rust martial valor of nevertheless the of Jebb, for praise of victors the recitals of themselves, i her to dwell Upon the iron-bound handles and songs ancient wars and of sound take of peace. is sleep of gentle spirit dawn stolen from die eyelids. to and prudent the most beautiful nor joyous often at obeyed) whose sons spears and the two-edged swords. is heard of path unswerving Justice, well blessings manifold to them the honey-tongued song; her gift it is that the fleshy oxen are burned to the gods in the yellow flame on the carven feats showed pursuit of Peace brings forth Mighty bloom in the Happy them." the war Eunomia (good laws tendant to Themis. Menelaus woes. safety from aside his in princes at the sharp- HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE 78 pointed spears Muses.1 He warmed and proclaimed contention,2 his Muse and or had Medized, he had service in the Persian the had to those sweet hand, he to him the who " knowest alike 6 how to season." Any perity for his because in those to must seek and cities were Justice He for the and nation poet stood by no thou found the as who radiant JEgina he means great, in due of desired light praised secure above peace at pros high- especially on which of wealth being for of base for gain, that Zeus should shield them from wars them glory in good laws and in the festivals.9 The other withhold gentleness the ./Etna a and Peace, dispensers men of On the wars councils give and Corinth cities rest prayed of makest citizen, he proclaimed, state Peace.7 minded who 5 O, Kindly Peace, praise of peace. holding The the Tantalus- War may indeed be " he said, but once ex dread." the supreme keys personal not," Righteousness, of ex which " a source of in the gloried removal of Hellas.4 know it it becomes Daughter over to object Thebes, citizen of the of strife had fired ^Eschylus. war which hung to seem shrine of fond the background of that not war meant stone which perienced A praise of the at one not as would warriors.3 travagant end of his heart himself [472 to the men.8 desire and grant any price. Rather Peace herself roused to relentless wrath, he thought, had crushed the might of the Persians at Salamis and of Pindar, Schroeder in ed. ; Id., 3 Id., 01. 4 Id., Isthmian vii, 5 "' Id., fr. 6 Id., Pythian 01. vi, Bergk, vi, 19. 21. et seq. no. viii, ''Id., fr. 109. 'Id., 01. xiii, 6-7; "Id., Nemean ix, 1 et seq. viii, 1, 28-33. 22. op. cit., i, Pythian, i, 10-13. THE PERSIAN WAR AND HELLENIC PEACE 473] Etruscans the Cumae.1 at Athens and against the foreign foe. ^Egina the death and mourned for in his were Yet there Athens.2 the praised the had fought who To those he the highest honors that accorded blood bringing who survive such in old age a The Ionian Revolt very different for valiant men. For let freedom cessful tion clared, of city bitterly interest as 1 Pindar, 01. 'Id., fr. 8 Id., fr. the i, the downfall of Ionian the suc growth of power of Greeks. honors.8 god attacked a philos This transforma The warrior, he de Gods while the weakling re while the and men united the people rest of became his own 7^-74; Isthmian vi, Gomperz, Greek Thinkers, 4 ix, 31 et seq. 26-30. 5 44. vols. (London, Die Fragmcnle der Vorsokratiker (3d 53- produced recluse xiii, 8-12.. 78; Isthmian v, Ubid., fr. youth self- Id., Diels, seen his freedom 4 6 the in utterly base and worthless seekers of Heraclitus' " It is clear from the drift of 76, 77; Pythian Nem. Persian Wars Heraclitus, He became philosopher alone.8 of the result of war. preserved The slaves.7 of righteousness race of calm.4 the European the highest to glorify him. man, deeds He had to him the received mained in and character and leaders seemed who keep from his beloved country destruction upon the enemy's host day and reaction Ephesus.5 opher of against great cloud of war shower of promised deeds had died who know of a surety that he increaseth the renown of the his fellow-citizens greatly both living and dead.3 To those of struggles to bestow. remaineth renown in the soever Thebans land, he native power in the deeds rejoiced In later life he of the aggressive force of fighting He the Sicilians in their and of yg 'Ihid-> fr- 1906), ed. I21- vol. Berlin, i, p. 59 et seq. 1912), fr. 24. 80 argument HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE [474 and preserving that he the qualities the competent conceived testing war as distinction between mankind, as making a of incompetent, the and founding as These ideas he x the state carried society." and organizing the of explanation " law of strife. common to universe and We he things, justice is strife, all " he said, must and all into his the natural enunciated that war things is come 2 necessity." through strife and II The Age The breach between Athens in the division between under the perialistic of of eastern leadership and Sparta in 461 resulted Hellas into two opposing camps, Athens for hegemony. followed strife which Pericles of of Pericles, the head of im the democratic party, started forthwith on a career The Athenians, to secure control of aggrandizement. the lucrative trade with the west, took the who escaped as a result of Naupactus, ance the with Corinth Sparta mouth of democrats then was she allied the ^Egean the the at secured. herself revolt the of building the and settled on Her by the conquest Long Walls. Sparta them An of outpost .^Egina of against own position had in alli the Isthmus secure an Argos. was assured of the helots charge of Corinthian Gulf. Megara To with 3 and countered in by by aiding the Thebans in the re-establishment of the Boeotian League. Athens answered that manoeuvre by the defeat of the Thebans consisting Locris and of and the the close affiliation 1 Gomperz, Heraclitus, frs. 53, So. op. cit., p. 72. Vide supra, p. of a continental federation Phocis and eastern Boeotia, Achaean towns on the Gulf of Corinth with with Thessaly. Athens was well on her way 2 3 formation the cities of 69. of THE PERSIAN WAR AND HELLENIC PEACE 475] to a control of tunity to Athens The destroyed. thian Gulf had The trouble. from exile, with altogether Sparta, Persia, too, and sent him off on a a the the over of the were Corin final Cimon recalled a years' five truce expedition against Cyprus the Athenians Persians but Cimon died Athens had campaign. resources successful; Argos had Athens that was Pericles in through his influence On the island victory undertaking the left that city a free hand in a position to cause more was the Persians. ing to the rebels two Athenian fleets and which outcome and great an much of a strain on failed been obtained Sparta, to be too meantime efforts of not Athens. too revolt made peace with against proved and In the Persia revolted against It sent aid. Athens. Greece, Egypt. The other Sicily, were already under her region and Egypt had for the Egyptians of came an oppor food supply for the Euxine control. At this juncture to her spheres of influence the third of the add great sources of two, Hellas. all 81 exhausted these distant struggles; her forces were won disease dur of her energies needed at in home. There followed, then, as a natural result, negotiations with Persia. While no formal treaty was procurable, a verbal agreement worked developed attain for the rebuilding of cessation of both Athens had of strife. This in the trade that parties the to of at her disposal unifying Hellas his goal, then, posed a conference the paying of the Athenians. which to the task tried to for the advantage under The forces equal reached was to the meet at the vows by force. by to not Pericles He peaceful means. Athens, shrines were pro consider measures destroyed by due to the gods, and Persians, the " concerning x peace." the sea, that This i all might sail attempt to put it Hellas fearlessly on a sound Plutarch, trans, by Clough (N'ew York. keep the footing of and 1910), Pericles religious 17. [476' HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE g2 commercial and blocked by unity the leadership of Athens was jealousy of Sparta. In 447 a the under watchful A defeat crisis suddenly developed. force at Coronea was followed by the Spartan a Megara the federation the continental and day; Euboea and the Spartans to lost. was on make peace The next the at year same time to save managed the Euboean revolt was withdrew and suppressed, but Megara compelled and Pericles rebelled. Boeotia revolt of all collapsed. invaded Attica force Athenian of a small Athens, terms which was exhausted, in restored gen existing prior to 461. Peace was made for thirty years, extending to the allies of both parties on Athens thus abandoned all the basis of the status quo. the eral conditions to her claim continental Plataea. and edged. other Her thus divided into two keep the by and an ancient custom. to the means states Pericles of of Delian finally position of by to be It intended to the a disputes be should was regarded as made, unfortunately, thus situation that for settled. prevent its contained time a In least of the established upset. period of peace which had been at place balance had been the Athenian Empire. Confederacy To should in arranging for left to the honor of the was appeared power that trade employed Hellas had been one all this time Though the made use of consolidate until was acknowl well-balanced parts. was agreed provision was future strife, it with measures the No proceeding. problems domination to which or methods concerned. seeds of the to Naupactus however, furthermore that arbitration, this judicial fairly between them it peace be free to all, as empire, Neither party was to interfere with the allies of the Hellas but each might seek allies among neutrals. was settled except possessions maritime Gradually reduced to followed her allies in subjection only Samos, Chios and Lesbos were left in a independence. The treasury was moved to THE PERSIAN WAR AND HELLENIC PEACE 477] Athens the after the of protectress disaster in Egypt; Athena became the organization in place of Apollo; the Delian Congress fell into disuse, the Athenian assembly and relating to the empire. The divided into tribute districts and quadrennial settled measures were with established, Legal and domestic dustry Athenian justice to matters assured The tended to legal and settling Athenian of while a source was nevertheless a potent Atticiz- to the allies, of grievance force administration the empire, citizens at various places within ing force. the maintenance of democracy empire was an organization The all The Athenian policy assimilation. to be sent binding the was Athens. to required the development of trade and in strife aided and produced prosperity. legal of empire was assessments Freedom from foreign together. empire appeal were Self-interest to Athens for trial. held the for provision importance cases of major which 83 strongest element of in however, union, all the for the was cities. subject perpetuation of democracy. With all its tained fatal excellent political It in the violated to and sought Samos which with a great of the deal situation. system con allies from tendency a to Hellenic right of every state, no matter kai autonomia, freedom and self- put opposed everywhere In overthrow. was produced the the Oligarchs its this most precious principle of eleutheria government. however, exclusion of government the philosophy how small, The weaknesses. representation revolt. purposes, down of cruelty. The 440 a after of the broke considerable Athens leader revolt was still the empire out in difficulty the master anti-imperialistic itself had been ostracized shortly be party in Athens Peloponnesian interference prevented had Corinth fore. commercial reasons. No one for in the Samian revolt seemed strong enough or willing to break down Athenian [478 HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE 84 in the iEgean, power Pericles and to devote time was able money to the beautification and Hellas.1 make it the cultural leader of to city, The only writers of this golden age of Hellas and the opinions on press any dramatist who ex subject of peace and war are (496-406 B. Sophocles his of glorification C.) the the historian and Herodotus (ca. 484-425 B. C). The former in his long life spanned the period of the rise and the fall of the power his of As city. the victory boy a he turer of munitions, he sang praises in Samian the War, in his The was able in the a term old age as a the state, of Though the defeat treasurer the Sicilian of ability in the generals the empire, of acted as a commissioner the whose of no great was chosen as one of served a celebrations over wealthy manufac to devote himself to the of service so eloquently. empire after part son to the and affairs, he public and letters of pursuit he took Salamis. of to reorganize He expedition. his highest glory as a finished master of the dramatic In enjoyment of a less troubled life and of a gentler gained art. spirit to than his solve the reasoned attitude devotion to the closer to' the life service a of the manufacture not Athens, of appeal; he references to arms, the 'This survey 2 of Wright, his problem support vehement in his war opposition. monster who stirred of the period Busolt, et seq. him, from the did occasionally do When the subject in his dramas. cf. 216, called Only history op. cit., pp. was period.2 of peace and manuscript, the his Aristophanes offered no solution. war appear History in of more in his its gods, he and who received did arise, however, he was condemned Ares, a blind Hellenic as In his and above all true interpreter To this easy-going, eukolos, of state less inclined was of man. towards the world, the people, gentleman he predecessor ^Eschylus, great problems of op. Botsford is based cit, and vol. up on all He evil Botsford's iii. Sihler, op. cit., p. 34. THE PERSIAN WAR AND HELLENIC PEACE 479] things.1 On several occasions for the state, left the since war " weaklings. he pointed out took the best The well-born the the and loves to snatch, he who is bold in tongue, danger, is free from harm, for Ares careth while 2 The hardships their chorus of warriors the end of long Ares fleeing from for the not Ajax, longing Troy, recount the man who by years of woe around deprivations and men and good in the coward." for the evil effects the young of 85 and curse his toils first taught the Greeks to league themselves for " in hateful war arms. 3 ruin of Yea, he it was who wrought the Trachiniae, Deianeira expresses In the men." pity for those helpless deep women captives, " slavery, brutally ill-fated exiles, homeless land." eign 4 fatherless in and Far better thought the He should cease. To those so innocent sufferers, the treated and carried off into and counseled prudence who made war on give the victory, for it war must be behalf was an He avoided.8 of poet in the same dramatist the about the and the joy end of would useless Thebes, at the trial of destruction.6 generals who punishment of for wars choice of war. suppliants, Zeus pictured was one of subjection a all honorable thing, but the night-long dance and song, when the war had come and Thebes was safe from this that the Yet brought revolting Samians. Herodotus, born in Halicarnassus, city, 1 a great exiled was possessed of traveler, Jebb-Pearson, The Fragments of Sophocles, from his native broad Panhellenic 3 vols. (Cambridge, 1917). 'Sophocles Tragoediac, tetes 435-6; fr. 554, fr- sId., Ajax *Id., Trachiniae ed. Dindorf-Mekler 7*4- 1185-1210. 298-302. Id., Oedipus Coloncus 380. 'Ibid., 119-126. 1045-100& (Leipzig, 1912), Philoc- somewhat colored sympathies, The historian of on the early the the Persian Wars of Hellas, he wars of general by a beginning the Asia.2 of all for Athens.1 and recorder of so many seldom expressed an opinion The Trojan war. of subject predilection the later war he Yet he felt that it garded as without sufficient cause. at [480 HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE 86 strife between Europe re lay and among the Greeks he objected. He praised the Athenians for yielding their right to command the fleet at the To war great necine ternal strife by congress at " struggle. is a thing " war. bury sons war 1 2 Since in in their Botsford and fathers fathers, a viii, 3. 4. For in bury no one is 3 than terrible while so senseless as op. cit., pp. 21, et seq. In condemnation of their sons, s Sihler, inter to avoid rightly. peace." worse peace." place of Herodotus i, 3, 'Id., itself is he delivered war order they judged as much worse than war carried on a united people as war one short sentence Corinth in Herein in to peace choose CHAPTER IV The Peloponnesian War The Years' Thirty between Athens damental and Peace Sparta, but it failed and questions vexing the mutual bad to put an end feeling and of open to settle and distrust. hostilities the fun to rivalry The balance remove was too giving Sparta any occasion for opposi tion, Pericles departed from his earlier aggressive policy to The first step in one of conservation and consolidation. To delicate. avoid the direction of aggrandizement was certain to be chal the exigencies of Athenian trade lenged. Events industry forced the leaders and of Athens into such a step and and trouble followed. The Megarian decrees formed the first aggression on state, sunk the of once to the part of great her markets, merchants facturers furnished strong protection had resented the of response the Athenian assembly the Megarians from the nians In and which were competitors and tradesmen. industrial vegetables her wares, and over-populated importance, Megara had position of a second-rate ever, her farmers Athenian commercial piece of renewed A small, Athens. city. How meat to the good, the Athenian made manu to local demands for decree excluding The Athe the empire. passed a markets of withdrawal of Megara from their federation and probably hoped to force the Megarians into regain the favorable position on subjection that they might decree meant financial ruin and the Gulf of Corinth. This starvation 481] to the Megarians and served as a warning to any 87 [482 HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE 88 the Spartan of state other It Athenians. alliance might apprehension much aroused which block the the on part of Corinth.1 states, particularly other commercial of episode added another element The Corcyraean Corin to Athens. Corcyra, increasing power of inde few the one of but remaining Corinth, colony with war at herself Corinth, pendent naval powers, finding appealed to Athens for aid. They had cogent arguments-^ thian the unrest at of a their navy, nian fleet, over the trade and the Athenian a valuable addition control which route that the true argue be which would to Sicily. they In to the were able vain to Athe exercise did the Corinthians expediency is the path of right. the Corcyrean offer meant the strength path of refusal of ening of the only important naval rival of Athens and a loss of prestige to Athens itself if it yielded to the desires Corinth. of To any infraction defensive alliance avoid nians concluded a resulting thus aroused a minor The Years' vited war difficulty the at Corinth affairs and came when the of situation to draw reluctant to take defensive Corcyra. was In the The enmity increased by the test of Corinthians, fully the The situation.4 Thirty aroused, in Peloponnesian League to the the to the Spartan conservative, meet grievances at were assembly. Thucydides made use a comparison between the Spartans, to action assume only Aristophanes, Acharnians, 515 History of his Age (London, the and the Athe Potidaea.3 Peace consider with peace worsted.2 in Hellenic to the were crisis submitted of between Athens the envoys Sparta Corinthians the of et the aggressive and willing when seq., 1911), absolutely necessary, cf. ch. Grundy, Thucydides Meyer, Geschichte iii. Alterthums, vol. iv (Berlin, 1901), pp. 288 et seq. 2 Thucydides, i, 33 et seq. Meyer, op. cit., vol. iv, 3 Thucydides, i, 56. * Grundy, op. cit., ch. xv. p. 2S2. and des THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR 483] the and Athenians, the advantage, ready to They were to have born, Sparta to deeds they their to turn elsewhere for They Archidamus, the the aid. pres They recounted They explained past. the the justified it on the ground the risks involved in war pointed out Spartans to the disputes to submit arbi treaty.2 conservative supported Athenians action. plea empire and tration according to the He threat that if their Athens in and called upon the delay. veiled prevent such a result. of establishment of of necessity. alert their ends. would the made success ent endeavored glorious the on gain men.1 in this way forced into was to all said The Corinthians no risk the Corinthian ambassadors, neither themselves nor to allow it to other peace met with always revolutionary, seize go, king of Sparta, counseled the Athenian demand for arbitration, pointing out the absence of a real cause, the superiority of the Athenians in the materials of war and in money, and the uncertainty of the They stronger. the immediate the Athenian tion. " Let the issue.3 The charges against empire no one itself, tell war daemonians, * mands." us that we should suffering prepare for war, It was voted, however, Athens but the which was not a injustice," when we are party, that the basic issue realized said as was was not existence of debatable ques take time to think " the Ephor. the honor of Lace Sparta de then, that the Athenians were treaty.5 guilty of an infraction of the At the assembly of the league the keynote 1 Thucydides 2 Id., i, a 73 Id., i, 80 'Id., i, 86. 57rf.,i. 87. of i, the 68 et seq. et seq. which war was sounded. et seq. followed Athens at Sparta was a menace [484 HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE QO to Some all. states she to assure peace erty 1 The war." for On every Athens, followed by The Athenians be would Pericles a to sitions the the Acting Sparta, war upon the settling proper of his inevitable advice the onus that city by of party 3 and fair war was at willing to defend crucial test as a means control of enough the the for a enforce There its decisions did was on either without prejudice was too not support the appeal to no much to in Further a judicial enforcement of the agreement to arbitrate treaty Thucydides i, 119 et op. cit., vol. Thucydides i, to secure. Peloponnesians to be impartial. public opinion The provision for procedure sufficiently The Delphic Amphictyony act as arbiter. Meyer, that well aware have been difficult to and at the same time 2 beginning upon arbitration in the treaty the Such a have been brought to a head. powerful 1 blame for the of offering regular state by felt that Athens made counter-propo Had there been disputes. would left weakness. of " treaty, body was they and concession 3 tribunal and decision. or wrong-doing war as on put quarrel might not more, upon for the dissolution The least yield. Arbitration had failed in its the made were order for peace, but ready anxious themselves." to refused terms according to the hand, in going to The league voted demands peremptory confession regarded was ready. of a to for the lib empire.2 the of of ground we are right minor of series love was a war fighting are a make war upon It rest. We argument was unassailable. A war. " Hellenes. all Hellas. of dominate the soon would she If from ruled. the Peloponnesians failed to peace and ease her, already to the honor seq., 123. iv, pp. 140 et seq. 294 et seq. and the religious scruples THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR 485] the of it was nian be contracting parties themselves. When the issue came found to be unarbitrable. The existence of the Athe empire debatable was not a Corinthian and 91 jealousy of expansion could not Considerations to a tribunal. submitted Spartan fear question. Athenian of expediency founded on fear or ambition were ful than the most binding of sacred oaths. All Hellas by was excited prophecies and both Outside sides. popular extremely liberators of of the Athenian and the Spartans Hellas. The Spartan Nor war.2 of excitement Sparta. the coming was The Athenian young cloaks and snow-white slippers, Prodigies conflict. Enthusiasm abounded.1 individual more power manifest was were hailed youth were eager this men on empire the war was feeling gladly flowing the as for the confined exchanged ringlets, baths to soft and oil, for the breastplate and the greaves, and dropped the games of the banquet for the greater game of war, to fight for gods them.3 and In country as the defence of their fathers had fought before the city all parties were united. In the Children of Heracles, written in 430, Euripides warned the hated Peloponnesian invaders that Athens would not brook dictation. For in brave The honor that fears He warned them of the 'Thucydides shame power of is men's eyes more than lite.4 Athens. ii, 8. 'Ibid. 3Hermippus fr. 2, (Berlin, 1839-1857). Graccorum ed. Meineke, Fragmenta Comicorum Aristophanes, Knights 576 et seq. Tragedies of Euripides (London, 1912), Children of Heracles, Euripides and the Spirit of his Dramas trans. 199 et seq., cf. Decharne, P- 128 et seq. 1905). Loeb (London, by 4 Way, [486 HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE 92 Peace love I 6 tyrant, well but I thee, warn treacherous-souled, Though thou to the march Not the crown Not for thine hand the Nor the brass on hold, gates of our thy hopes of thee. alone spear war adorn shall the buckler hath ! shone O thou that in battle delightest, Trouble not, trouble not with thy spear The one that the Graces make brightest Of but dread thou cities: forbear.1 and In the spring of 431 the Spartan king Archidamus pre Pericles coun pared his forces for an invasion of Attica. tered by bringing thus and all avoided a Athenians the decisive battle ravaging the Peloponnesian on within land, to city increased by general into following leader of ucts of the himself died people was fered of Cleon, was their attacks, the disease. by a new the added to the party temporarily peace over courage. with pleasures Attica in the unusually particularly. country, 4 of taken severe.3 gained new ' Sparta His but the place as type of men, tanner, and prod Hyperbolus, lamp-maker.2 The invasion 2 brought the the people, like garded, as 1 and Pericles triumphed year the toward Athens plague which ravaged discomfort power. was the destruction of their crops and their olive The orchards. Walls the fleet The suffering among small farmers unused coasts. Athenians, most of whom were life, was great, and their enmity the Long the while were all The They their restricted a result wealthier had lost houses 427 Thucydides year As noble 11,65. peace class and rich in the city ; 4 re party had their fair estates Way, op. cit., Children of Heracles, 371-380. Grundy, op. cit., pp. 333 et seq. Meyer, op. cit, Thucydides iii, 26. Id., the suf in the furniture; their the exigencies vol. iv, pp. 307 of et seq. THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR 487] war had led to them upon to the posed the that he had the bitter a the grown hatred but Spartans, beginning issues warrior, might be evil Athenians, tians, he the he the that and ridicule thus 1 Glover, Arist. Acharn. ' Ibid., 0 182 et in with of to professional war that full secure he pay.7 farms, the trade, both for the the many products and of Boeo a condition of starvation. manifold In advantages a most 2 seq., the for the Megarians op. cit., p. no. * common were not the Athenian commerce.8 cultivation and they the war.0 war on represented as with contrasted war.4 the causes of joined in prolonging the deprived Megara, and of whom were the end of particular claimed the interference who and cramped and confused commands and of strong peace vineyards and He treated and accused of for The clubs.2 He felt apparently be best settled by an honorable of could effects of results Boeotia he chosen The disastrous op The was so his of for the He held up to peace. whom the war party. that the basic lasting bitterly Aristophanes, Acharnians, Aristophanes made admitted blame for the and of poets, in In the trivial,5 the of Sparta of longing comic the attack on as weary was spokesmen. war fell democracy. oligarchic for the destruction life in the city and Of these people, the were were to support any movement for revenge orchards,8 they the of his hatred though refused demanded and in the opposition was farmer, small weight; 1 which property tax, of a developments new their center of imposition heavy with 93 Ibid., of peaceful delightful way he p. in. 228 et seq. 32 et seq. Ibid., 524 et seq., 509 et seq. 'Ibid., 513 et seq. Aristophanes and the Political Parties ilbid., 572 et seq., 597. Croiset, 1909), PP- 58 et seq. Loeb (London, trans, by at Athens, 8 Arist. Acharn. 623 et seq. opposed the to the man who himself to the Off to wine and paths ye the his wine and a from his vigil song from the banquet rocks, murmuring an appeal to the farmers to of Hellas most of leaders power to the support to the were rife ; and the who put women and and the Party and the fell into Spartan hands Athenians Spartans retaliated to death all the to or in kind. of ancient in Mytilene the leaders war. their of crime and forgotten.4 intensity were of The feeling. killed forthwith When Plataea fell the men who remained and sold on the brought into slavery with no softening After the defeat of the oligarchic Athenians, 'Arist. Acharn. 1083 the strife children custom.5 the on assure violence, religion and oaths were by back The democratic arisen. Athenians, hardened dizzy The play was the movement for peace. Lacedaemonians. to the practices of war were Sailors head Healer.3 establish many terrible calamities; anarchy perfidy with warrior comes confusion as a result factions had endeavoring to by appealing oligarchs in was the cities, were The wounded, dizzy-headed from a fall a prayer All lasses.2 with the sweetest of his lips. on cold, antagonist passes hours man of peace returns thrushes and pleasures.1 his head; wreaths on Lonely while may de bold, watch and shiver with sweetest of eat life tread ; One to The from cloaks, enjoy his duties my heroes your Different truly the One to drink with The has secured peace and couch and soft meats, drink his choice the hardships of the soldier's pictures of the picture of vote In [488 HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE 94 the motion of Cleon, of revolt et seq. 1143 the voted 2 Rogers, Aristophanes, Acharnians (London, 1910), 'Ibid., 1 190 et seq. * Thucydides iii, 82. ''Ibid., ii, 67; iii, 68; cf. Glover, op. cit., p. 134. the et seq. to THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR 489] to death. put all male citizens and on guilty.1 in this affair, in and the comic poets protested, tribute, for Babylonians, and They reconsidered this action, the ground of better policy killed only the most Against the general policy of Cleon towards the allies as exemplified the 95 he which of the prosecuted,2 was Eupolis in the Poleis in later increase a Aristophanes in unsuccessfully which he the represented cities appearing in person and begging for The capture of the Spartans at Pylos in 425 furnished an opportunity for peace. The Spartans offered peace, alli relief.3 as " friendly ance and relations. instead choosing peace and rest to all the the imperialistic Cleon, had jected. in a The The reconciled ourselves, let The credit peace and, us give relief for the peace hopes were the and disappointment great be us hopeful, but party the democracy, led by among element gained new beautiful Let Hellenes." Athens.4 to would go of war Spartan was voiced offer was re by Euripides plaint : Ah, Peace, exceeding rich and of the blessed gods most beauti ful, how long dost thou delay. I fear that old age will over its burdens whelm me with ere I see thee, ing with the beautifully dancing loving festal processions. Come to the graceful drive fearful tumult from and makes The merry following with year this plea, but in so our the city, august dwellings garland- Queen, and strife that and rages steel.5 sharpened Aristophanes, in his Gcorgoi, doing appear one, thy and choruses expressed the longings of mimicked the Attic farmers. O Peace, be granted me 1 - exceeding Thucydides Croiset, to iii, Meineke, ' Thucydides iv, ed. yoked oxen ; cf. Busolt, dig op. ! When the ditch cit., vol. iii, pp. 40 ct seq. op. cit., vol. 'Euripides, O from war, to 36 et seq. op. cit., 8 rich and ye cease i, p. 140. 20, 21. Xauck, 3 vols. (Leipzig, 1892-5), fr. 462. and shall it then to p. 1030. [490 HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE 96 to drink rest and the oily bread new wine and consume and cabbage.1 Cleon dides his was charged rogueries less Thucy many sharp attacks. that he favored war because in quiet times the of subject would be more transparent and Aristophanes, in credible.2 the Knights, his slanders accused him gain fresh preventing the peace, not that Athens might while he kept the people crowded in the city but that glory of he might haze and view he hold the them dust of war was might plunder Athenian forces Delium in dependence the that while the obscuring his actions from will.3 cities at defeated in the were by Brasidas, and in the Chalcidice. him, on the following the ablest of The Athenians then years at Spartan generals, attempted to secure peace, but without success. In the final battle at Amphipolis both Cleon and Brasidas were killed. The two chief ob stacles to the making both conservatives on agreed upon. Nicias, terms The Spartan were overruled. of of after were into sides came thus removed. The control and peace was allies were dissatisfied, but they The treaty, which is known as the Peace the Athenian commander, provided for mutual restorations and peace for fifty years.4 Aristophanes burst forth into jubilations in a play called Peace? He represented the farmers as rejoicing in the advent of peace. One Trygaeus has scaled Olympus to find the the goddess disgusted Peace, only with to be told Hellas because by Hermes that the gods, its failure to determined to grind the of war, had buried Peace and pieces in a huge mortar. With the death 1 Aristophanes, 2 Thucydides f r. of end cities Cleon 109. v, 16. 3 Arist., Knights 790 et seq. Meyer, op. cit., vol. iv, pp. 5Croiset, op. cit, pp. no et ' 411 et seq. seq. Thucydides the v, 16, 17. to and of 491 THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR ] Brasidas their hails this pestles as a glorious farmers, lenes, islanders up Peace. and The craftsmen, him in the Only ranks and the who Hermes aside.2 bribed to keep The After the The farmers and lay the festivals, flutes, thrushes, wordlets may despair, but the ... the vat, full-bosomed of sickles return and arms be crest-maker and the manufacturer their rejoice. to their fig " Peace their farms. Euripidean The spear-burnisher aside must Peace is brought into an effort cities are reconciled. pitchfork-maker and stand shields, silent. sword-cutler and trees its in the task, midst laughter the Megarians, the dissatisfied ones, who sells spears and view. digging task of throws away nation Hel aliens, have been gaining from both sides, the profes soldier who desires a commission, and the merchant Argives sional Hellenic Trygaeus to engage and squadrons dancing. artisans, unite with whole however. and calls upon all opportunity merchants, all, to lost,1 had been g7 smells of the plays, harvests, banquets, odes of Sophocles, bleating lambs, the matrons . . the . the tipsy ivy-leaf, maid, the blessing." drained and empty flask, Think of all Comrades, All the life Which Figs and many the thousand pleasures, which to Peace we owe, of ease and comfort she gave us and another long ago : olives, wines and myrtles, Luscious fruits, preserved and dried. Banks of fragrant violets, blowing By the crystal fountain-side; Scenes for which our hearts are yearning, Joys that we have missed so Comrades, here is Peace Greet her back 1 2 dance and song.* Arist., Peace 204 et seq. seq. Ibid., 301 et seq., 441 et Ibid., 434 et seq., 529 (London, 1013)* with long, returning Ibid., 571 et seq. et seq., 545 ct seq., 1210 ct seq., trans, by Rogers HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE 98 The be could never There the two feeling no good by the young and at Athens. Mantinea rise and In which Athens a war Justice refused were into of one in vain The restless Sicilian brought on but Egypt, had were the in an refused the blot situation. The Melians All the in the orators play, the sold name next It is thought Troades, who the rest and on it to compel of century by some was written as action.3 imperialistic leaders soon involved the city in expedition which resulted so the a renewal of war advantag join the to the practice. to death to explain away. this to overwhelmed. greatest Athenian powerful of Sparta The little island episode. Euripides' a protest against the Melian age were put which in The battle prestige of alone controlled was which isolated.1 with surrender, military It endeavored the expediency honor involved danger in to Argos with settlement which was slavery.2 Athens, that caused how which war party led back into power came in the Peloponnesus. Military and these The Athenians decided to Athenian Empire. submit. in it. minimize The support. made consent acquiesce defensive alliance, was was again for trade eous position To sides. Alcibiades followed Dorian a both in its reckless alliance in entirety had refused to the without a the famous 416 came Melos, of An Athens in volved on cities concluded had ever who allies infractions were The treaty unstable. thoroughly out carried the Spartan of to be peace proved [492 war dragged along with disastrously in Greece. and From that time varying success, with many by both sides. The oli useless attempts to secure peace garchs made their effort to secure control 1 Meyer, 2 Thucydides v, 85 3 Glover, op. cit., vol. op. cit., et pp. iv, pp. seq., 157 465 cf. et seq. Grundy, et seq. op. cit., p. 356. of Athens and THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR 493] peace with Sparta, but were 99 Finally, overthrown. after Persia had been drawn into the struggle, Lysander, the new Spartan leader, won the battle of ^Egospotami. Athens fell, the Long Walls were pulled down to the music of flutes, Hellas and free.1 was Throughout the that the clared cease until Aristophanes period He did ponent of peace. had gods the wolf the lamb worked through Hellas. In the Acharnians he the alarms full was allowed of the to the sufferings of always chances the Lysistrata, women whose The responsibility for He of to blame of power turers war and their the the the poet were fear of girl whose laid wrath of Spartan compelled rulers.4 He who upon to hatred people were suffer seeking soldier, the the farmers accused as were professional of the gain.5 pursuing personal state while the for the perpetua- position, manufac In the final they were seek they were actually analysis 1 Meyer, op. cit, vol. iii, pp. 550 ct seq. Arist., Peace 1075, 6. * Arist., Lysistrata, 99 et seq., 585 et seq. 2 0 they without of munitions, all who pretended that ing the best interests * The Peace when and admitted equal that the be demagogues graft, the war fields and should not evil machinations of tors the But he declared Sparta. of for and later play, he wrote of husbands and sons were the righteous recognized the destruction not a peace of peace. country homes but he hardships perpetual away at the wars and of the unmarried destroyed.8 for happiness were thus leaders. at secure compared the the farmers of to their In the de never should united,2 were the happiness jubilation return the invaders. to plays of war with the great pro that wars willed and his was not agree with the man who I 'ide supra, p. 93 ; Peace Vide supra, p. 93; cf. 627 et seq. Croiset, op. cit, pp. 54 et seq. the cause of HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE I00 war of women peace, In his the all to hellenic. He did for Athens sisterhood had who not Aristophanes of Spartans for all fighting possibility of his in her basis for the mind than rather endeavors of to the common Athenians bickering,3 and Pan- thoroughly for Hellas women, rebuked the their in the was speak efforts were So Lysistrata, friendship on the and the remove the establish make hesitate to All his to peace.1 to men Lysistrata, the combined alone.2 peace to unity the general attitude hated Spartans. secure states compel In money. the treasury, thus to seized gain and desire for the was [494 and and called the them brotherhood. name of religion and And now, dear friends, I wish to chide you both, That ye, all of one blood, all brethren sprinkling The At selfsame altars Pylae, Pytho, And many In the and with Armed, looking fight poet's was dream peaceful Thucydides, He began to it others which the on1 and of peace its very laver, ay 'twere long to name, barbarian foes intercourse Athenian, write at selfsame Olympia, That ye, Hellenes blend in wars.6 from the and destroy Hellenes ! the reconciled and wrote laugh for the history * cities greet joy.5 of beginning, because he the war. felt that going to be great and memorable above all His own part in the war ended with his exile other after defeat in Thrace for which as general he was held respon sible, and he was able to devote himself to the gathering of his materials. Though he had been himself a general, was the historian of a war and wrote his as a text-book a history 1 Arist, Lysis. 487 'Id., Lysis. 1159 'Ibid., 1 128 iId., Peace et seq. * et seq. et seq. 538 et seq. Thucydides i, 1. 2Arist, Peace 302 et al. THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR 495] for later statesmen supporter But he of pointed out the to Hellas and : by of the capture by was this regarded war no means a inevitable. as many calamities which it had brought and depopulation of cities, the exiles debasement the slaughter, and especially the acter, both In generals, he and He war. I0I of char of cities and of men. prosperity both states and individuals are actuated higher motives, because they do not fall under the dominion imperious necessities; but war which takes away the com peace and fortable provision of life is daily assimilate men's character a to their hard tends to master and conditions.1 He knew, too, how to draw a picture of the hardships of he wrote of the sufferings of the Athenians after war when the plague and of the terrors of the retreat from Syracuse. Besides the reasoning which showed that the conflict be Athens and Sparta was necessary and inevitable, tween speeches which tions of the sized the war against arguments many Thucydides appear general Again various parties. fact that in composed to represent in the the posi and again was empha war was a matter of chance, hazardous to both sides, that men began with blows and then when defeated had recourse to words, though the exercise of pru beginning.2 The dence would have restrained them in the sufferings of greater than the in state lands," houses and for houses and lands 3 men." stowed The 1 Upon the the highest said men 143- its of Pericles, " men so lost, the held to be men was " property. Mourn but for may gain, but they state and not men. will not for For gain its leaders be honors.4 clearest statement of Thuc. iii, 82. 'Id., i, in the loss the loss of the whole problem of peace and a/rf., i, 81; iv, 'Id., 11,46. 20,62. HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE I02 in the war was The Sicilians held cusan. deavor to secure had brought who ing words the You by among themselves. the meeting, and ignorance deems the is which smallest of Hermocrates, presented in no minc therefore I shall not rehearse to you at Nobody is of war. and no one who advantage greater But compelled) thinks that The truth he is that the risk any when such and than feelings any aggres the side the suffer on unseasonably the time for offering operate to go to will gain than the suffering ; attacked would sooner run immediate loss. either en in Sicily. thing from it is deterred by fear. sor in 424 B. C. to a congress about the misery all to Hermocrates the Syra- peace situation know well length, war ascribed speech [496 the part counsel has arrived, and such counsels if we will only listen to them will be at this moment invaluable to us. Why did we of peace go to ? war Simply from a consideration of our own interests, and with a view by means of not before to " The The who are nor full of and being hope. ficent, for they ; and in getting the if, after all, our respective threatening danger I do and not willing to trying we do rights, craft of of Athenian domi the blame those Athenians who wish are to rule, serve." is The justice wrong is of a cause, merely because it is most victory not always successful strength most assured of The inscrutable future is the the most treacherous where there is of all mutual fear, appealed for peace, when controller of events things is the most men make aggressions upon one another. Then he individual we are now no sufficient guarantee of success. revenge of a it is just ; obtain peace ambition pardonable enough. he held to be interests war again. pointed out nation. but those our we separate succeed we shall go He discussion to to 'bene think twice before THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR 497] And why if peace blessings, should of Whatever likely And has ? other by unattended dilate of Greek the the prime of Peloponnesian human, in am his He war. his contrast with the he was in the was carried the intensely was ' interested in things human relations, dealt with the great of a the except Thucydides Cf. Dechanfe, peace and To Euripides they lover of appealed bitter lies, vilest of the goddesses, Menelaus that the and cit}-. weavers of webs of for their men, fame, (London, 1883), iv, 59 seq. op. cit.. pp. i-'S ct of mistreat Hermione, He called guile, covet immoral the most martial as of Yet wealth.8 Sparta into advocacy attack on of nurse and which concerned by he hailed whom peace, of happiness hatred princess princes of murderers, Jowett, of Greek politics, had relationships of a by away chiefly women, and, 1 during prytaneum men.2 The Andromache, the Spartans ous despising educated Sophocles had treated giver of ment of the Trojan consisted of to miseries manhood at the outbreak of the beautiful and most children and war. own them.1 the of predecessors who essentially richest the her the on instead Salamis, the leader universe. as vital elements fair and his safety in war as an academic question. the not alleviate the solution of the problems of problems of He than becoming was to and glories of more saying, year of Athens when wisdom as well as reached by I us, is of any (But it is unnecessary any man seek Euripides, born in days honors of war? of peace what portion of greatest ourselves? among preserve the one and not peace my words, may every the to to be the all peace make is the the dangers Consider war.) not war blessings the on than by acknowledged we of good or evil peace more the is T.03 the of meanest of et seq. ; Botsford and Sihler, op. cit., p. 34- "Euripides, Suppliants, ct seq. 489-491; Bacchantes, 419-420; Orestes, 1682 [498 HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE I04 In mankind.' Trojan in the war Menelaus the war, she " Hellas had put the the arguments for were responsible for into wrought nevertheless ignorant who were turned them to manly deeds. causes the the chief one of that, if Helen claimed For those : he play, Menelaus, braggart captain, war. same of mouth of concerning the argument an boon for great a of arms and Fellowship battle's in the fight is the " men." teacher of all things to great The the on had caused throng las, keep the Troy peace at off in Those among those like who geneia, fatherland might prayed that her among men walls.8 it clear in boldness as bring peace youth who had died of Menoeceus, live.7 with be et Helen 38-41; fr. fr. 556. fr. 1039. Id., Troades and the latter hated to play honor, Creon, et fr. a crown than they characters and Iphi- up their lives that the wife of Erechtheus, outward show within the was seq.; 724 like Parthenopaeus, et seq. 1067. 400 et seq. ; '7(7., Phocnissae 995 'Id.,iv. 364. use mixed with Id., Andromache 681-4. 'Id., 'Id., 'Id., was such as would win renown in war, not by vain The poet's ideal citizen 445 Hel that he his finest son of give Praxithea, sons might Euripides, Andromache made Some willing to were mightiest son of regarded as more alive dishonor.0 were with might who glory to their city, he her troublous He felt the danger in the He despised the war.5 bringing that Zeus Greece.3 Euripides former lived 6 glory to the price. any who 2 relieve mother earth of bring in part old epic argument without courage foes.* for their gods the and punish though the man to other writings intelligence folly, repeated war men, to of for never of He the to ruin In his of the poet reproached strife. 363. seq.; Iphigeneia in Aulis 1378 et seq. THE PBLOPONNESIAN WAR 499] Arcadian, though who host like when the city He Greece.3 choice of praised He the attacked obtain power or gold of the the no felt, to thus people had he state on liking. that ambition as ized how man Thousands by and had strained of peace win praise or the bow to its train followed injustice, sufferings of trophy.5 He Every regarded man real than war. they had chosen beyond the war, for mankind eyes In mark.7 shoot man In the the warrior was before their overthrown city. to by from glory of itself he humble lives were sacrificed. For greatest curse of Yet part of and uprisings men who men." better justice for themselves drove the leaders misused.4 much ill.1 went the better civil and a general might erect a the as who war and considered not with ambition had discretion wise the young to Argive rejoiced against useless war and coun away battles took advice good things prospered and grieved when prudence, the valor.2 the stood midst the spears of Argive born, fought for the land, an Nevertheless, he inveighed seled IC>5 had enslaved man and had end men yielded to city stern facts.8 Madmen, in war, all ye who seek advantages to lay mighty spears, seeking senselessly life. If struggles of blood be ever judge cities of shall strife withdraw from the aside of peace, then men.9 1 Euripides, 'Id., Suppliants 896-8. Suppliants 506-510, 'Id., fr. 284, 161-2. 23-28. 'Id., Suppliants 229-37, 160. 8 Id., Andromache 694 ct seq. 'Id., ''Id., Phocnissae 53!-4. 812. Suppliants 479 'Ibid.. 'Id., 493 et seq. Helen iiSi-7- et seq., 743 ct seq. fighting with the burdens of never HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE I06 If considered men for death for themselves war, then never would not would be dashed to that the sword could posed as the they to pass, bring is seus burial represented as of the dead the sue In the of This done, he poet was not strife, the thunder and and the field heaps of Here The compel to refused impressed the pur by the of mailed Ares, Above the clash ring only destruction, ruin and sorrow. shields he heard the groan and shriek the pro a remark home.3 saw saw on Euripides to Thebes to and returned battle the scenes of glorious martial but having gone chieftains. further conquest this He drew in the Suppliants. able picture of self-restraint voted Hellas and vote could accomplish all and problem.2 the they when their Reason ruin.1 solution of cast [500 of dying the and the shattered chariots, the rivers of gore corpses.4 On many occasions, especially in the Hecuba and the Troades, Euripides wrote of the sufferings occasioned by war, the grief Trojans, lot of the grey-haired of both among the victorious who were the deprived younger women women Hellenes of their sons, Troy, of and and aged the conquered and many of men the terrible whom saw husbands slain, their children torn from their arms dashed to death upon the ground and who were them their and selves dragged into slavery to hands of Euripides suffer fresh outrages at the Greeks.5 the echoed the application more thought direct, when Sophocles and made the he declared that war took of 1 Euripides, Suppliants 481-5. Id., Phoenissae 515 et seq. Suppliants 747 et seq. 'Id., Suppliants 724 et seq. 4 Id., Children of Heracles 832 et seq. Phoenissae Suppliants 684 et seq. 2 'Id., et seq., Troades et a!.; 371 et seq., 562 Andromache et 106 et seq., seq., et 1 192 al.; Hecuba 473 et al. et et seq. seq., 154 501 THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR ] the most men, the excellent valiant i0y left youths, and the To the city this is a calamity for the noblest to and a loss, he said, that can never be replaced. For coward. x die ; " loss that the one mortal the life of man, though he who would he considers So Euripides O deal death never make good again wealth his may be the war upon 2 is this, rewon." state will desolation sorrow and exhorted Surely, hesitate when follow.3 which will countrymen. mortals, why do miserable out bring the may upon each other? yet get yourselves spears and Stop and withdraw from these Peaceful, 'mid the peaceful, guard your towns. Short is your span of life. Best then to pass through it as gently as toils. may be, not worn by burdens.4 Thus the difficulties and the advancing of the ease and the other, had led the war and to cry for fifth century, luxury writers peace. of on the one and culture of the period to Among the people of the advantages of peace and a tration had failed to century ned all saw accomplish the downfall of who of i Euripides, fr. 2 Id., 3 Id., Children * Id., 1 >ok 745- of Heracles Suppliants But the 728. Suppliants 949-954- 161 et for it. end the tyrant city that had Surely the people might happy independence. Hellas. long period it. longing seq.; Suppliants 591. on condemn suffered so many hardships there had come, too, a tion hand, life had realiza Arbi of the threat- forward to a CHAPTER V The Fourth Century The opening of events the Peloponnesian war, for the peace Ere long, with more a rival of former to accomplish the growing was crippled Persian Sparta, greatness and and help, power Hellenes to but empire. of allow not Thebes hoped for as Athens beyond to repair. once a renewal of her The tyranny of the Thirty further hope of estab there was no an democratic parties real attempt held them To had in had been apart. other grown cities against oligarchic made to lessen the Nor had their hatred any the Sparta. differences No which distrust of each arisen. Thebes and less.1 complicate matters a new power had Her strong on the misfortunes of Athens. had been increased by refugees, her wealth had grown population been magnified greatly by plunder Boeotian League had been and her control over strengthened.2 stood the Persian ested in 1 nothing. afresh, became she rose and even so much settled oligarchy in Athens. She remained a democracy the rallying point for all democratic cities and for all lishing and Athens overthrown was much the condemnation of all be destroyed. was Hellas, had actually of Sparta feared too well as the fourth century proved that which Meyer, keeping op. cit, 2Oxyrhyncus 108 king and his any Hellenic vol. v, pp. I, Hellenica, On the outside They were inter from becoming too satraps. power et seq. xii, in Botsford and the Sihler, op. cit., p. 386. [502 THE FOURTH CENTURY 503] strong and in regaining this Persian Empire, for which Hellenes bargained, gave it lenic both among the warring influence in Hel sides dominating a affairs. The a Once cities. accomplished, it would be to the interest of Per trade to have peace in the ^Egean. The wealth of the were sian be Asiatic the control over j.09 freedom to Hellas gift of delusion. The small states by Spartans the had but proved to exchanged masters. Spartan military hegemony interposed its iron hand in place of Athenian control. Lysander, anxious to secure power and glory for himself Spartan influence of into were driven control of how to deal. the To under risons Sparta, saw to it that the former allies was boards out and With states. keep harmosts " sult for among The democratic leaders who were favorable Athens. Athens as well as was established them in power were placed oppression plunder, of ten such men to were put bodies Sparta knew Lacedaemonian in the gar The cities. re Spartan and military force, and therefore required It would endure only so long maintain it. force to military Meanwhile her and sea. land supreme on as Sparta was power was based planning revenge With the decline fell, but Thebes against share and the hatred Corinth, Athens, felt they The and of and of the the populace power of fear and who of was the were exiles becoming restive. Lysander the decarchies Sparta did had borne their not decrease. share of the that they had been deprived of Spartan ambition frightened the rewards. lead.1 Sparta's follow to refused war with Ten Thousand Greeks in Everywhere increasing. were enemies on gave a great 1 Persia which to Sparta Panhellenic followed the an march opportunity to movement. Botsford, Hellenic History, Allies in ch. xxi. war their them of the unite the Thessaly HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE II0 [504 Hellenic had already been secured in the formation of an of Aga steps the in Agesilaus planned to follow league. sacrifice. He memnon and led his forces to Aulis for a his misused appointments Thebes and his men there The had gone, Agesilaus making in Greece proceeded considerable called him wage war once again headway common Athens, Thebes, Corinth, islands formed a league, and in 395 Though it began. Gorgias hopes, to lay aside seemed Conon, Athenian, victory off Cnidus and the of then Long which with Walls admiral of many to all urged and unite for of Hel the war the Greeks a great war impossible. the Persian destroyed Spartan and Panhellenic this fleet, In 393 won a naval suprem Persian money aided in the rebuilding Athens. Persia knew well how to pre of among the Greeks. Athens, to lift her head and hope for a renewal of vent united action able of the Corinthian put an end made event and the orators, local differences One an acy, to Lysias,3 and these Persia. with 2 cause for the freedom Argos las. Asia Minor, against Persia to home.1 Sparta had found of enemies to to join Theban cavalry scattered openly hostile. Though all chance of a Panhel- was united gift of by sacrifice. was when events the refused allies Other Greeks his friends. was at the lenic army and to his and alienated powers once again wealth and empire, began the formation of a new league among the Sparta.4 islanders and refused to follow the lead of In land. 1 3 spite of her naval The Boeotians defeat Sparta were was still supreme on discouraged and an attempt was Meyer, op. cit., vol. v, pp. 204 et seq. ; Xenophon, (Oxford, 1900), Hellenica vii, 1, 3, 4. ed. Marchant vols. 2 Philostratus, Vita Sophistarum ed. Kayser (Leipzig, 1870-1), 9, 2. ed. Heide, Oxford 1913 Olympiakos; cf. Jebb, Attic Orators from Antiphon to Isaeus (2nd ed., London, 1893), vol. i, p. 155. s Lysias, 4 Meyer, op. cit, vol. v, pp. 238 et seq. THE FOURTH CENTURY 505] in the made Greeks, she Athenian fleet tenance of the if that out reminded gained and had suffered and that That to Athenians." 2 clearly, following victory on year land. Peace could not King fair seem prospered with that she had Sparta he held the and all He peace of war of nor just you the Athenian arms nor peace is to the much understand be secured, however. Iphicrates won a general The tide began to turn To have Sparta to Persia. she appealed Great regained power. intervals men enter upon a war the orator, peace. ; that Athens had the out on the had been disturbed lost in every the neither to the nor For the crushing than to carry on wiser The during city. that Athens had money. was crushed power property opposition democracy them that the her waged with " and was they held Andocides, their allies neither Athens when and Sparta, lost lands event of victory. Athe old the dangers of and the fruition of the dreams of would allow only follow, might the main before Sparta were made to break down the endeavored talked an all the allow But the walls.1 They control. peace losses that Chersonese in the He and the recovery of the of pointed in was the of crushed, hopes party democracy to the freedom to grant the seas, and to of Sparta secure peace. willing to was common use nian war to winter of 392-1 that nounced m against Sparta and crushed was not to In addition, the Lacedae Once price for support. his monians were willing to pay her and allies, his financial aid was withdrawn from Athens the interest they King Sardis, 1 the Great King. naught but of which accept Meyer, of Clazomenae his terms. proclamation was this Artaxerxes deems it the islands 2 do could met at of right and that the Cyprus ed. conference the cities of should belong op. cit.. pp. 251, 2. Andocides A Blass (Leipzig, 1906), On the Peace. outcome : Asia with to himself. HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE II2 The remaining cities, pendent, three which the of or formerly as those with them who share by land and principle had been With the exception of cities, the brought sea, broken up that League the in Sparta the might peace mean was not Exiles cities were again life and menaced went Asiatic taken of of vindicated in weaker states nor was Sparta.3 in were none easily trans Decarchies a new series of armed mercenary property throughout the land. during the v, 1, Botsford, Hellenic History, the period of peace. 31 ; cf. To the Meyer, punish op. peace than Blass, 2 vols. ch. xxi. (Leipzig, Mantinea for cit., vol. v, op. cit., p. 108. ed. hopes principles concluded.4 Xenophon, Hellenica 4Isocrates, the there and followed there wandered and was so The Boeo The et seq. 'Cf. Glover, Athens seas. had been injured friends and up Sparta herself broke 2 the generally understood that she Persian backing.2 Her power was the rule of the before it had been 1 it gainsay her, none to protect the itself against her. Autonomy revolutions. More It peace with were once again set bands and with the remained the gainer. which she stood word. enforce lated to a new armed enforcement of peace. naval power of disbanded was force for not the and in the Peloponnesus that kai autonomia, shameful surrender of pirates once more ruled Only of armed to money.1 eminently fair and just. In fact, it confusion. The Athenian maritime alli shattered fact if peace, will wage war against with ships and with the the Should any I, Artaxerxes, peace seemed untold Thebes. my views, inde Scyros., and to Athens. of eleutheria added ance was was belong to to leave wishes Lemnos, Imbros, of are To the familiar terms tian great, he small and exception parties concerned not accept this together him the with 506 1885), Peace. pp. 267 THE FOURTH CENTURY 507] disaffection she crushed and II3 destroyed that Then city.1 a Spartan commander without justification seized the citadel of Thebes. When he was tried at Sparta for his infraction of the peace, Agesilaus defended him on the ground that he had acted for the best interests of the state and he escaped with a fine. The citadel was kept.2 To the north a group of states were tion to the problem of peace and offering a new solu Olynthus in the federal union. Citi unity. Chalcidice had become the center of a in each state of the league were given full rights of in other state and thus were held together citizenship every by a common interest. Even those who had been forced into the organization soon lost their local interests in the zens Its growing welfare of the whole. had thian goal of the a world had been destroyed union had reached its Sparta. by a Federalism When the short war, Spartan Agesilaus had climax. Olyn- attained the led his city to these achievements was Agesilaus, the Lacedaemonian spirit, patriotic, ambi man who embodiment of tious efficient, but and tested the age of right or Sparta, blood The these armed preparing and unprogressive alike in humanism by every vision, limited to brute wrong whose of forces action roused through a man who the sole advant power, took no Hellas by his policy iron.3 and moral ideals, with stunted art, in statesmanship account of the moral forces forces to crush of of Diodorus Siculus 8 Xenophon, Hellenica, Athens and disappointment the 1 ' Spartans. his desires. in military of by ruled by power was regarded as a the neighbors and in no place power The its by menace power cf xv. 1. v. 2. 25 Botsford, Hellenic History, et seq. ch. xxi. Thebes, and Sparta, supported indignation, to punish by were her for HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE II4 her breach of the peace and to lenes to live in peace, free busy Chios, Byzantium second Athenian the port of ful to Confederacy peace. No of the allies met and only required was collected, but Thebes League.2 headway. Athens and to stroyed the action. No tribute be contributed were to league the of had been able to defence was to drive the Spartan reorganize Sparta in strength, they Thebes left the the Boeotian increasing of liberty and Thespiae again, and King's Peace. to the to the which she had own power at law for subjugated, Plataea the conquest of Phocis was alarmed and Sparta turned to Sparta. reaffirmed the But the difficulties had a small The Second Athenian state war cost was The democratic party in 'Marshall, were unable prosecution of her war. peace conference at was In 374 principles of. not been appealed de started.4 a the settled. for help, Confederacy (Cambridge, 1905), et seq. On the tion and organization of Politics of the 'Ibid., pp. 390 et seq. League," " cf. Botsford, The Constitu in Political Science Quarterly, this confederacy Boeotian (1910), pp. 271-296. Meyer, op. cit., vol. v, p. 381. vol. xxv 3 money citadel and turned to Athens became 2 for sanction purpose the very principles 14 The alliance with allies outmatched pp. each autonomy. Athens accordingly she declared Hellas.3 Though the Sparta for the freedom of In war upon gone care in ; free from Athenian interference ships and meanwhile garrison out of of and come Sparta. against make the sup with forced to one was Athenian The needed. when secured, launched, with in 377 the and was for local freedom assembly Alliances confederacy. were In this Athens had been maritime provided treaty Chalcis states.1 the keep and Hel the allow Athens had been secure. and the formation of a new in her to compel [508 THE FOURTH CENTURY 509] and Timotheus, the same the a congress was was represented impossible to prevent It of strife. In every ances vided that both its in and all in lay friendship open bring to its in the The aid the 3 The last strife between the two local dis such affairs, the peace pro be withdrawn, each state its own form of government armaments should " Furthermore, lay states at so the provision state option of injured, compulsory be disbanded, if any on proved while any any trans power conversely, power against to be the weak link chain. success of power of 1 to Party was agreed that to interfere in choose alliances, and such aid was not will." in Sparta. should governors these stipulations, it whatsoever and involved the two It war with each other. naval and military. gressed way difficulty lay power. these compass such a state of own chief the party in will of be left free to should and sought a most prolific causes in Greece the democratic party looked Alli the oligarchic to Sparta. both sides, on solution To the at felt that it men they wars, that the powers and an agreement not putes. Here an support and states the only all which were the to hostil 1.2 Though and check an end differences between Athens small state appeals leading to put an end followed the led to Hellas, and was recognized Athens for to this, bring Sparta in 37 Persia as well, in general peace. the governmental to to to and democracies called to meet in disputes the aid Thebes all tempt to secure a was To power of ities Athens to put an end and continued.1 war advancing to Athenian admiral, gave it. Elsewhere followed. Sparta continued to the consequences oligarchies establish IIS Thebes. Diodorus xv, 4- 'Xen.,Hell. vi, 3- s 20. Ibid., vi, 3. the plan Athens Xen., involved the and Hell, vi, 2. Sparta end of the growing would allow no rival. Epaminondas, the the Theban representative, to congress Boeotians to for Thebes only and for themselves. This sign sign Rather than the Boeotian League. garded as virtual the their Thebes.2 One Spartan be that the army should cording to the treaty; that placed at Delphi ; then, if any states, one violated all others could The sanction of thus be opposed assembly hearing the end of they what re from withdrew treaty.1 from the the least these this would to the pro the be be the of at hand. peace would But the states. that this ac then should enforcement of annoyance words agreed He independence funds and before action disbanded and contributions the peace or the and secured with the on the other suggestion. recalled be invited in heaven to state was excluded the assembly and made a remarkable posed meant yield by ordered allow up the burden of enforcing the peace thereupon took against was to the Thebans destruction, conference and Sparta ing [510 HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE n6 man was talk nonsense.3 The Spartan army advanced against Thebes unsupported Leuctra followed, and with it came the collapse by Spartan supremacy of Athens. the peace and the end of all the years of oppression and in spite of the war crease group peace need.4 her own its Thebes, made powers. She the use Athens, mutual obligation of the gathered held long situation around Xen., Hell., Diodorus xv, 6. vii, for to in herself a conference and a secured among them with a pledge to protect them in case Thebes followed up her victory by an invasion 2 4 bright hopes remembered broke loose from Sparta. the smaller cities, 1 3 state recent pledge and against her of Every conference. of of of 1 et seq. Xen., Hell., vi, 4, 2. Trans, by Dakyns, Ibid., vi, 5, 1 et seq. 3 vols. (New York, 1890-97). THE FOURTH CENTURY 51 1 ] the Peloponnesus. The league sene was rebuilt and a dians to act as old alliance was check a was ny Mes- broken up, formed among the Arca Not until Theban Sparta.1 on became threatening did Athens remember her engage in the war in defence of the power oaths peace.2 and The army position, of Thebes was not so she in turn called a series of Persia, aid of hostilities. gation of Susa, which to and whose resulted smaller many bans proposed peace and resulted recognize usual however, It is Though to A balance to dominate. oath which that the Sparta to other The accept the states de the Thebans to secure control came at Man- in the and in the death resulted power of general chaos of power more stable than that between Athens by and defend themselves effort of one state stood out power freedom to take any This the of Epaminondas and the end of the No naval acceptance probable Theban victory, it a in the terms of compel Messene. and of the other states to tinea. the leadership, but they for the Great King. A seventh the of alliance The final clined.3 Thebes, refused, an her with meetings, Athenian Theban them to Thebes. bind would states They autonomy. at destroy of contempt meeting, this time secure was to recognition only in to enough suffering from the prolon Meetings were held at Delphi and at trade attempted secure strong his city.4 strong enough it was thought Sparta had been established. " All save Sparta that putting make his 1 Meyer, ' Xen. Hell, vii, (3d ed., * the war aside own op. united and a common peace was city each other, each so shall and as great and prosperous as possible, cit., vol. v, pp. 449 et seq. 1 ; cf. Leipzig, 1915), Dittenberger, Sylloge Inscriptionum Xen., Hell, vii, 5. ^3- graecorum 159- Xen. Hell, vii, I, 27, 33 p. 430. * against made, et seq., 39 et seq. ; cf. Meyer, op. cit, vol. v, [512 HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE n8 An strong." unite with the Great did King Phocis, with had which in called A peace was vain. easily Athens and Sparta offer them, they to If was refused. would not went Philip a to the between Thebes aid of With his Macedon. of Phocians, the the and entrance a in Hellenic history. Athenian the second meantime quarrel been settled, led to strife, which Sacred War by the Thebans. not into new element appeared In the interfere not turned Thebans Persia him.1 The hope for was and satraps against revolting make war on and to friends useful remain shall Confederacy, from times. had been expected, had fallen on difficult The Athenians had departed from their lofty re solves, had failed to so much which Some of others had been were the league the money of spent the states had been plundered by terfered, and independence posed the lost, but peace the of peace the Within All the Theban, of during powers and Dittenberger, "Marshall, op. a year Athens the had 182. days of 113 Byzantium, Persia in some who what polity op had been prevailed and the confederacy of the had the short-sighted, col self- in Hellenic Greek freedom had failed.2 Athenian, Spartan, Olynthian, again. Diodorus, cit., pp. and up the of recognize the last experiment passed Athenian to were regaining finance stirred several revolted. There of Thus because entirely. unification the city of seceders. sound counsels of seeking policy and were compelled and soldiers which in 357 Caria, purposes. subjection and of in the hope was made. lapsed 1 Mausolus Athenians own to Epaminondas had discontent among the allies, islands, led by Chios, Rhodes by for their reduced the mercenary hired to defend them. and supported had the allies properly and protect xv, et seq. There 10. was no power strong THE FOURTH CENTURY 513] lead, to enough peace and city willing enough to follow. When to the Hellenic world, it was com no came unity from pelled IZg without. To the north, in the valley above modern Saloniki, lay Pella, capital of the kingdom of Macedon. Its kings had been in close relations with Athens for a century. In the early fourth century before the Christian era, seized by Philip. He possessed a genius the part of the throne had been for organization, had produced had acquired had been his the throne he had learned ambition trolling what be might to All him was plies of to in money states seasons. no own In early life rule. of Greece and were It became his advantage. his little kingdom, despised Greeks of the south, to a con the organization of Every opposition was crushed. trained He he knew his world.1 the newest methods of his own king man subject warfare. to Sup and munitions were gathered and the entire nation was placed on a war Greek violence and Greece science. with in the Greek was general tutor in military his mind, but a shrewd greatest weaknesses the cultured by place the used Philip's first task dom. by himself raise barbarian as The character. the absolute nature of his powers and how they foresight, remarkable unscrupulous an had been To the armies difference ; they The basis. accustomed that were Philip to citizen armies of fighting organized, seasons ready to fight at the only in dull made any time, in any conditions.2 place, under The any problem same efficiency. 1 of Measures relations were Pickard-Cambridge, Demosthenes dom (London, 1914), ' foreign 1907), 4. trans, 143 and with the friends and solved the Last Days of Greek Free et seq. 1891Dindorff, rev. by Blass, 3 vols. (Leipzig, vols. (London, 1003). Phil. lit. 49, C. R., 5 by Kennedy, Demosthenes, 01. i, PP- was taken to secure ed. coalition prevent a of Greeks against freely among the venal to flattery of friendship sufficed. of support promises bitions his of Greece of in local power won flict began there city Gold him. gained were petty Before the final the fearful. by Exhi wars. or con in every strong Macedonian party his themselves declared had cities some was and Others politics dis was For some, obtain support. bursed the [514 HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE I20 a friends.1 Philip warfare The old rules of entirely without scruple. truces he broke and him. Treaties did not bind was whenever his for friendship Once purposes a city foothold a was and he avowed and alliance. Frequently required. support promised in this way, he forgot his Captured, it might expect no secured the city fell. The surrounding country was devastated, the city destroyed, its men killed or sold into slavery, while its promises and mercy. women, too often, suffered a worse In the fate. neighbor colony of Macedonians was settled to secure the Spies in Philip's employ were everywhere. One Athenian was executed for accepting his bribe to burn an hood a region.2 in arsenal Athens.3 Two things of the .ZEgean were needed to by world : recognition leading power in order that he might and the tium modern from and the 1 Cf. Thrace, but which he above all might states as a dominate their councils, Athens. Theban invitation to take Dem., Phil, i, 6 ; ii, Pickard-Cambridge, Demosthenes, give and him crush Conquest part of a vantage the com Thessaly in the Sacred War 19. op. cit, pp. On the to outrival 155 206 et seq. 3 Greek sun reaching from Saloniki to Byzan Constantinople to secure for him the rich mercial and naval power of 2 the in the place stretch of seacoast gold mines of point his establish Crown, 132. et seq., 159 et seq., pp. 191 et seq., THE FOURTH CENTURY 515] him the first secured the of Greece, and all land. tremendous with in the very beginning. end. One Athenian Philip sought it and or publishing and declared, to and power ultimate " pots cannot exist freedom." save they 4 training to must report. only no avail against the 1 Pickard-Cambridge, 1 Dem. Phil, i, 4- the skilled " Democracies and and the people, was and a could to the the only means of large fleet, Hasty approach of forces des despot is speed and precision were of levies danger, Philip.5 op. cit., pp. 288 et seq. Id., 01. i, 4, 25 ; et seq. Id., Phil, ii, 25; 01. i, 5Phil, objective; her democratic by Philip's plun murdering Demosthenes Every king citizen army. at ii, 7, 8. s and he had that Athens, of Preparedness strong arms 2 without and creation and maintenance of a of a them that empire universal In democratic Athens leaders deliberation after impossible to them. safety : the before the went showed justice; realized and brutal in execution, hated foe. most together." act He peace or enslaving and the king's constitution, his foe to the orator, desired in strategy wealth was Philip of Philip. him nearly attended a pillaging, The mercy.8 'Id., resources despot in his ability to send his men wherever he willed, answerable to no one, concealing his designs as he chose; that he was unscrupulous dering purposes who without regard whenever Success against despot a the advantages of called body religious All his prestige.1 Demosthenes, declaimed was the saw threatened. people and people him head made great coast- to the not the his ability were directed towards gaining the Clever trickery and quick action won him important gains what Success these. of Amphictyonic Council, of 121 of and the citizens, would be of [516 HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE I22 The in Thrace situation Demosthenes showed and called on the the people for immediate called Philip's treachery there, their friends nature of to attention. avenge and protect allies.1 and Opposition does all this immediately How is the signify? in Thrace actions justice have the ?" same " 2 obligation, to Athens. cern be would testations or war will of is between terms rest content. they as is Philip on good neglect, he cities, " be the war be soon friendship will of by with " with Already bringing the wrought a the the and offence off and of no con toward the city Philip's war ruin Athenian by to Attica. The choice by deceit therefore more enemy discredited and Pro Thracian the of we are careless. successful, and character will made great war yonder with an close subject of is far friendly Athens if in Philip's Religion replied : us." let him not But the What asked, state concerned To them he small." great or " Some arose. 3 enemy." powerful Men, probably in bitterly. They the pay of called him Philip, a soured that he was in the employ of cities or else ciently high. Philip of the tors base, They and claimed " him. Philip's that Better to be Greeks." offer extolled that it on good These men to him opponents had not character and useless terms in been other suffi ability of for Athens to fight with the Demosthenes coming leader attacked as trai happiness by their belly and freedom and independence they who measure while Demosthenes water-drinker, declared Philip's the was attacked all that is count as nothing.4 1 Demosthenes, 01. i, passim. Id., Phil, iii, 16. 3 Id., 01. i, 14, 15, 26. 4 Pickard-Cambridge, op. cit., p. 280, Dem., Phil, ii, 296; Aeschines, On the Crown, 81, 173. 2 30; On the Crown, THE FOURTH CENTURY 517] Lovers of peace talked the abundant blessings breakdown with the large forces, the train of tions in pealed Thrace to his only war.1 of men and They money, war. to be the leader of the those The their wealth, Demosthenes of the evils Greeks, even ap held that interests to the expense to and in humilia suffer Isocrates whose personal declared, maintaining and all better to in rich objected Athens, of and compared them all opponents were challenged.2 prosperity expense thought it than to risk Philip great tranquility, trade, the of the loss the of of 123 were and concealed escape the burdens. in the city were willing to vote for war in the Success but were not willing to go themselves. assembly, or failure in the war meant little to them, while absence on The artisans possibly loss service meant phon complained that though Attica itself beyond see they were of life, but would leave not invaded. the confines of surely ruin. their The farmer Attica. He Xeno- benches could not ready to interested in a was ever of his own fields, but was not in far-off Thrace which did not appear to be his The peace party declared the whole dispute was due to fight in defence own.3 war desire of such men danger, He a few menace who scorned 1 88 to Demosthenes the the the the To treasury.4 public the reality of the could only show Philip's despotism to free Athens. to live if it the way to Dem., On of plunder them of the glories of reminded pointed men could not past be days, with of the men freedom.5 He success : Peace, 24, 5. On the Chersonese, 8. On the Embassy, et seq. 2 Isocrates, Philippus 73 et seq. Econ. vi. 5-8, cf. PickardDem., On the Na-Jal Boards, 25; Xen., Demosthenes (Oxford, 1912), Intro Orations Public of Cambridge, duction, p. 20. * Dem., On the Chersonese, 5-' 0 Id., 01. iii, el seq. -S et seq. On the Chersonese 40; On the Crozvn, 205 If [518 HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE 124 each of you can his and when has money enlist to relied upon be he his act when of use and contribute will for the Not her be services will duty bids him to his country; if he is who of military age who will campaign.1 commodities marketable made wealthy, but her freedom and The fire of the orator's eloquence Athens great and power.2 They enthusiasm. momentary expeditions, then failed to The time the assembly of the the conduct of ing larger forces to them. armies were the not save Philip. and a He hopeless advanced Bosphorus dispatched, idle." 4 went " fleets late.3 a and Demos "All Voting to form Athens of entrust small throughout the attempt mistrusted with and words alone will Peloponne league against and would not and Byzantium.7 On Greece. The constant success Alliances fol Philip was Athenian a convenient words of power alone pretext, he 348, blocked his marched Demosthenes had Dem., Phil, i, 7. Id., Phil, iv, 50. 3 Id., 01. iii, 4. 'Id. 01. ii, 12; Phil, ii, 3. bId., On the Chersonese, 77. 6 Pickard-Cambridge, Demosthenes, Ibid., reached supply. made, fleets and armies driven back from under the walls 1 et seq. he were 2 pp. until threatened the Athenian food awoke. empire. 7 but these arrived too and to enlist. money in discussions over or the advisability a result to for large war and secure speed and service. vain 5 As people her.6 Then Athens of to The Greeks Philip the was wasted the state." in sian states low vain action are without for contribute generals and dispatched, thenes tried in voted aroused p. 306. path south come true, to into the THE FOURTH CENTURY 519] war was coming home. ance was secured with sent forth to Athens The Athenians Thebes, him. meet 12- All An rallied. alli the army was organized and was too late. The citizen levies Thebes were no match for the trained armies of the Macedonian king. The battle of Chaeronea estab lished Philip's power in Greece.1 The character of Hellenic of and The history was changed. ^ The long series of led to them war discussion greater by thinking day of the of had passed. to end the question of peace and Supporters men. city-state man)- wars and the attempts like Xenophon of war Demosthenes, the philosophers, Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, and orators like Lysias and Isocrates, all had and something to say about the general problem. Though Xenophon might admit that peace curse,2 and war a ship to He judged all Industry war. things in the he by class who were not warlike to expend On state.3 cause toil or to the other hand, he body and soul it trained of co-operation and gave men half of their lands.4 own butt him general like Agesilaus good and a brave, lofty of scientific i condemned PickardJCambridge, Xen., Hiero, ii, 6. Id., Econ. vi, 5-8. 4 Id., Econ. v, 6. 6 Id., Symp. xi, M- op. to relation produced a docile, unwilling of the be large of a leader judgment, a man of war, a from his cit., pp. 359, et seq. was a great him to be, conceived secure the coward and His ideal hero of soul and able their lives in defence knowledge in the business stout commander, 2 He he a martial for war, taught the lessons a willingness to fight on be of as but blessing Called agriculture noble, ridicule.5 thought by him because it nature their venture given state condemned was a the Ten Thou experiences with Agesilaus in Asia had sand and with fervor. his yet strong soldiers such and obe- dience that and respect into the jaws and under his of for sight But a friendly failure.2 things that pursuit, the at warriors bind on the was hard, the of deeds efficiency a splendid trireme, terror to the of enemy. worst example of confu own experience all the tasteless horrors food, the battle.3 of victory, the rout of the restless But he had the enemy, the slaughter. I describe the shall their feats of With arms. their brows the glittering mirth and jollity they their cities to have joys language what thing He knew from his pains and tasted of the symbol of order and or a noble army make war slumber, the follow him through fire would and would achieve great eyes, but a disorganized force sion and also they death Xenophon's eyes.1 was a well-organized In [520 HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE I26 shared in the congratulate heights newer plan of Indeed it greatest number. Each and would on having what raised to citizen claims to have be hard to find the slain where false to be slain creep in, So truly exceeding those that actually perished. does seem them it to to have won so great a thing the embellishment will not with glory ; themselves campaign they what assumption wreath of fame. of these of exultation number stated glorious a victory.4 For a man who most of its which appealed he a aspect of not the The to him state neighboring was experienced such that a recognized felt had terrors. a as 1 best 4 5 Ibid., ii, Ibid., x, 14 et seq. 7 ; xi, 3. war prevention was preparedness. standing mercenary army armor passim. had lost of war Though would lead protection like that but the state.5 Xen., Econ. xxi, 3-6; Agesilaus, Id., Econ. vii, 4-6. 3 Id., Hiero vi, 15. 2 feelings of to desire peace, the best brilliant whole- method he warlike THE FOURTH CENTURY 521] With the The only ancient attitude of he salvation spirit Xenophon, Demosthenes saw the and for Athens creation Greeks in states ; a maintenance of and becoming to that strong end he a the well-trained strong, as the existing balance among the strove to enough of concurred. was a renewal of has been seen, were of no of the difficulties among the But his efforts, He found his solution citizen army. avail. 127 to prevent assume any again from state dominating a position.1 In the immediate were politics, problems Hellas the of particularly interested. not however, philosophers In their discussions the general question of of up for war came discussion. In the Memorabilia Socrates apparently felt the upon him that the the out of called was no guarantee walls, been attacked and regarded on the struggle of village, family of product Ibid., ii, I. ws When Glaucon war. of Athens, he urged by and war enrich the loss of valued posses to the fact that had fallen war as victims inevitable, country against family, and to a had built yet they had allies, injustice.3 country, village individual man against Primitive state, based natural himself.4 civilization. preparedness men man against against As such had not it indi was known the Megalopolitans. 4- Burnet, 5 vols. (Oxford, 1900-1907), trans, by Jowett, London, 1S92), Laws 625 et seq. Cf. Shorey, "Plato's (3d in Classical Philology ix of Plato's Thought and the Unity 'Plato vols of of protection, that though qj Demosthenes, For 2 Xen., Mem. iii, 6, 8. L defeat against i expressions itself going to its enemies, he rejoined that there attention vidual, and of every 3 few a soldier a collected armaments and secured Plato the of state might resources of He Xenophon Himself futility was equal chance of sions.2 of recorded. are ed. ed. (iQU),VP-36oetseq. " wars, but The sire art of as a part of causes of war, he said, the cost of one's led which men to to regard they had regard what and in turn embrace the stirred power, the led the to rulers of destroy Plato enemies cities In slaved too own and their keep He to this test, to dis the devastate love who were in the On the war and continually urging life, raised end either ruined other for search In the Statesman, the military of persons plunder which their people in lands.5 good he felt that the condemned involve that those hand, he held it that up or en people making money quietly looking after to take war in earnest, found ways too and the peace unwarlike, inevitably between deprecated. view of busy state enemies and Wars state state and affairs readily to that ignorance for glory, the desire for and it to its foes. these he found in on to the few discontented evil.4 same as to observe, to hate the agreed evil.3 an excessive for the who were their the pointed out from war up the ambition the of discontent, de territory at the expediency as the best guilt of war was confined who1 all founded was the arts were state : expansion of The basis for neighbor.2 injustice, in the other evils for money, for power, for which to live together compelled war the government.1 causes of all had been men when they had learned the [522 HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE I28 out became Hellenes, Since they of and so lay at made their the mercy of sons their slaves.6 the were season, philosopher brothers and particularly kinsmen, he among them discord and disorder rather than The only justification which he admitted for it was called strife war. 1 Plato, Laws 678-9; Protagoras 322. 'Id., Republic 351, 373, 4; Ale. i, 109, 112; Euthyphro 7; Phaedo 66 C. 3 Id., Ale. i, 113; Republic 338; Laws 686-691. 4 Id., Republic, 471 E, 575 B. 5 Ibid., 544 et seq. 6 Id., Statesman 307, 308. THE FOURTH CENTURY 523] the necessity securing freedom. Then it the guilty few and to of to waged as burden as possible on be made The slave. reconciliation in whole The mind. common interest of the city. as well as a Every boy training ceive some should Hellenes should Hellenic freemen be with waged he viewed should make war in Hellas.1 preparedness as distinct a necessity for the individual and for every girl, he declared, should re and that so Not only sity, but it developed the city.2 nor barbarians, however, Plato believed thoroughly in advantage, off, affair as natural enemies on whom the lay so little as Houses the many innocent. nor crops carried be should punish be burned not I2g was such they might aid in defence training useful in time of body and taught the noble Even the ideal of the neces lessons self-control.3. of valor and But they trained defenders. those arts which taught should state be trained courage and removed required not fear only in of death, in philosophy which embraced other virtues, that they might be like watch-dogs, gentle toward friends and In the Laws he showed that fierce only toward but also enemies.4 the Cretan and Spartan law-givers had prepared their citizens age is but one of the only for war, virtues and erred in that they forgetting that not the that cour highest, that be just and temperate and wise as well as cour Since he felt that only the perfectly just could from attain the highest aim and be safe from inju^ for war preparation he advised for the average city a man must ageous.5 ever others, Hence it peace.8 in times of was that education and Menexenus 239. Plato, Republic, 470 ct seq. ; 422. 2 Id., Laws, 813, 4; Republic Laws 815, 6; Protagoras > Republic 399; Laches 182; Id., the arts 1 4 Id., Republic 373 Id., Laws Ibid-, 829- et seq. 630, 661, 7. 359. HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE I3o to be in common, of war and peace were the bravest osophers and In the last one has been, purpose, speaking it and as well as No a in peace. war ? true ; he long he ever be for room or for the in courage first He sake peace views had Plato, Ajisjgtlg, did of regarded self-interest The so racked men the as not had brought who on the of the wars Hellas he declared had looked only the interest of their own form government and were not at all.4 to be unlawful. be the business certainly is to but no might Cretan as materially greatest own advantage and interest of legislator a sound sake of war and not war not the happi aims at looks only state who nor will for the as 3 causes of war. which the or be kept should is, 2 statesman whether And is there With the differ. their be." external warfare who orders peace of be any Peace war. can the individual of to all be one can ness in of waged neither instruction or amusement nor ever will to be There which was peace. phil kings.1 war was " for but worth warriors should Plato felt that analysis the best and be [524 of How can that the statesman which or rule without regard right." 5 statesmen who So he of concerned with the public really The desire to dominate " to over others he felt is lawful not even legislator. to justice Unlawful it where condemned the there is Spartan and had framed their constitutions solely with a view to war, to conquer and to rule. no higher Knowing employment than war, their knew not how to Like iron unused, they had rusted. They had attained happiness and their empires had passed citizens use peace. not 1 3 4 away.6 Plato, Republic 543. Id., Laws 628; Laches Aristotle, trans, ed. by Jowett, 'Ibid., Acad. 2 vols. vii, 2, 12. 2 /^ Laws g03 191. reg. boruss,. 5 (Oxford, vols. (Berlin, 1885), iv, 11, 1831-70); 18. eIbid> vii; 2> lg. I3 Politics, THE FOURTH CENTURY 525] Preparedness he thoroughly, both on the part individual. It was the business of the supported of the ruler and the leaders power, capacity ity it its of of making He virtues of elsewhere, that have the appreciated commended thirsty the business of Those peace.3 for the selfish reasons or In villains.4 " who only The lawgiver should pate in them." The life a good great champion of ian, Hellas, of He exiles that Greece.7 over they the eternal the problem; blotted peace condition lands, serving in and Id.. Politics vii, 13- Politics v, n, 'Ibid., Ibid., vii, 1. were so taken up by the for hire. treaties made jealousies Ethics iii, 6, and which 7. 10. seq. vii, 2, 16 et Epist ix, petty failed to hatreds 14- et seq.. with actual calamities Ethics 1177 b. Isocrates, Panegyrictts 167 the country armies out. vii, 15, 3; of the enslave the tales of calamity composed were not moved saw the rhetoric peace was side of Aristotle, Rhetoric i, 4, 9 *Id., ' dark and statesmen and He 'Id., Politics 8 wandering fit to weep men saw the poets, were never 1 Hellenic the saw cities, the destruction of property, interests may is attainable which the endless wars, the wasting of ment of settle in the happiness inquire partici 6 Jj3Cn|te$. of and blood development was a proper good states and races of men and communities by discipline called how Yet of advan war only as a means brought on wars for itself he sake of war peace possible.5 virtue full option the courage.2 Aristotle by own power and capac the lessons life, military only its not stronger and the weaker/ to the final end of of the peace with war on tages of the and held, to know history, but also the and neighbors and the results of wars keep might he the state, of j.31 4, Phil 2. which [526 HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE I32 It is to that we make treaties no purpose but only defer them not settle our wars when we shall be able to inflict irremediable some ; for of peace and wait we do for the time injury on one another.1 He therefore When they that war spoke of Athens. rich war vigorously. pointed out taken away safety and prosperity and even the had necessities party in Athens he recovering lost property, the attacked of life, and He drew in fertile and a had destroyed the never-ending wars, between the Thessalians comparison extensive and of repute good lands yet want by had little or reduced the Megarians who to nothing to start with and yet by keeping peace with all had Hellenes.2 He com become the wealthiest among the the fact plained of that, though the in war, yet the people regarded the the true democrats and the supporters of peace as war overthrown He attacked use of tories contrary he the imperialistic treatment mercenary troops in defence such as the to right, Spartans and with contempt declared win over might.5 that true prosperity justice. on right the the party as oligarchs.3 allies and Thebans had the Vic empire.4 gained oaths and agreements, disgraceful than defeats In the suffered without cowardice. of of the for regarded as more shameful and prevail and had been democracy long run On the was gained by justice would other hand, he peace founded For then followed freedom from wars, dangers disturbances, increase in business, release from the burdens of war and the privilege of tilling the land, sailing and civil the 1 sea or engaging in any Isocrates, Panegyricus 'Id., Peace 6, 117. 3 Ibid., 51. 4 5 other occupation without 172. Id., Areop. 9; Phil 96; Paneg. Id., Peace 136 ; Archidamus 34. 185; Peace 47. fear. THE FOURTH CENTURY 527] 1^3 Then merchants and aliens flocked to Athens and revenues income increased In common with all Greek thinkers, Isocrates believed in defensive war and in wars against oppression on behalf of liberty.2 He was proud of the record of Athens in this re and abundantly.1 " Not spect. in battle," he in defence was Philip, country, he qualified was to his bad, absolutely lead to prosperity necessary. a ernment, death few For grace.6 were perishable a to and that body by it a of in it He was foe." in committing Epist. ii, 6 Id., Archidamus 'Ibid., 104, 'Ibid. 59- 107. cf. 49. 7 His advice " nations. a good gov Be preparations 51. op. cit.. vol. v, p. dis " fight to the for the no unjust aggression. Meyer, ex preparedness was 4- Id., Archidamus; better to with cowardice and Paneg. 75; Panath. 60. 4 called upon that distinc war self-control, and readiness to Isocrates, Peace 25; Areop. Id., loss.5 was life up in a Golden Rule for concerns knowledge of war and 'Id., to For the individual he prescribed, the suggest In this project.4 explaining that nothing he believed that summed 1 probably to for imperishable fame than to more years of life Greeks that war, though uncertain, won, and that such a war against peaceful and such a as well as remember tion and renown change Spartans the pacific utterances Spartans to When there Sparta, he wrote a pamph Archidamus, the purpose of would not consent good or purchase a 3 of a speech of arouse might the fall of praise when might secure a union of the destruction the let purporting to be Athens considered glorious to but it is worthy parents and danger that Thebes which was " children." of and accomplish that is it to be always wrote 450. state he warlike as for Let it, but your in- tercourse that of The ties of the at [528 HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE I34 Hellas he Hellenes, lay to Gorgias peace.2 Greeks for his and 380 be delivered gatherings to and together as treaties make urged a union of This Panegyricus.s of the Isocrates proposition symmachia, he for giving to the assemble Lysias had both was a to these of their founders Persia. for the difficul offer speeches led them to B. C. in the scheme value quarrels aside a war upon developed in tial of praised which a custom through The festivals. great with Isocrates had to presented would require such as you x to be stronger states solution which appreciated, and he Greeks be with weaker states The first essen an offensive alliance Nominally he proposed a joint strong leader. leadership of Athens and Sparta ; actually the burden of the under a speech was ness of the Sparta. Athens to right of It the command and unfit a piece of propaganda to was probably in making the second Athenian Confederacy an Hellenic League.4 He recalled the glorious past of Athens, showed aid how the Athenians had defence the and Hellas. of prosperity ceding century caused by the painted what the wrongs downfall of stood in the forefront He brought back to the period and compared Spartan Athenian of it with empire. the by Athens, as a result of them but mind rule battle in the peace in the pre great unhappiness Idealizing he hoped for the future. done of He claimed the past, he acknowledged that from her Athens had learned her lesson. The first necessity that he laid down was a sound demo government in Athens under the leadership of her cratic best men, such a government as she had had in the days of Persian wars. The leaders must then lay aside all jeal- the 1 2 Isocrates, Ad Nicoclem Id., Paneg 24. 43. 3Kessler, Isokrates und 4 Ibid., pp. 24 et seq. die panhellenische Idee (Berlin, 1911), p. 8. THE FOURTH CENTURY 529] and greed and adopt a true ousy administration righteous treatment their internal democracy. state.1 the of Such Greeks willingly to Athens by program a the be freed from with of the bring all the would ing This the first Hellenic league felt It would would be more bring orator war like All the small from larger states, the sea Hellas would be delivered King.2 from slavish homage to the Great The second essential of the alliance was purpose. interference in in defence Athens. support of pirates and no except he felt states could count on protection would Panhellenic policy in their called for Furthermore, he the allies, of affairs T.35 found in the against Persia.3 a strong, bind the principle of Such a war he embassy than a campaign. home for those who desired it; it a sacred peace at free the Asiatic Greeks from slavery; the homeless unfortunate would be given employment and a chance for would a new start at the expense of cess of such an expedition the march of The plan was such impossible because the of was no room and had not was shortsightedness Still Isocrates did not had Of the for despair. made his doubt, as the In the Sparta own attempt support. gained formed, of suc shown.6 of accomplishment, since Confederacy Athenian second barbarians.4 Agesilaus had expedition an there the Ten Thousand entirely disregarded it. at the and The then failed Athenian leaders. speech On the Peace, in 356, and in the Areopagiticus, in 355, he once again pre Reform of the administration arguments. sented the same of which 1 the laying-aside of that overweening Athens, had again caused Isocrates, Panegyrikos Kessler, 2 /fcid, 104 ; ' Isocrates, Paneg. 'Ibid., 173- * 182. Ibid., cf. 158. her downfall, the 76 et seq. op. cit., pp. 12 et seq. ambition strict enforcement terms of peace, of the grant of had which Social the ended had done to so much make the only things the Athens to her former high orator were defence sufficient states other against come would But Athenian democracy Such estate. Athens hated, these be reforms would to the flocking be not Greek states had learned to distrust found out. Thus the glorious restore could he argued, for then the Thebes, could the all end of all cleruchies which plundered other states felt that the War, independence to the allies, the discharge of mercenaries who the [530 HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE T36 the and reformed Athens, dream Athens.1 of aid Demosthenes as Isocrates failed of of realization. Isocrates had afield for a he saw, the was man ies, but know to lead Philip them nadcus, haps to 2 - a of all to In the eulogy the of ad 3 rule, but Philip, he believed, by jealous to So to him him to form called upon organize a council under his presidency, He felt that the But they in and attacks upon persisted and war this Isocrates issued his Panathe- Philip Phil. Syra Macedon fatherland.4 his past of what a Isocrates, Areopagiticus, passim ; Peace Id., Phil 119; Epist. i, ix. 'Id., Phil; Epist. 4 Id., Phil. 127. 'Ibid., 16. Philip of man who would He the glorious to appealed to Dionysius of In Greeks, nothing. midst of make clear as deliberate Persia.5 He quarrels or affected turned. might against amounted followed. 1 Greeks but had looked one. Panhellenic hero, Heracles ; he great Hellas all old age friendly alliance the Sparta.2 be involved in local would Pherae, of lead the Greeks. who would Isocrates in his which of alone find might did Demosthenes the descended from the would not a Jason to Archidamus not as he wherever to without response cuse-arid trusted to Athens not leader his city it native was 19, 20, 44 ; city, that 136-40 he ; et. per was al. 531 J THE FOURTH CENTURY j.37 preparing to crush. Chaeronea was to him, not the death of Hellenic freedom, but the overthrow of a faction in Athens which made possible the congress of the consummation of Corinth his congress adopted home, the end Greeks of freedom program : democracy, states with support of the his But that autonomy in and peace and wars, exiles and piracies, Before plan. Isocrates had died. met all security an alliance of at the Macedonian leadership and declaration of war Unfortunately for the Greeks it was a peace from without. Liberty and autonomy were but under Persia.1 on forced names and with peace came stagnation. In the same year peace an unknown Athens.2 of they It the might regain the Isocrates issued his to was an effort felt that the first were that treatise writer wrote a show wealth and power most fortune- favored which the on the revenues the Athenians how they had lost. Those essential was peace. in times speech on had states He he said peace in longest men flocked to season. It Athens the mariner, the merchant, the wealthy dealer corn and was wine, the peace of pleasure-seeker, to add All the wealth that lavished in war, The act gained chief the in times of of peace was revenue were of prevention which the Let of as guardians in the and wealth of the city. sources method novel. writer suggested was board to the while themselves cut off. banker, philosopher and poet and to the glory had been all many cattle, the owner of artist, the artisan, the sophist, that the Athenians the peace, to appoint a settle disputes see to it that Athens refrained from in among the states, to justice and to harmonize warring states and warring fac in them; let the tions serve op. cit, pp. 1 Kessler, 1 jfen. Poroi On vol. the i, center of the independence date, p. '93- et seq. ; the pp. 73 their endeavor Delphic be to shrine. pre Such a ct seq. is traditionally ascribed to Xenophon. Schaefer, Demosthenes und seine Zeit (Leipzig, 1885), v. vi. cf. 67 of This treatise scheme, backed up the length All Greeks ing the fourth to receive lenes,2 of trophies of Neither the with no from arguments of Part response. among the Hellenes dur had failed in enough Occasional avail. any support of won strong thought, Athens.1 as arbitration the endeavors of the statesmen were fail, he Though the Olympic religion was not such wars. to the failed, century gifts could not secure peace century. as Hellas, flocking these efforts to the preceding the sending of embassies throughout by breadth and bring the to [532 HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE I38 at to between Hel compass the the priests refused war peace general appeals to the end leaders nor conferences met arbitration the answer to the of of question why may be found in the changed conditions of warfare. Though the development of trade and industry, the growth individual of desire for bonds by appreciation of which seem more the and changed to desirable less to be meet and the body the service mercenary formation nished at one the of duties of The Arcadia increasing of men who were dividual of great and from armies time war.3 The Greece military party in furnished burden The price. specialization a constant war itself had and northwestern the citizens for a led to the surplus of population to remove the of a professional and of of war more of war number of exiles ready life state made peace burdens the nature these conditions. in the country districts to the the and borne, of general relaxation of held man was than ever irksome finer things the comfort, the ease and of in growth warfare class. a They and an outlet and fur for easily be stirred up to vote for a war in which took little part. Since the they mercenaries usually lived on the country in which they were fighting, the expense was less for the city which em1 2 3 Xen., Poroi people could v. Cf. Xen., Hell. iii. 2, 21. Pickard-Cambridge, Demosthenes, pp. 101 ct seq. THE FOURTH CENTURY 533] the Athenians to the ease with which The many and states the of failed, same to ments the conditions old pulsion, lowed on general with assurances of ity. was did tempting line face No relations. settle real divisions. hence establish the basic establish to give lasting a of com Any central problems peace impun organism and democracy was power Athens compromise. they interstate of to bridge the gap of made pride fol state the Greeks failed because effort was diminution left to break the comparative a lost. was and wars Athenian* the of an self-aggrandize distrust and misunderstanding between None of the states and Spartan oligarchy. accept with the states without enough might and support, and to paths of previous all of their agreements not position enforcement was fears intervened and The only suggestion to disregarded as foolish. In freedom of to the agree regard with When the covetous enough and strong principles arms of one or another of several or all jealousies the the their independence prevailed opened left to when ment; for and protection. forced into the it Philip war. established enforce peace. great states get avail, because the no more powerful states and The war with Philip won that he tried to permanently The very guarantor of their most dangerous enemy. Accord was were in the not was position ingly they part for their organization their encountered when conferences autonomy weaker take were for the diffi circumstances account Demosthenes which culty These them. ployed i$g willing to necessary to was never to power; Sparta felt that willing she could up her her military system; Thebes would not sur her hopes for the hegemony of Greece. Whenever a claims not part with render settlement some fear ingness to jured, was near, of undue yield came some element of influence the least up to or jot, lest wreck all jealousy interference, hopes or of hatred, some unwill pride and prestige of lasting peace. be in BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE In the preparation of books have been the used. author was able this work the standard texts Through the kindness to use the manuscript of of Mrs. the and hand Botsford, late Professor Botsford's Hellenic History, which has served as a guide throughout the historical part of the study. The author is indebted to Professors the Department of Young, Van Hook Classical Philology and Sturtevant for many helpful cisms and suggestions. 140 [534 of criti VITA The author of this study was born in Brooklyn, N. Y., April 26, 1890. He prepared for college at the High School of Brooklyn. During his undergraduate Boys' work Cornell at Burr, Bristol, Kemmerer. and he University Professors Phi Beta Kappa. attended He In his in of A.B. in History and 1910. Latin the Bethlehem, Pa.; 1912-14, Stevenson School, New sity 191 Fellow 5-16, in Ancient instructor in Bloomington, Indiana; given by He he was society of assistant to received the de was assistant master Bethlehem York City; History, History 6-1 7, Preparatory School, History at the Allen- in master 191 he year 1910-12 at to the was elected senior Professor Sill in Ancient History. gree courses Hull, Sill, Catterall, Jenks, Bennett, 191 4- Univer 15, Columbia University; Indiana University, at assistant teacher of His tory in the High School of Commerce, Xew York City; '1917-18, lecturer in History, and 1918-19 instructor in His tory in Columbia University. During his graduate work at Columbia he attended seminars under Professors Botsford and Dunning, courses in History ford, Robinson and Shotwell, ology, Life and Epigraphy Young and Perry. After Cresar's under Publications Death," under and courses : Professors Bots in Greek Archae Professors "The Sequence in Classical JVeekly Events for December in Botsford 12, 1914, Hypereides, Epitaphios, Hellenic Civilization, pp. 611 ct seq. Wheeler, of and Sihler, 141 II 3 9005 01 15 II 25 0 6 jraSf9iH*ffi; "IT