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HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS
OF PEACE
WALLACE E.
CALDWELL,
A. B.
tn Ancient History, Cornell University
University fellow in Ancient History
Instructor in History, Columbia University
Sometime Assistant
SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS
FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
IN THE
Faculty
of
Political Science
Columbia University
McMASTER UNIVERSITY LIBRARY
:K
JX 1941 C4
conceptions
of peace
c. 1
i
3
9005
0412
4969
3
i
HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS
OF PEACE
WALLACE E.
CALDWELL, A. B.
Sometime Atsistant in Ancient
History,
Fellow in Ancient
University
History,
Instructor in
Columbia
Cornell University
History
University
SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS
FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
IN THE
Faculty
of
Political Science
Columbia University
NEW YORK
1919
PREFACE
Ancient Hellas
with
its
its
own social
for its
talent
fatherland
to
citizen was
subordinated all
to the
greater and
Out
produced
the finest works of
of such
devastating
wars
products, Hellenic freedom
In the early
almost
quent,
ural part of
ulations
half
of
Greeks
period of
annual,
and
every
handed down the
that keen rivalry
culture.
which
But from it
its very
the downfall of
and civilization.
Greek
history
;
The
the fifth century B.
great
fre
wars were of
and warfare
became
a nat
existence with careful rules and
almost a sport.
Persian
war
reg
in the first
C, however, brought home
to the
clearly the advantages and the disadvantages
With the
of war.
came
Hellenic
occurrence
the citizen's
most
which
which
which used
better than it had been handed down
ideals
to trim.
also came
the state,
and
interests,
The high
dialect.
that patriotism
possess
service of
glorification
own
each
city-states,
own economic
its
and often
small
of
systems, its
customs,
the
est aim of
land
was a
own political
wars
between Athens
long and wearisome series
of struggles
and
Sparta
and
for supremacy
the
which
followed in the fourth century, there came a realization of
the ruinous effects of strife, which led in turn to the growth
of a
strong
solve
the
problem of
ment of a
fits, along
pression
history
were
peace movement and
of
variety
of attempts to
The
develop
its bene
relations.
for its perpetuation, found ex
the writers of Hellas. In the
productions of
their age
carry them
a
with an appreciation of
with suggestions
founded
399]
inter-Hellenic
desire for peace,
in the
to
and
into
lay
the
the
background
methods
on which
which were
their
ideas
developed
execution.
5
to
6
[40
PREFACE
,
Much has been done in the study of the international law
point of
and practice of the Greeks from the institutional
For this the
view.
national
reader
is
referred
to
Phillipson, Inter
Law and Customs of Ancient Greece
(London,
191
1);
Raeder,
L'
Arbitrage
and
Rome
International chez
les Hellenes (New York, 19 12) ; Tod, Greek International
Arbitration (Oxford, 1913)
On their conclusions that part
.
The
this study which deals with those topics is based.
purpose of this work, however, is to study rather the ideas
than the institutions of the Greeks and to examine the re
of
sults of
this it
to
their
to
is necessary to
examine
topic
efforts
review
the attitude of the
of war and peace.
end of the classic period.
of
peace
study.
among themselves.
the historical background
secure peace
writers
This study
toward the
terminates
Consideration
in the Hellenistic Age is
of
the
reserved
For
and
general
with
the
conceptions
for
a
future
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface
5
CHAPTER I
The Epic Age
I.
Minoan Civilization
9
The Mycenaean Period
3. The Invasions
4. The World of Homer
5. The Homeric Attitude toward Peace
6. Peace and War in the Epic Cycle
7. The Views of Hesiod
2.
11
14
15
and
War
20
35
36
CHAPTER II
The Early Period
1.
2.
3.
City-State
of the
The Growth of the City-state
Causes of Disunion
Elements of Union
38
38
39
.
Life and Literature in the Asiatic Cities
5. The Asiatic Cities at War with Lydia and Persia
6. Cultural Conditions in Sparta
7. The Significance of Theognis of Megara
8. The Development of Athens
9. The Greeks of Sicily and Italy
51
4.
57
59
62
63
65
CHAPTER III
I. The Persian Wars
1.
2.
Historical Survey of the Period
Peace and War in Literature
a. Aeschylus
b. Bacchylides
c.
and
Hellenic Peace
490-461
B. C
67
70
71
76
Pindar
77
d. Heraclitus
401]
79
7
.
[402
CONTENTS
g
FAGS
II. The Age
1.
Athens
2.
The Attitude
3.
The Views
Sparta,
and
of
of
461-431
of
Pericles
8
B. C
84
85
Sophocles
Herodotus
CHAPTER IV
The Peloponnesian War
1.
The Causes
of
the War
and
the Failure
2.
The Events
of
the War
and
their Effects
3. Aristophanes and the
4.
Thucydides
5.
The Attitude
and
of
the
Peace
of
Arbitration
Party
87
91
99
100
War
Euripides
103
CHAPTER V
The Fourth Century
Peace, 404-338 B. C
Peace in Fourth-Century Literature
.J.
Xenophon
1.
Wars
2.
War
a.
and
and
.
.
b. Demosthenes
c.
Socrates
d. Plato
Aristotle
f. Isocrates
Conclusion
e.
3.
108
125
125
127
127
127
130
131
138
CHAPTER I
The Epic Age
The
-earliest
the ancient
expression
of
thought known to
Hellenes is to be found in the
from
us
epic poets of the
Middle Age: Homer, the writers of the Epic Cycle, and
Hesiod. Many diverse elements, however, go to make up
the ideas
days,
in
the
which
and pictures of
character of
the
poets
of
understanding
out
lived,
life
things
material
the poems, the traditions of
incoming
the
and above all the
and
its
from
depth
their
of
One may
emotions.
claim
and
earlier
northerner, the society
single
archaeological
evi
dence that they belonged to earlier days; one may place
political and social institutions in the time of the poets with
It is
some security.
an
impossible,
fashion.
that
a much more
task to treat the
One may only
which preceded
the
difficult, in many
expression of
endeavor
to
point out
poets and venture
respects
ideas in
this
something
of
to draw conclu
sions with reserve.
Far in the background
known
and
as
the
^Egean,
Mycenean
from
neolithic
ranean race.
of
the poems
lay
the
civilization
divided usually into the Minoan
The ^Egean basin was inhabited
and
periods.
times, probably by members of the Mediter
With the introduction of bronze, civilization
developed among them rapidly until it reached its
tion in the splendor of the Minoan Age, the center
was
the city of
Cnossus
on
the
island
of
Crete,
culmina
of which
where
Minos
traditionally held sway and whence he extended his con
quests and spread his culture.
Legend records that he was
the first to drive pirates from the sea
403]
and
to
establish peace
9
With this
in the
trade
wares while
and
kingdom
in Cnossus
appeared
rial civilizations replete
that
wealth
fear
or
disaster
long
wealth
the
professional
eight,
and rode
hanging
dances
on
frescoes
its pomp
the
on
animals and
battle in the
1
2
the
the
In
rather
of
the palace,
upon, how
like
But
figure
a
war and
comparative
to the merry life
his tasks in
times
"
than
the
peace and
daggers
of
with marvelous
In the
weapons.
Crete
palaces of
to be found.
in the
survived
wore
of
The life
of
no
the
grandeur, its throngs of people, its
and its games, is reflected in the
many
the palace
the fish
are
guard
and
choros
art of
over
baldrics, inlaid
decorations
the combat
pictures of
in his
in the dance
silver
pleasures
strife of
called
chariot.
of more warlike
reproductions of the
its
by
shaped
in his thoughts.
ornaments
and all
power no
stray marauders,
built. A
of
shield,
commoner plied
from
2
raid
When
himself
when youths
workmanship,"
court with
combat
noble gave
dress
heavy
share
Memories
comfort.
necessary
to the
the court, and the
gold,
check
supported and supplied
his
took
its deeds had little
court
its
and no wall was
ordinary defense.
noble
security the
a
of mate
luxury
of
Save for bastions to
against
were
archery,
of
care
ever, the
interfere to
influences
such
splendor and
At the height
shores.
palace
fortifications
took
with
bring.
of war could
from its
of
the wealthy
brilliant
most
the fleet ruled the sea and kept the
as
continent
no
might
one
of the
for his
markets
Under
Egypt.
of
of
the Medi
around
found
closest relations prevailed with
the
powerful
there
Minoan
the
Everywhere
merchant
development
wide
a
came
prosperity.
and great
terranean
so
[44
HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OP PEACE
io
walls.
of
the
Plants
and
flowers,
familiar
the sea take the place of scenes of
time.3
Thucydides, ed. Jones, H. S. (Oxford, 1902), i, 8.
Iliad, ed. Monro, D. B. and Allen, T. W. (Oxford, 1902)
,
xvii
507 8.
3
Cf. publications in the Annual of the British School
the lournal of Hellenic Studies, and elsewhere.
at
Athens
THE EPIC AGE
405]
The
carvings on gems,
in
H
the Minoans excelled,
which
deal mostly with religion, and here too nature is the domi
nating factor. The figure-eight shield, token apparently of
the youthful war-god, appears but seldom, and then usually
in
This
conjunction with the omnipresent nature-goddess.
great
her
divinity
mother
attendant
doves,
The
appears
or
animals,
the
of she rules
she
the mountain-tops
on
under
sits
underworld with
The dead
were worshipped.
and
in
for
a
their tombs
That the
future life.
were
spirit
of
her
symbolic snakes.
feared
kinds
were placed all
with
tree with
Symbols
prevalent religion was chthonic.
kinds
its
a
of
and
various
courted,
of objects needed
the
departed
might
have company and service, animals and apparently human
beings were sacrificed.
Jewelry and treasures in great
abundance
were
impoverishment
With
rent
of
favorite
with
all
the
beside the corpse, to the
placed
ultimate
of the realm.
refinement and art
brutality.
sport.
Boxing
But
there
the
with
was a
heavy
cestus
most popular of all was
its opportunity for the display
strong
cur
was
a
bull-leaping,
of skill and
agility
and
its concomitant danger of bloodshed and death of a most
horrible kind. The legend of the tribute of human sacri
fice of the Athenians to the Minotaur suggests the means
by
which
the athletes
were
secured,
and
indicates
at
the
cruelty in the treatment of subject
When the Minoan crossed to the mainland he found there
same
a
time
different
peoples.1
great
race of people.
In the
middle of
the third mil
lennium B. C, northerners had begun to move down from
the Danube valley across the passes of the Balkans into the
peninsula
1
This
lished
to the
of
They
south.
Minoan
culture
archaeological material
Athens,
Hawes,
the Journal of
largely
conjectural.
and
Mosso.
occupied
is based
on
a
Macedonia
study
of
the
and
pub
in the Annual of the British School
at
Hellenic Studies, and on the writings of Burrows,
The character of the sources makes the picture
[406
HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OP PEACE
I2
pushed
down into
Thrace
and
Phrygia
the second
millennium
Greece, blending
whom
they found
ture began to
infiltration
vasions,
develop afresh. The
blending of the
to the
of
Attica
ters
of
these
earlier
acted as a
southern
controlled
buffer,
and
isthmus
the
the fertile
trade
routes
cities
of
Minoan foundations into
invitation to
Corinth
of
land
The
and produced
the new
the
val
were
the
cen
the cities were
some of
which
in defense
aid
the
southerner, his pictures,
adornments, his
sity here
there
in
or
the invader
type
the older civilization
legendary
Heroic Age
furniture, jewelry,
gold and silver
of
dwelling
compelled
arose
of
came
through
Crete,
archi
strongly
of
Greece.
took over the material civilization of the
northerner
northern
or
itself,
Boeotia
of
Possibly
new people.
tect, brought the influence
bear
and
development.1
into the ruling family. In any case commerce with
and doubtless also the presence of Minoan artist and
to
the
of
facilitated the
under
isthmus,
leys
through
into
south
inhabitants
earlier
turmoil from fresh in
a continuous
the
of
Minoan control, as the Attic legend
but surely under Minoan influence. The plain of
the valley of the Eurotas, the Argive plain with its
comer, possibly
-roads
farther
and
half
the first
gradual nature
built the fortress
were
of
peoples
backward in civilization,
valleys
entered
and
side,
these people Minoan cul
and the
and
indicates,
Messene,
the
with
strategic points which
fertile
course
Among
there.
protected and made possible
At
one
penetrated
they
doubtless
Thessaly, in
process.
In the
other.
the
on
Hellespont into the Troad
the
crossed
the
on
Thessaly
with
walls
personal
work, but preserved his
its
central
the erection of
the mighty
and
and
huge
hearth.
fortresses,
elaborate
own
Neces
and
defenses
iFor the invasions cf.
Beloch, Griechische Geschichte (2nd
Strassburg,ioi2), vol. i, pp. 67, et seq. On the condition of
Thessaly
Wace and Thompson, Prehistoric
Thessaly (Cambridge, 1912)
so
ed
cf
THE EPIC AGE
407]
familiar
life,
of
the
hence
Cretans.
vases,
and
Warriors
the
The
The
he
use
treatment of the
features
broken
bonds
the
which
siege
of
than among
art
cities appear on
human
are
methods
to his
and
refinements
foe,
sacrifice
characteristic
known
as
of
the
to
of
appease
most
the Heroic
the
dead,
are
Mycenae
for their
ties of kindred and tribe
Trojan
was overlord of
services and
of
unity
then than
the indications
developed.
recited the glorious
life in the
period
wars.
art
of
by
deeds
of
Under
the
strong
in
that
A
such
poetry,
to
history
have
of
warriors and
the
pre
of the
of
court
life
poets
splendors
court.2
Cf. Chadwick, H. M., The Heroic Age (Cambridge, 1912) ,
This description
of
the Heroic
Leaf, Homer
.\ge
is based in
general
p. 462.
on
Chad
History (London, 1915). On
Evans, A. J., The Minoan and
and
and on
the Mycenean
origins of the epics cf.
"
Mycenaean Elements in Hellenic Life
;
call
Hellas,
conditions
when
the
more gen
8
(1912)
to
enough
appears
the
together.
1
I9I3),
were
Bound
in the later legends
epic
wick, op. cit.,
32
all,
obtain them.
of which appear
Theban
and
to
and good-will
any later
at
there developed the
of
the
Age.1
military necessity, royal
one another.
Visits were
feeling
vailed
in
peoples
of equal rank and common
ruler of
eral
own
Minoan
of
the maltreatment
monarchies were
strong
Minoan
huge shield,
families kept closely in touch with
frequent between them, and marriages bound them
Traditions recorded these things and indicated
on all
favorite
the poisoned arrow, the heartless
new conditions all
and
in
the
added
of
stage of civilization
With
was a natural part
part
warrior adopted
conquered
corpse, the
enemy's
the
and
chariot and
character
brutality.
War
larger
shield symbol of the war god was a
warfare, the
barbaric
Tiryns.
and
played a
decoration.
mural
of
Mycenae
at
and
13
"
in the Journal of Hellenic Studies,
Meillet, Apercu d'une histoirc de. la languc
PP- 193-4-
grecque
(Paris,
With
strength
islands
the
pied
Marauding bands occu
The Cretans, excluded
expansion.
came
the iEgean.
of
[48
OP PEACE
HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS
I4
other regions and appeared in
from those waters, turned to
Internal dis
Palestine.
in Sicily, in Cyprus and in
Spain,
plunderers
when
and
convention
of
ease
caste
brought
Minos became
a name and
tion
in
embodied
future
sea were
land fell
while
Arcadia
people were
for themselves
were
plunder
were
and
record
of
than
freely
war-loving
by
work.
practised,
by
which put an end
the
a
was
of
the
sought
Robbery
and
on
to
Early
earlier peoples.
a
Save in
all was confusion.
or
land
for better lands
from the
as
and
no
rather
by
by
sea
piracy
and
late
of
All
disgrace.
the
least
slight
the early days
of
of
the
conditions
culture and plunged
land
soil.
The
impossible.
resent
description
Mycenean
Crete became
confusion of
to
main
settlers
older
sea.
subsistence
regarded
in fresh
the
tribes seeking their
accepted as a picture
into its Middle Age.
with
appeared
sought
unnecessary
and
Thucydides'
Hellas has been
new
they
all
was
were either
combat.1
pushed on.
north
Troad
cities on
looking
either
out
men went armed and were quick
with
the
that the isles
barren Attica,
migratory,
or pushed
Maintenance
Fortifications
tribes
on
prey to the invader and the
out to seek homes beyond the
a
pushed
lands.
to the shores of
confusion.
mountainous
The
tradi
a
be handed down to
In the twelfth century new elements
invasions from the northwest. The old
were
swift.
was
Cnossus
of
even
wanderings,
Egyptian inscriptions
in
the end
the hill of Hissarlik in the
settlement on
wealthy
destroyed.
power
reached
pirates
Nile delta in their
the
the
the way, and
prepared
the court poetry to
The
ages.
had
catastrophe
Greece
comers mingled and
many
cities and men,
Cyprus received a colony
The islands of the yEgean were
tongues.
of
popu-
1
Thucydides, i,
I,
2.
THE EPIC AGE
409]
lated,
in
foundations
old
the Anatolian
on
founded.
size and new ones were
took
ments
the
central
lines,
parallel
islands
northern
I$
the
with
general
the move
Thessalians occupying the
the
and the region called
position,
increased
coast were
In
.^Eolis,
Dorians to the
Ionians,
the
A large
south.
'
amount
fusion
of
the old
with
As the
inhabitants
*
peace
In the
Minoan
gradually died down and times of
returned, civilization began to build
south
ideas,
newcomer
was
while
to the
north
which
told
of the
sometimes
mainland of
old
material as
times
Greece
them
1
into
In them
The Homeric
without
that
opinion
Gilbert
the
new settlements on
and
Ionia
the
In the
alike.
the
were
products
'
Homer took the
and with
finest
the
of epic
fire
of
his
poems.1
old
poisoned arrow was
question
has been
a subject so
of
the
Achaean
genius
forged
The traditional
many things foreign to the
the
views
that the
the changes in the
Murray in his Rise
have been treated
stories.
more
deadly,
spirit of
the
the slaughter
widely discussed
and with
has felt it best to adhere to the
upheld by Botsford in his Hellenic History (in manuscript)
entering into a discussion of the question. In accordance with
varying
opinion
Odyssey
these bards.
stories contained
such
the
and
traditions
afresh
poet.
language,
Mycenean courts,
and conditions.
of
songs and
^Eolis
traditions of for
the
found their material, and into that
warp they wove the ideas and customs of their
The Iliad
greatest
in
and
treasured in
all
the bards
songs
own
bards throughout the
by
sung
or
a nucleus
the civilization of the
One thing
predominant.
often the material customs and glories of
were
first in
culture appeared
These, reflecting
mer glory.
the centers of Mycenean
where
the epic poetry
common
and
their new homes.
of
Minoan influence had been,
of
themselves
movements
comparative
afresh.
followed, both among
writer
by
Oxford, 191 1),
in his handling of the old
matter and spirit of
the tradition noted
of the Greek Epic (and
as a part of
Homer's
work
ed.
[410
HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE
Z6
foemen knew
of
armor, his head
defiled
body
When
a
placed upon
left
and
in the
slain
raised
while
;
"
and
slaves,
Messeis
of
the
or
another's
bring
and
At the bier
spared.2
captured warriors
dogs they had
the
ground and not even
war
their
far-off land
a
loom
the
and
blows from the
children not worth
the mother's womb was
hero
and vultures.
though unwilling stern
The infant
dashed to the
with
led into
his
wives,
the very
driven
women were
Hypereia,
1
of their
by
pieces
in Argos ply
on."
presses
were
it
his
by fire,
was wasted
their husbands and
of
the
stakes of
presence
bodies left to be torn to
corpses
the
of
wall and
despoiled
was
dogs
prey to the
as a
was captured
city
riors were
The dead
no mercy.
water
compulsion
carrying
off
man-child
in
of
were slain as a sacrifice
The gods, too, demanded human
purificatory rites for blood
the dead.
as
the fallen
to
appease
sacrifice
and
guilt.3
The
strength of
tradition
prevented
the
omission of
many
things, though they were contrary to the spirit of
poet.
So many as he could, he omitted ; others he ex
these
of
the
He declared that
cused or palliated on other grounds.
gods
themselves forbade the
In his treatment
of
in the heat
use of
deadly
drugs
the stories, the captured
on
the
arrows.4
were not
slain,
fiercest battle, but held for
The suppliant, though he were one's dearest enemy, was al
ways spared, for Zeus was his
Despoliation and
except
ransom.5
of
protector.6
defilement
armor,
1
II. vi,
were often
threatened
never performed.
The
but,
save
word
for the taking
which
meant
of
defile-
456-8.
HI. vi, 410-465; xvii, 125-7, 238-45; xviii, 176-7, 334-5; xix, 291-4;
xxii, 59-76; ix, 590-4; vi, 55-60; xxiv, 730-1; Od. viii, 522 et seq.
3
Vide
*0d. i,
infra,
p. 35.
260-3.
67/. ii, 229-30; xi, 131-5,
*
II. xxiv, 185-7.
104-106.
41 1
THE EPIC AGE
]
decent
ment was changed to mean
truces
The
to
were arranged
Achilles.
grief of
serve
sin.3
body
the
The
feared,
The
of
stories of
omitted,
funeral
of
made
though the lot
conquered
Briseis
human
pyre of
The
stage of
not
is
predicted,
was
laid
entirely
purificatory
the twelve
of
appease
pre
a terrible
over slaughtered
captured
certainly
sacrifice and
Patroclus
than to any desire to
to
was
deed in
the excessive
him from
save
and
of
dead.2
for lamentation in general,
subject
a
the slaughter
and
to
the
intervened to
gods
forbade loud thanksgiving
gods
and
more, the
unharmed and
In addition,
of
a grievous
because
was excused
Nay
The fate
men.
for the burial
provide
Hector's corpse,
maltreatment of
the mind of the poet,
r-j
covering.1
unhappy.
rites were
the
noble youths at
to
rather
grief and wrath
dead.*
the
society which Homer represents was natural
had seen the end of wanderings and the
an age which
first
suggestions
customs were
days
of
just
beginning
the mighty
of
life.
settled
to
Cities,
assume stable
the epic
of
warriors
greater and stronger and more warlike
Between the tribes there
were past.
ship
dictated,
Piracy
mate
without
was
trade
a
the
cattle on
the
now,"
men are
and
peace as
of
The
still existed a relation
necessity
declarations or
profession
recognized
"than
grouped
and adventure and carried no
parties seized
man
kept
formalities
forms.
and
when men were
Communities
of neither war nor peace.
uals preyed on each other or
governments
hillsides
individ
or greed
treaties.
with
disgrace.
and sold
legiti
Raiding
the herds
into slavery, or wasted the harvest and carried off the
The only recourse for the injured,
the horses.
oxen and
1
Murray, Rise of
*
II. vii,
*
II. xxiii, 24
4
On the
the Greek
Epic,
p. 147.
375-8.
et seq.
subject of
be seen, they
are
; xxiv, 15-21these
changes cf.
thoroughly in
Murray,
consonance with
op. cit., ch. v.
the
spirit of
the
As
will
poem.
[412
HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE
!g
fare.1
Personal
between
strife
hospitality
was retaliation and open war
individual,
tribe or
whether
or
family
tribes.2
The
family
led to
princes
the
violation of
circle
in the theft
poet considered
the invasion of the
and
between
quarrels
years'
of
Helen
and
a cause
entirely
the destruction of Troy.
in the guiding power
nations.
Helen was but a
cause
of
struction
He
Troy.
their
part
bassy
in the
to
avoid
the
destiny
of
"
final
the
arbiter
and
hath
3
of
inviolate
and
the final
saw
in his hands for the de
under
Odysseus
The
war.
the
visited
act of
existed and played
The
alleviation of strife.
Menelaus
it he
swaying the
Zeus,
pawn
was
of
many
future interstate law
was considered
as when
effort
seeds of
But back
of
war
cities."
brought down the head
Yet the
for the ten
sufficient
privilege of em
protection of
Zeus,
in their
Troy
vain
those Trojans who
pro
in the assembly that they be slain forthwith was held
to be a foul
Truces were frequently made, sur
posed
shame.4
rounded with religious
was
might address
to
the warriors,
decide the issue
strife.
and
The
bond
act
and
and
might
or
be
their
binding
buried,
that champions might
the host from further
the truce
brought
force
that Hector
fight
grievous
was considered a craven
renewal
of
the
combat.5
guest-friendship existed and formed a
foemen to spare each other in the
to reconcile
The respect which the strong
sufficient
and
and save
violation of
irreligious
The institution
fight
ceremonies,
recognized, that the dead
of
to
cause
and generous man
them.6
felt for
a
worthy foeman led to brief
Later they might
reconciliation and exchange of gifts.
1Il.
re-
i, 152-6; Od. iii, 103-6; ix, 252; II. i, 124,
2Chadwick, Heroic Age, pp. 331, et seq.
"II. ii, 117, 177, 8; iii, 164, 5; ix, 337-41; ii,
*Il. xi, 138-42.
5; xxiii, 341, 2; xi,
38-40.
5J7. iii, 250-311; vii, 375-8; iv, 86-222; iv,
220-239; ix,
'II. vi, 215-31; Od. xv, 196, 7.
338-41.
104-6.
THE EPIC AGE
413]
new the
but for the time
fight,
fought for the
sake of strife
IO,
"
men might
say,
these twain
then in
heart,
that tears the
x
Age with honor
friendship joined together they
received its due respect and gained for Eetion all the honors
parted."
burial from Achilles
of a warrior's
of
Hector
no avail.
friendship
when
Between the deadliest
sacked.2
was
only was this
it but Achilles refused, for
nor could any agreement be
offered
impossible,
was
the
made until one or
high-gated Thebes
enemies
fell.8
other
Warfare in the Homeric Age was a personal or tribal
The poet represents the warrior of his day as fight
matter.
ing
to
protect
his
his parents,
wives and
children, to defend the
honor for his
chief/
He suf
safety
fered toil cheerfully that he might obtain booty and wealth
for himself. Preeminence might be gained by oratory in
of
the council;
allies or
indeed many
served
only to
Lands
and
rank
accentuate
dominions
the
in the
be
might
glory
summit of
pleasures of
//. vii,
*Il,
wick,
of
the most
personal
combat was
men
in the
life,
glory
his
for the
ambition.7
2
feature
of
kydaneira,
warrior.
for
For this he
suffered all manner of
characteristic
The highest
boast.
proudest
all
gave
His
That his
time
all
up
hardships,
//. vi,
fight.5
in the first
to stand
which war as
secure
288-302,
cit.,
in the
combat.8
celebrated everywhere and
his
xxii, 261-272, a
op.
obligated
merit
fighters
renowned
that respect, but that
their preeminence
glory to men, might
giver of
prowess
1
their
and prove
prize of all was
the
gain
distinguished for their ability in
were
the
to
was
the
courted
416-420.
heroic poetry,
cf. Chad-
p. 462.
*//. viii, 55-57; xvii, 156-8, 220-8; i, 148-168; xiii, 266-71; xx, 661-6;
xvi, 270
et seq.
s
//. i,
*
//. xii,
7
Chadwick,
490 ;
ii,
202
;
iii,
204
et seq.
310-28.
op. cit.,
p.
326.
; xiii, 260,
et seq.
;
i,
124, 5 ; xi,
407-410.
HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE
20
death in his youth,
live through the
the
power, the
Zeus,
from
of men
especial
flower
field
of
seemly
The
sight
knows
well
him
on without
war
it
and prays
of
the
in
men
they
battle
the
to
the
as
fosterling
of
the sharp
spear
in
it is
sure and
by
has
To
soul, Homer
warrior
The very sight of
in the hero's
spirit
words
in the
ended and
is
council
of no avail.
the councillor
express the spirit
Then
combat.*
that
pre
The
finds glory in
grips
used a special word
the
warrior's
Charme, joy
by it in the
and men alike were possessed
It brought lust for battle
insatiate
dear
unwearying.7
the
of
native
combat
land.8
and made
Under its influence
and
thought
war
When the favorable
far
omen,
1
//. vi, 492, 3 ; xiv, 84-89.
2Il. vi, 492; iii, 108-iio;
ix,
39; xiii, 484; xiv,
85, 6;
xxii, 59-76.
*
Od. xvi,
294.
*//. ii, 473; iv, 225; xiii, 270-1; xv,
486-8; xvi,
8
77. xvi, 627-31.
'II. v,
608,
a
fight draws near, the man of
is dear to him. He yearns for
in the dread
unwearied and
were
on
war
mingle
Gods
sweeter than
it
is highest
stubborn
the contest.
fight
by
up the martial
stir
in the charge, Homer
meUe of
chief
caution of age and secures
to
words
battle.6
the young man,
the
hardy and
contest.5
soul
regards
valor wherein
stirringly describes.
and
eminence gained
time for
The
If he falls torn
When the
becomes
But he
comrades.2
enough
breast.3
might
the poet, the
of
age.1
honorable battle, his fame is
to his
reaction
is
steel
mind
to
of youth.
for him distinction.
the
the
youth
reckless courage of
sweeps
death that his fame
even chose
ages.
War, therefore, is, in
business
[414
etal.
Ul. xv, 696-8.
//. ii, 451-4; xi, 3-14; xiii, 636-9.
492-4.
xvi,
626-31;
THE EPIC AGE
415]
the
bird
war god
Zeus, brought the fervor of success, it was the
Ares himself who entered into men and gave them
of
filled them
And
Poseidon
powers.1
untold
of
21
the
with
for
will
Oileus'
the twain
the Ajantes
strengthened
strife even with
son, the
and
mighty Hector :
swift-footed
Ajax,
was
the
first to know the god and instantly he spake to Ajax, son of
Telamon. ".
For lo ! the courage within my own breast is
.
up the
roused
.
more
for
battle
war and
my hands above quiver with
spake Telamonian Ajax.
So
while
my feet below
and
eagerness."
answering him,
my hands invincible
is arisen and my feet
Then,
"
even now
lust for the spear-handle, and my spirit
beneath me. So do I yearn to fight the
speed
Hector,
even of
But the
morale
The
of
son of
poet understands
fighter.
the
pain of
it to
disaster
of
not
and
the
thing.
constant
a
disappear.8
defeat impends
on
When the
death-
the
in thickly, all memory of the joy of
the fighters think longingly of home and
and
peace.4
family
and
Death is
dishonorable thing, Homer feels, when by
Far more is cow
family and home are
no
saved.5
means
ardice
that
ous charge
flees the fight disgraceful ; it is the
that
man who
ards were
can
be
most venom
warrior.8
made against a
a
driven into the
'7/. viii, 251-2; xv,
center of
the
upon
xii, 389-94; xvii, 602.
6
7/. xv,
'
//. iii, 38,
620-39;
xi", 721-
494-9.
et seq.
The
cow
there
379-80-
77. xiii, 73-80. Quotations from the Iliad are based
lation by Lang, Leaf and Myers (London, 1917)II. xiii,
The
ranks whence
2
*
Craven
Hector.7
sorry figure beside glorious
death.8
flees the combat is fit only for
Paris is but
7/.
unceasing
arrows pour
battle is lost
this
the effects
Charme is
a wound causes
tide of battle turns and
dealing
rage
Priam." 2
'II. i,
8
225-8.
U. xii,
241-50.
the trans
[416
HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE
22
was no escape and
in the
of shame
spur
greatest
fear
and
and
strength
Fear the
of others
from shame,
fleeing
"
Atreides,
shame
4
So
Men
are
summoned
be
men
in the
stubborn
more survive
the
spoke
brave
and
death.3
or
Of
fight.
in safety than
are
the
evil and
the hero
The
forth to
of
deeds."
many
of
battle,
the
that
drives
with
their
the
less
the
as
hover
poured
the
The
II. xv, 502-13.
II.
iii,
and
293-309.
318-32.
1-9.
glory
the
seem
the
flowers
of
they
as
the goatherd
fleeing
or
long-necked
II.
'
gleam and
battle,
of
move
sees as
it blows
great whirlwind
The Trojans
cave.6
to him like the
cold of
into
cranes
winter,7
as count
has been
1
S7Z. ix,
held
are
man and
flies that
3
iv,
to
the
Asian plain,
plumage.
and
the milkman's pails when the milk
from them,
cranes or
always
word-pictures the master of
shouting
ocean
leaves
about
finest
flocks scurrying to
that come to the
the toilless
gradually becomes the
clamor and
nor
5
west wind which
across the sea and
honor
same
He describes the hosts
poets could paint.
as
the
the
die,
must
war, the
glorification of
the subjects
were
fight; in
slain,
knew it to be
chieftain and men
the good; both
men
fame
arises neither
Yet they felt the bitterness that justice did not
"
prevail.
Equal lot falleth to him that remaineth
goeth
heart.
of
just.
him that
fear
made
life
of
risk
at
but for those that flee the fight there
safety."
This
of the women, the
and
soul.2
warrior's
the battle joined
said
fight.1
floor but to the battlefield, and there all
must be laid aside and with eagerness
weakness
" Friends,"
to
compelled
eyes of comrades
to the
dancing
to the
not
thus
and
the
swans
crying
dazzling
spring
or as
feathered birds,
flying by the
as
wild geese or
river
Caystrus
they fly, rejoicing in
gleam of
their
bronze is like
a
their
rav-
//. Vi, 441-4
/Z. v, 528-32; xv, 561-4.
//. iv, 273-82;
cf.
on
xv, 379-389.
THE EPIC AGE
417]
aging fire in
finest
boundless forest
a
picture of
is that
all
The
mountain-top.1
on a
Greek host in the thir
the
of
23
teenth book.
Spear
on
spear
made
fence,
close-set
shield
and
serried
on
shield, buckler pressed on 'buckler, and helm on helm, and man
on man.
The horsehair crests on the bright helmet ridges
touched
other,
their hearts
In
of
battle
the
which
wind stirs
scenes and
and
glitter and
details
darts,
Homer is
the
gleam
fallen
the black
and
The baldrick
the breast
the horse
with
dust,
the
of
and
as
the
hand
of the
did the listeners
of
greater
he
sees a
fire that leaps
the wind, or a cloud
day
the dust lies
when
battle the
poet
the
of ancient
devotes
days.
the
But
Beneath the
than that.
penetrates
beasts,
exhaustion of men and
the
on a
by
and
modern reader still must thrill at
the
tales of combat as
genius
up
stood each
interlaced
battle.2
lusted for
itself, Homer
they
were
roads.8
his highest art,
the
close
bold hands
of men and roars out with
thickest on the
To the
by
were steadfast and
city
dust
nodded, so
brandished
the stress of
upon a
they
each other as
and spears
to the darker side, the
the mind-shaking confusion,
the
groans
of the
shall
become
wet on
shattered arms,
blood.4
shield
shall
he draws the
man-sheltering
become weary
well-polished1
round
the spear,
chariot shall
sweat, for the coming of night only
shall
and
be drenched
separate
the
and
his
warriors.5
In
the battle-fever
1H- >.
a
5
455-73;
iv,
II. xiii, 125-35 ;
II.
he
sees
Ares, bane
273-282; xvii, 735-41cf.
xvi, 165 et
seq.
xvii, 735-41 ; xiii, 333-44-
*Il. iv,
446-51
*7i.ii,
386-90.
; x, 297-8; xi, 163-4; xi, 53-55.
of
mortals,
[418
HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE
~A
-'4
dear
Terror
Rout
and
Strife, Eris
and
murderous
own sister and mistress of
and
wounded
among
men.
At first
arise.
It
men.
From
she rears
when
the
her
the sight,
one of
melSe of
the
earth.1
grain
in the
rich man's
fire
field
Ares nor Athena may de
is glad; while of men, the
heart may not sorrow at the
even
of
of war and each man prays
for
gods
from death
escape
and
the
great
mighty in its dread battle-cry, but
glory to men. On the other hand, Ares
of cities, insatiate of war, reckless and
raging, incessant
is
called
the
ruthless,
all
of
sacker
and
destructive,
and
man-slaying
glutted
a
blood-stained bane to mortals,
with
sounding, toilsome, grievous,
bringing
ous and
other side of
That
war
knows full
long
iv,
a pitiable
sleep,
Od. iii,
100.
full
of
loathsome,
tears,
ill-
murder
epithets which show
hardship and toil as well as glory,
He
shows
away from
how the
wife and
439-45; xviii, 535-8; xiii,
67-74,
sad and
evil,
the
combat.
brings
well.5
periods
II. xi,
the
blood,
warrior must
child,
298-300.
150-162.
7Z. xi, 73-4; xiii, 343-4; iv, 539-44; xvii,
4
7/. ii, 400-1.
5
the
to
her
Ares.4
bringer
8
strife
then
alone
hard
the
the immortal
always a
lIl.
little,
and
many adjectives are used in the poems for vivid
in the description of war, furious and stubborn, keen
A
ness
and
but
discord
cast
causes
and she walks upon
This is the final hazard
sight.3
to
Eris
and
declares, only
poet
Not
reapers.2
crest
she
red
cloak
the thickets of trees before the
wind rages or as
before the
spise
as
her
not,
drags the
who
first
was she who
beginnings
small
head towers towards heaven
Men fall in battle
Ares,
through the melee,
dead
the
the blood of
with
and
hardy warrior,
whose fury wearieth
that terrifies even the
Panic,
son
360-5.
Homer
stay for
and must refrain
THE EPIC AGE
419]
from honey-hearted
forgetful
and
Ares
of war.
decrees.2
He
might.1
rageth
The
lest he be
wine
his
crippled of
his
courage
forth the uncertainty
men live or die as fate
sets
confusedly and
has no favorites
and he that would
Then many a noble young man falls into
his accomplishments are of no avail and the
war god
killed.8
kill is
darkness;
all
leaving
soul,
of
25
manhood and
Hades'
youth, departs wailing to
lands.4
The body is left
realm, that most wretched of all
far from loving hands for the birds that eat raw flesh to
it
shroud
day, for
a
would
were
it
be
make
and
covet are
left
at
dren
the
prattle on
dread
len,
and
his knees
away
return of
when
The
aged
he
the needy
which
Nor
and
Parents,
picture.
the absent
comes
father
praise
warrior.8
the
ever
one
brings
do his
back from
whose sons
chil
war and
have fal
for their nurture, is broken with sorrow,
Or if sons remain at
kinsmen divide his property.
never repaid
ii,
the
are
134-7, 291-8; vi,
'
Od. xi, 534, 5; 77. xi,
'
II. xviii, 309.
4
II. v, 47, 68, 82
xi, 241-a 262, 36
The
the
possessions
grief unspeakable.
combat."
home, they
lll.
the
and
home.
joy, but his death,
and go
eyes of
still another side of
children
and
depart disheartened
the glorious rewards of
in the
but for
empty.7
long
wait so
mourn
Such burdens
on.6
make a man
all worth while
But there is
wives
to
to
however,
it
living may
ever presses
enough
not a shame
In the end,
The
wings.5
the foeman
fears
booty
their
with
7/. xi,
ones,
false-tongued,
264-5.
; xi,
161 et seq.
; xvi,
856-7 ; Od.
225-33.
291-8.
7/. ii, 354-6; xiii,
light-
407-410.
391-5.450-4.
7/. xix,
'7/. ii,
et seq.
shameful
266-71
; xiv, 84-9.
7/. v, 407-9, 479-81; ii, 699-702; v, 687-8; xvii,
34-37.
xi,
488 et seq.
;
hearted heroes
But the doom
dance.1
the
of
husband, brothers, father,
woman who sees
all, slain, her infant
vengeance
captivity suffers the
The lament
hardest lot of
all.2
the finest touches of
While the poet,
nature and
uses
His
life,
true to
the evil to
presents
Achilles.
achievement and present
And the
age.
"
For
in their
warrior's
is the task
war
life
dwell in
who
boast.4
in the forefront
Bravery
figures
their
was
of
the
may
the
of
most ex
pitch of poetic
men, but
Ilium,"
me, among those
contrast.
the noblest
was
often
poems
forth his
careers
of all
by
the
great
call
human
of
war, he
glorious
sentiment of
They
one of
literature.3
him to the highest
arouse
the
is
is
all
sides of
the
then in
and
understanding
treatment of the two
Iliad, Hector and
language,
his
feeling in
both
captive
son and
conqueror,
of Andromache
in his
the true
own attitude and
pressive
of
of
make more vivid
be found in his
pride.
human
deep
deep
the
the
of
warrior
hurled from the walls,
son
[420
OF PEACE
CONCEPTIONS
HELLENIC
26
ideals
choice
and
most of all
Hector's
Trojans
for
proud
was
the
lesson he had learned in the battles he had fought for his
father's glory and his
chieftain for his son,
the poem,
of
Zeus
some one
comes
the
from
foeman,
II.
ii,
354-6
'//. xxii,
The highest
the
and
I,
grant me
prayer
this I
most splendid of
may he
rule
aspiration of
war and
brings the
for Astyanax
pray.
477-515-
*
II. vi,
5
//. vi,
440-65.
6
II. vi,
476-81.
492-3.
May
the Trojans
valiantly in Ilium.
bloody
arms when
then may his mother rejoice in her
:
this, my
and of as
And then
and as
he has
ix, 590-4 ;
heart.6
xix, 292-4 ; Od. viii, 522
he
slain
v, 152-8; xiv, 501-5; xvii, 301-2; xxiv, 253-62.
; vi, 410-65 ;
the
most genuine expressions
say, better far is he than his father ;
7/. v, 23-4; vi, 127;
*
gods,
even as
mighty power,
may
one of
is to be found in his
and ye other
son, become
own.5
et seq.
421
THE EPIC AGE
]
Ability,
booty, fame,
courage,
27
what
else
is there to
and
glory everlasting
of the Iliad.
wish
for!
The
Achilles,
choice of
instead
a short
age, is the keynote
of uneventful old
Until his
quarrel with
of war and was
Twelve
raids.
from land
life
Agamemnon he
the leader
of
cities of men
the
he
ever
Greeks in
sacked
bore the brunt
their plundering
from shipboard,
and
After the quarrel, when angry pride
kept him from the combat, he was consumed with longing.8
eleven.1
Then
when fired with wrath at the death of Patroclus, he
became invincible. The plain was covered and the river
choked with
all
rejected
ransoms,
the
with
the bodies
poet's
every
men
he had
He
slain.
covenant and was
refused
ready to fight
himself.8
river god
All the
of
magic
is
in
employed
the
description
of
they fight. Hector is a storm-cloud of war,
like unto a fleet wave or a ravening lion, or destructive fire
"
hills.4
on the
Foam came about his mouth and his eyes
these
heroes
as
gleamed under
above
his
grim
from heaven
was
brows,
Hector
the temples of
and
terribly
the helmet
shook
he fought, for Zeus himself
When Achilles fought on the
as
ally."
his
plain,
as
through
deep
glens
mountain side and the
rageth
deep
fierce fire
forest burneth
on
some
parched
and the wind
driv
he every way with
ing it whirleth every way the flame,
on the men he
hard
his spear, as it had been a god, pressing
Even
as when one
with
blood.
ran
slew and the black earth
so raged
yoketh wide-browed
bulls to tread
white
barley in
a
'stablished
threshing floor and quickly it is trodden out beneath the feet
of the loud-lowing bulls, thus beneath the great-hearted Achil
les, his
1
7/.
7J.
ix,
whole-hooved
338-9 ;
i,
xx.
"7/. xv, 606-11.
165.
horses trampled
t
corpses and shields to-
n- ". 771-9 ; i,
47/.
xv,
605-36.
490-2.
and with
gether,
the
that
rims
horses'
the
[422
HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE
28
blood the
hooves
splashed
But the
wheels.
below
axle-tree
was sprinkled and
the car, for blood drops from the
them and blood drops from the tires of
round
ran
everlasting,
flecking
The horror
of
the
Peleus
son of
with gore
sight
but
pressed on
to the
adds
to
win
him glory
hands.1
his irresistible
the mighty
marvel of
man of arms.
Glory
everlasting
destiny
will of
die
without a struggle
up
all
he
attained
else
was
but in
hear.2
that men
willing to
mortal gods were minded
As these
so
men are
is it
est
hero's
death, but
men yet unborn might
gave
the
was
in
the
the
to
Hector bowed to
aim.
deeds
some
was
that
Achilles
When it had been
death
accomplish
subjects of
might not
of arms whereof
For this it
hold dear.
accept
he
that
prayed
whenever
the im
it.3
the
poet's greatest
joy,
fitting
they be likewise the subjects of his great
grief.
The lament over the death of Hector is one of
that
the most
seen,
moving
of
tragic
verses.
The
daughters
carried
rior's sword and
tured.4
preserve
divine
be torn to
But this is the
before Achilles.
the
old man
see, full many ills, of
away, ere he shall fall
and must still
The
body
of
pieces
greatest
by
sons
a
the
sorrow,
Priam has
perishing
and
prey to the
war
dogs he has
nur
when
Hector falls
themselves take pity on him,
his son and send him forth under
gods
it. The king of mighty Ilium
descends to clasp the knees and kiss the hands, terrible
slaying hands, of Achilles the victorious.
guidance to ransom
man-
Fear thou the gods,
Achilles, and have compassion on me, be
father.
thy
Lo, I am yet more piteous than he
have braved what none other man on earth hath braved
thinking
and
1Il. xx,
8
thee
of
490-504.
7/. xxii, 365-6.
77. vi, 486-9; xxii,
7/. xxii, 59-76.
4
304-5.
THE EPIC AGE
423]
before,
to
slayer of
forth my hands towards the face
stretch
"Yet
remember:
There
my life too
He knows that his
sorrow.
In the
approaching.
fate.
the
of
sons.1
my
Achilles, too, has his
is
29
over
his glory he
death and forceful
must needs
midst of
hang
too
me
cometh morn or eve or some
take in
some man shall
when
noon-day
2
He thinks
of
melted
they weep together the old and the
his son, the other for his father's
Homer portrays the final grief of war.
young,
grief of
him
within
aged
father in his
battle."
halls, his heart is
the
his
time
own
and
the one for
Even
they
Homer's
as
immortal
their
chosen
against
a
by its
swayed
rescue some
side,
mortals,
the
to their
again
Homer's
impending death,
to take
finally
and
gods
even
part
in the
to fight
to fight for the
most miserable of
and war and
war.8
ate of
bully,
was
battles.5
Athena
hailed as the
Cypris, however,
penser of war
now
stir
against each
up
fight
other,
sake of pitiful mor
Then they
creatures.4
to
war and
withdrew
He
was
was
the stormer of cities, insati
driver
of
protectress of
the
spoil
the city
for the Greeks
by the
Trojans.7
was a coward goddess and not one of
to men,
1
II. xxiv, 477-9, 503-6-
3
II. xxiv,
of
the
warriors.8
Zeus,
ruled over all and swayed
*n-
xxi, 1 10-2.
4
II. xi, 3-14; xxi, 462-7; ii, 451-4; v, 23, 24, 732; xiii,
II. v, 889-91 ; xi, 3-14;
73-74-
269.
vi,297.
87/.v,
330-3.
125-135.
those
the dis
the
507-12.
6
T7/.
the war;
Discord kept up the war. Ares,
unpopular because he loved strife
that have mastery in battle
'II. vi,
The
gods.
upon
quiet seats while
the braggart
and was
so were
passions, and interfered now to
favorite from
foolish thing for
tals,
heroes,
looked down from Olympus
gods
were
So
sake.8
battle
[424
HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE
30
of
spear
faint-hearted.
"
Ever is the
men, for he driveth
wit of
It
another.
way and now
Ajax and the bow
now one
of
was
Teucer
men
taketh away the victory and then
fight."
l
Apollo killed Patroclus
his
tor to
gods and
Above
tiny
death.2
from
on
Truly
"
high they
valiant.
or
death
iously
than the
and
rouseth
easily
men
to
on
the knees
of
the
a
victory."
of
descries Des
vision
escape, be he coward or be
will accept its decree of life
or
did Hector
heart
Hector
Athena betrayed Hec
lie
the poet's
may gainsay
The hero warrior
aside.4
stronger
the threads
without question and meet
as
turn it
guide
gods and men alike
whom none
he
and
broke the
made
in flight
again
the issues
who
and
Zeus
wit of
valiant
he
and
In the
"
it
for
Achilles,
fearlessly
and glor
not even
Zeus may
contemplation of such a power
What
the
thing is man after all,
the most miserable of all creeping things, born unto pain,
living like leaves in glowing life consuming the fruit of the
poet's
sinks.
a pitiable
death."
earth, then sinking
unto
is but
"
one avail.
One
omen
5
is
In the last
best,
analysis
to fight for
there
native
land." 6
But life is
not all
interest
war,
even
in heroic times.
The theme
Iliad is war, yet there appear
peaceful
scenes.
As well as the Charme of battle the
many
poet knows the happiness of peace.
On the shield of Achil
and
central
les beside the city
1Il. xvi,
1 19-21;
the
at war
with marriages and
ways and men
of
there is another
dances,
contending in the
xv, 462, 3; xvi,
2
II. xvi, 787-793 ; xxii, 214
3
II. vii, 99; xvii,
514-5.
5
II. xxvii, 446-7; xxiv, 520-6.
1
II. xii,
365-6.
peace,
happy
standing in the door
market
656, 688-90.
et seq.
*Il. vi, 486-9; xi, 329-332; xxii,
243.
women
at
freshplace; the
THE EPIC AGE
425]
field,
plowed
herd
and
demesne land
rich
teeming plenteously
with
kine beside the murmuring river,
folds.1
thatched huts and
In the
in the dream
of
love
rather
and
than
of
fight is going
strife
a
of
Menelaus in the
doughty
and
hateful
of
sleep
him.8
against
men,
while
the
rejoiced
in
Even
contest.2
battle may wish for his
song and dance delectable
only
must
be remarked,
Homer
a
when
man who always
the
loves
the most
considers
tribeless, lawless, homeless
strife.4
store of
and of nature
from the
The
fighting,
and
civil
sheep
midst of
war, but only, it
loves bitter
and white
settlement, the host
relief
and of sweet
wars
From the
clusters, the
strife when champions appeared and
were prospects of
silence
man
the
midst of
in reaping
king
a
of
of
there
fill
the
the vineyard
time,
31
his knowledge
of peaceful conditions
5
drew many of those similes
artistic his scenes of battle, the
poet
make so vivid and so
which
winds
fleet waves, the birds, the leaves and the
flowers in their season, the flies hovering about the herds
and the
man's
clouds, the
pails, the
wide-browed
barley.
When in the
battle he
sought
to
mark
from the battle to the
the
of
meal.6
bulls
yoked
to tread
white
thrilling description of
the noon-day hour, his mind turned
midst
of
a
the
picture of
woodsman
in the dells
resting and making ready his mid-day
The startling transition presents such a contrast of
mountain
colors as
daring master may
only the
attempt,
and
the
more
successful therefore.
In the
1Il. xviii,
Odyssey,
on
the
8
467-608.
It
must
be
noted
Homer
used.
is
travel
1 1 1-2.
that many of the similes may
tional material which
*Il. xi, 84-90.
7/. iii,
the theme
47/. ix, 63-4; i,
s7/. xiii, 636-9.
0
hand,
other
176-7.
belong
to the tradi
[426
HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE
oo
War
and adventure.
leading
war
the lines of the
over
in the
could
a
broods
is over, yet its spirit
It is an ever present memory
The
the time were those
great men of
in the war,
while
Agamemnon's fame
The
most welcome news
greatest under
Odysseus
longer play
still
heaven.1
the
was
part
no
glorification
poem.
minds of men.
had taken
who
that
The
role.
its
and
to the
bring
Achilles
shade of
that
was
Neoptolemus, his son, had distinguished himself in feats of
Odysseus, too, was by no means a peaceful man.
arms.2
Athena
deeds
him that he
chided
war were
of
ever
too ready to
was
in his
heart.3
especially in the boast
in Ithaca in disguise :
pride appears
arrived
of
fight,
for the
The strong man's
Odysseus when he
But then verily did Ares and Athena give me boldness and
to hurl through the press of men, whensoever I chose
courage
the best
warriors at an
my foes.
No fear
of
ambush, sowing the
death
was ever
in my
for
seeds of evil
lordly heart,
but I
leap out on the foremost and slay with the spear whoso
foes
was less fleet of foot than I.
Such an one was I in
my
war, but the labor of the field I loved not, nor homekeeping
would
of
thrift that breeds brave children, but galleys and
ished
shafts and
darts,
baneful things
wars and pol
whereat others used
to
shudder.4
Thus boasted
circle round
as well as
ingly
safe
of
1
the
him
the
sacrifice
glory.
But
of
his
while
men remembered
the
ix,
with
him
in the
wide
land
Od. xi, 513-37.
264.
Od.
iii,
103 ;
iv,
97-99-
and
pain
would will
Troy.5
Od.
the
have
riches to
men who perished of old
*0d. xii, 1 16-7.
*0d. xix, 216-226, trans, by Butcher
5
the wars
Nestor declared that he
two-thirds
those brave
home from
warrior
marveled.
Lang (London,
1917).
THE EPIC AGE
427]
33
The society of the Odyssey shows the warlike state of
Princes wore their swords. Spears were carried
into the assembly and to the dining-hall, where they were
the times.
So familiar
stacked.
great
hall
)(ln
dreamy
troubled
home
at
picture of
and
those
the
of
furnishings
of the
comment.1
to the tumult and the shouting, the
contrast
Greeks in
the
of
wanderings and sad
the strife
his
feature
a
that their absence occasioned
the suffering
and
glory
they
were
home-comings
the memories
of
the war,
of the
the
warriors,
war, Homer drew
ideal people, the Phaeacians.
Far from
strife and
contention, they enjoyed eternal peace and pros
for
none should ever be able to
perity,
bring war against
them.2
rather
Masts
than the accoutrements
them
regard
by
strife
boxing
and the
best
of
and the
harp
and
contrast
the old
of the
8
seamen,
nor
the
tradition,
and
dear to
in her sunny
Od.
Od. vi,
*
Od. viii,
i,
99;
ii,
northern
religion
this: the gods
1
the
joys
are
10; xix, 5
et
prayer.
more
brutal
148 et seq., 246 et seq.
parts of
realization
peace, those
well as
background
the
almost
glorious
in her stormy
Some
of
the
The
poet.
the
certainly
and dwell
heavens
seq., xxii, 74.
201 et seq.
of
love
marked
of a people at peace?
seems
of
as
and
ideal it is in
in Hector's
of war and the
may be due to the
1
is the banquet
us ever
poet's
rejections of
moods, and this ideal dream
of
runners
these peaceful sentiments, this
similes of nature
of
For
wrestlers, but speedy
was
the dance and changes of raiment
expressed
came
horrors
treatment
not
excluded.
wrestling
If this be the
to that
Whence
did
inglorious,
"
and
boxers
we are no perfect
sleep."
attention
poet
but worthy
The highest honor among them was to be
hand and foot in the games from which
of
and
their
Yet the
of war.
as coward weaklings or
of all praise.
achieved
the
and oars and ships engaged
result
on
the
happy
mountain-tops,
Destiny
all
tection
the
of
The
bow.
must
fill
spirits
pro
with
connected
ceremonies
the
suppliant,
the
hospitality,
of
before
and
nature,
all
rites
[428
OF PEACE
CONCEPTIONS
HELLENIC
34
peoples.1
burial
arts
doubtless,
in
the
are
interpreting
His
in this.
the finest
sentiments
immortality
hold
pictures
the
thoroughly human; they
and they penetrate to the depths
his
own
age, the
wanderings
in
whose
life
of so
were
fine
the
courts
a
days
the more stirring
of
the
sang
because
of
human
the
heroes
were
days
old with
of
still
pray for the warrior's glory and
lived in no millennium of peace.
to
the
old
seek
strife
and
let
Ithaca
at
"
peace
and
sides
wealth
love
ended
songs
them to
men were no
over, Athena
was
So may both
on
it, for they
they had been. Those noble days were past.
days had come and the poet saw peace at hand.
the
con
looked back
as
blessing.
settled
Such
and caused
often
But
over, the
aristocrats
and perfection
longing,
fire in their breasts
roused the martial
were
joy
As to
sorrow.
The
so
are
human
approaching
Men
The
source
they
of
summit
advantages of peace.
literature.2
them,
himself
poet
own age.
for the development
essential
flower
of
his
of
most part ceased.
poets
learning
and were
ditions
great
had for the
the
the
of
Homer find their
men
all
reach
Most
and
of
and
nature
art.
genius of
of
tradition
ancient
in Minoan
the
northern
of
appreciation
work of
the
greatness and
to the
belong
evident
so
peace
of
of
characteristic
all
are
Other features may
reflect the love and
the
it
longer
Newer
When
her
with'
one another as of old
abundant
be their
*
portio
Thus may the apparent contradiction between Hector
the Phaeacians be accounted for.4
and
1
C/. Schrader, Die Indogermanen (Leipzig, 1911), passim.
2Croiset, Histoire de la litterature grecque (Paris, 1887), vol. i,
9
Od. xxiv,
*
This
appears
to the writer
so-called expurgations
Murray,
op.
p.
86.
485.
cit., ch.
v.
as a more
than that
of
satisfactory
explanation of the
ascribing them to later periods
cf.
THE EPIC AGE
429]
The
those things
Epic
the
poets of
influence
the
of
Cycle,
^Egean
but few fragments.
are
probably
directly under
more
in their
preserved
survivals,
Homer deleted.
which
35
Of these
epics
there
poems
In Alexandrian times they were cut
Iliad and the Odyssey to form
and arranged around the
up
Of this,
a complete story.
later writer, Proclus, wrote an
have survived along with a
a
epitome of which some parts
few
snatches of the poems
dramatists
the aid of the
jects in
the poems,
ideas
the
The
too
had
migrations
many
people on
Trojan
war.
who was made
Athens
of
the
Epic
convinced
the
weary
Trojans.2
ened
doe,
gain some conception of
these
that there
men
they
by
the burden
The
on
a
sacrifice of
of men
the war,
large
wandering over
Helen as his
with
number of
Iphigeneia
Achaeans
Aulis,
at
weak
in the later telling by the story of the substitution of a
the sacrifice of Polyxena before the return home, the
wounding of Philoctetes,
Achilles from blood-guilt after the
appearance of
instances
the
of
death
of
Priam
at
Andromache,
hurled from
ghost of
the
Minoan influence.
of
were
conceived a curious
Odysseus'
curious
are
by
sub
Cycle.1
earth and
her bosom, Zeus had brought
tool, and thus had removed
and
to
possible
and
found their
who
Malthusian theory as an explanation for
In answer to the appeal of Mother Earth,
the
prototype of
the
it is
of the poets of
With these
themselves.
poets presented
the fall
the
Achilles to
survival of earlier
The
and
purification of
the
of
Troy,
murder of
the
Thersites,
murder of
the
tales
in
the
Agamemnon,
warn
which suggest
bloody
mournful
Astyanax
detail the
captivity
when
he
"
heartless
was
Fool
comment,
tower,
3
ish is he who, slaying the father, spareth the
Of the Theban epics with their tale of the ill-fated family
with
Lawton, Successors
*
Ibid.,
Andrew
ton,
of Homer
(London,
1898).
p. 16.
Lang, World
op. cit., pp.
ift
32.
of Homer
(London,
1910),
chs.
Lawxv, xviii;
HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE
36
of
Oedipus
long list
its
and
contains the curse which
battle
strife and
but
pictures
set
As Homer
of
the
and which was
sons,
voice of
conditions
in higher
and
with
their
peaceful
of
and
the wars in
humanity
which
Homer.
martial
longings, Hesiod is
With the
the
The
care of
to
settled
farmer
might
return
the
his
of
security to
buildings,
thin, life
soil was
calendar was no
and
and
the
time for
desires of the rulers and the
disputes involved him.
As his
the martial
boundary
ever-present
of
These
the representatives
hard ; in the farmer's
were
them.1
between
circumstances
his land
his two
upon
their later woes, that
are
common man.
for the future.
might plan
the
relief
down
called
cause of all
once again with some amount
the cultivation
fates
Oedipus
his fellow bards
and
the
himself
turn
horrible crimes, little is known
One fragment which survives
should ever continue
the princely courts
the
of
later treatment.
through
save
[430
spokesman, Hesiod protested against that strife which ex
in evil and multiplied wars and contentions through
ulted
the
will of
the
immortal
In
ness of man.
been
olden
Golden Age
a
lands
their
with
gods.2
days,
when men
all
good
brought the beginnings
of
The fault
so
the
lived in
peace and quiet on
and
the Bronze Age had
created a race of warlike men terrible
and
delight
The
was
race
stroyed
after
before
or
3
strong whose
in insolence.
and
heroes had
war and
followed, but they had been de
battle before Thebes and Troy, and
come
the culmination
was wrong.
op. cit., pp. 9 et seq.
Hesiod, Erga,
ed.fczach
et seq.
Ibid.,
dolorous Ares
of evil in the rulers
He bewails the fact that he had not died
been born after the race of Iron.3 In that
race he
that
Lawton,
2
14
by
works of
own age.
saw all
1
of
them had
his
of
in the
wicked
sang, there had
The Silver Age had
things.
evil,
lay in the
poet
109
et seq.
(Leipzig, 1908),
trans. Mair
(Oxford,
'
1908)
*""'>
THE EPIC AGE
431]
Might
shall
be
37
Neither
right and one shall sack the other's city.
there be any respect of the oath-abiding or of the just or
the good. Rather shall they ever honor the doer of evil and
shall
of
the
insolence. Right
be no
man of
lie in the
might of
causes of war and of woe.
But he
Reverence
shall
These
the
the
flourish
cities
is
hand
at
war
are
which
solution,
for
shall
is justice.
Where that is
Peace,
and people prosper.
and
them.2
hand
and
more.1
points
to
practised
nurse of
children,
keeps famine away, and Zeus never decrees
But where the spirit of contention prevails
there follow
and Oblivion and tearful Griefs and Wars and
Murders and Manslayings and Quarrels and false
Speeches and Disputes and Lawlessness and Ruin, of one char
painful
Battles
Toil
and
acter one with another and which most afflicteth men on earth
when
any
of
Of like
his
falsely.8
will sweareth
character are
the gods
Hesiod
whom
represents
watching
rejoicing in war ; Athena Tritogeneia,
driver of the spoils, a dread goddess, wakener of battles
and leader of the host, the unwearied one whose pleasure is
over and
as
battle ; Ares, insatiate of war, sacker of
shields, with his children, Rout and Fear,
in din
and war and
cities,
piercer of
who
them
drive in
he
confusion
sings
the
those
of
of
state
in
always
which
companions
they
1
Hesiod, Erga, 189
8
Id., Theog.
*
Ibid.,
901 et
each
contrast to
of bright
Zeus,
Eunomia, law, Dike,
and
Themis, who is justice personified,
justice, and Eirene, peace, who care for
tal men,
In
ranks of men.
children
the
works of mor
other.4
of
Happy
dwell !
2
et seq.
Ibid..
225.
226.
seq., 924
et
seq., 933
et seq.
;
Erga,
225
et seq.
the
CHAPTER II
The Early Period
The
in
great
basis
of all
and
the many
caused
concentration
the
ical
Since
and religious.
and
all
The necessity for
social
and
the
of
union
transferred all the old
thought and action
city-state.
political
tribal days into the larger
were
City-State
Hellenic life,
the classic period was the
defense
of the
advantages
small
better fortified
institutions
in the tribe
of
villages
of
of
To it
city.
the tribe
polit
the
were a part of
they lived in the city or in the sur
while
all political life centered in the
rounding country,
city, the city and the state became synonymous. The tribal
organization whether
deity became the founder and protector of the city. Tribal
feeling was transformed into local patriotism, which rested
on loyalty to local divinities, a great sanctification of terri
tory
and withal a
The
clusiveness.
how small, to
others became
ical life.
strong
sacred right of
rule
itself
and
to
the fundamental
It formed the
independence
attitude of
no matter
any city-state,
keep
itself
apart
principle of all
greatest obstacle
from
Greek
to any
ex-
and
all
polit
attempt at
union.1
Nature
made
the Greeks
communication
union.
were accentuated.
ences
by
land difficult
and
kept
in their little valleys, and aided in this dis
Diversities of dialect surviving from tribal days
apart
in time
Local
variations
and ritual of religious
lCf. Zimmern, Greek Commonwealth
38
in the calendar, differ
festivals,
(Oxford,
separate
I9i5),2nd ed.,
pp.
[432
sys-
64,5.
THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE CITY-STATE
433]
terns
of coinage and weights and
producing distinctions
inevitably followed,
which
domination,
without
the
the
Nature furnished
Greeks
life
the
of
another cause
whence
them
food
in
was
munities.
possession
might
of
be
for
union
were
action,
on
its
it
war when
refused
Even in the days
food.
the very
commerce
widespread
depended
the
control of
valleys
That city which controlled
to dominate all the neighboring com
secured.
a position
Most early wars, therefore, were fought for the
of territory.
After the development of com
the desire for the
merce
other
city-state
lasting
of
of
dissensions.
sufficient supplies of
the development
after
of
quarrels
the fear
and
freedom
of precious
prolific causes of wars and
to the
impossibility
apparent
sacrifice
The
distrust.
the desire for
fertile in
were
measures,
and mutual
39
control of
trade-routes
added an
disputes.1
basis for
The city-state, however, was productive of most that was
best in Hellenic civilization. Concentration within narrow
limits
wrought a greater
consciousness of political
to
to glorify the
secure
led to
The
the
for it
be
preferable
statesman
of
finest
beautify
those
the city
and
arts of peace and of war
works of
The happiest
after a
children
higher
The de
Hellenic
genius.
native
was
city
far
whom
the
Death for the polis
he who,
his
a
caused
man
comfortable
develop, died in
life in
battle for
homeland.2
Certain
1
was
seen
life,
in turn
Greek's devotion to his
the
to banishment.
knew
gods, to
in the
the
overestimated.
Which he had
his
leadership
of political
which
art of government.
its
state and
production of
intensity
cannot
feeling,
in the
manifold experiments
sire
intensity
Zimmern,
elements of concord existed
op.
'Herodotus,
Rawlinson, G.,
cit.,
2
mitigate
the
evils
ch. v.
Stein, H., 2 vols. (Berlin,
vols. (New York, 1910), i, 30.
ed.
to
1869-71), translated
by
strife, the
of continuous
Apollo
and of
had been the
invite
custom
Some
of numerous
important
longed the tribes
Apollo
at
Delphi,
Out
the
of
festival
The
of
local
games at
tilities
Greece
Heralds
were
laid aside;
were
the tribes
to
Delphic,
Among
be
which
and which controlled
Thermopylae
at
on
Olympia
there
came
a religious
proclaimed
the
to the
to
of
Delos.2
the
duty
season
the
Ionians,
of
great
Hellenes took
which all
embassies
island
the
and
the
composed of
Apollo
festival truce became
cities.
they
amphictyonies.
the
Delian,
the
shrine of
sanctity that
tribe, but of
had been the formation
called
Olympian Zeus in
earlier
Hellenic
and
the
which met at
to
important local fes
all
Anthela
of
It
footing.
result
were
of central
Demeter
of
Zeus
shrines of
send sacred embassies
more
one
any
The
organizations
them the most
shrines
not of
around them.
dwelling
in
part
exclusive,
and
met on a common
shrines were of such
in the possession,
jealous
At the
all.
for tribes to
to take
neighbors
tivals.1
Hellenes
all
were
to
great gods were accessible
of which was re
important
most
Though local divinities
ligion.
the
[434
PEACE
HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF
40
part.
for
all
all
; hos
games might pass
hostile territory in perfect safety under the protec
the god.
The greatest disgrace, exclusion from the
through
tion
of
games,
against
every
was visited as a punishment upon
the truce.
state.
monized,
ing
them
ment.3
and
Views
were
met
any
the
were
set
Matters
with
his
of
up in the
shrine
interest to
Following
all
to
leading
the
were set
men
were
tables
of
har
record
ensure their
Greeks
close on
Booths
wares.
who offended
exchanged, differences
agreements were consummated and
discussed.
trader
At Olympia
fulfil
were announced
diplomat
up
came the
and goods
1Grote, History of Greece (Boston, 1851), vol. ii, pp. 243 et seq.
2Botsford, "Amphictyony in Encycl. Brit, xi. ed. (1910).
'Von Scala, Staatsvertrdge des Altertums (Leipzig, 1898), p.
Collitz, Sammlung der Dialektinschriften (Berlin, 1884-1911), 1150.
ex-
"
24.
THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE CITY-STATE
435]
The foundations for direct
changed.
here in the
creation of
did this
part
came
to be
dating
Argos,
demand for
commerce were
So
products.
festival play in Greek life that it
in later days as the foundation for the
used
interest.1
legendary Pheidon,
The early
in it
saw
an
secure
domination
over
it.
The rising
king
of
opportunity for
the unification of Greece under his influence and
to
laid
vital a
quadrennial
of events of general
the
41
endeavored
Sparta
power of
drove him back, and never again was any man so presump
Though Sparta had aspirations of the same sort,
tuous.2
the little
Elis
state of
its
guarded
prerogatives so
and
fostered the
public opinion of
that
Sparta itself
was not able
violated
Of
than
the sacred
local importance
council
the
of
new
a
Greek
the
were adapted
member of
of
states,
for
and
though
settlement
was
ical matters, but in
absolutely to
1
2
was
bring
All
zealously
became
of
when
it
of more
the important
Old
tribal rules of
be
All
were
cut off
from running
who
no attempt
to
prevent war
among the
to the
for
zealously
any
ed.
Blass
polit
the religious character of the
preserved
and
it failed
political union.
pp. 236 et seq.
et seq.
49.
Aeschines, Orationes,
council
arbitra
occasionally brought to bear in
about
water
laws.4
these
violated
was no general agreement
general
of
No
thereby laid.
members pledged themelves to
those
most
the
warfare
the foundations
Holm, History of Greece (London, 1894), vol. i,
Beloch, Griechische Geschichtc, vol. i, 1, pp. 332
'Thucydides v,
*
alone
cases were often referred
there
Influence
organization
might
upon
There was, however,
tion.
Delphic
influence.
interstate law
ground.
war
carefully
the penalty
escape
new conditions and
the league
sacred
so
mainland secured representation on
to the
or razed to the
wage
and
amphictyony.
science
Greeks
truce.8
the amphictyonies, the
states of
to
the
(Leipzig, 1908), ii,
115.
[436
HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE
42
beyond the
The oracle, however, spread its influence far
the influ
under
dwellers around and, except when it fell
preserved its reputa
ence of some powerful state or party,
It
tion for impartiality.
Lydia
of
Greek,
Phrygia
and of
to
and
brought to the
each
it
by
as well as sought
its
gave
kings
humblest
the
Disputes
answer.
were
settlement and wars were averted or
for
god
the wealthy
by
was courted
delayed
hos
ended.
Unfavorable
tilities.
Its disfavor
its
in the ending of interstate anarchy among the.
Its position was rather one of influence than of
part
Greeks.
utterances
or prevented
In these
feared.
was
it
ways
played
power.1
The
furthered
by
To
festivals.
it
to make
the
traffic.
possible
for
combined
effect
with
many
of
for the trader
to
the
the
citizen
the
The
walls
in the
the
gods
noble
of
at all seasons of
hung
of
in the
trade
and
of
interstate
city-state
industry
life,
to
re
which
Pri
relations.
Criminal justice in the hands
of
took the place of the old-time feud.
secured protection
no
of
conditions
field
an end.
magistrate and
ness.
and
as well and aided
organization
the development
vate war came
the
the festivals
of
the
of
Nemean
together.2
political
flected themselves in
The
and
was
built along the main lines of
in purpose, they formed good
religious
changes
state under
in honor
Isthmian
to travel
embassies
the mainland
growth
games
the
games
roads were
Though
binding
The
of
Olympic
the prosperity
advance
routes of communication
in
the
which were added
sacred
year
by
development
the
Pythian god, to
begun
union
of
work
longer
his
his armory,
for life
and
went armed
property from
about his busi
swords and spears and shields on
whence
he took them only
at
the
1
Botsford, op. cit.
2Curtius, History of Greece,
5
vols.
(New
York, 1907),
vol.
ii,
p. 42.
THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE CITY-STATE
437]
behest
had
so
that the
developed
Mining
be the glory
of
the man to
in the
the armies
to Egypt
Interstate
Oriental
the
of
organized
city-state
make and
and
shifting tribes
keep
of earlier
Samos,
took the
these
practised
when
to be
ceased
place
the
place of
the
raiding
more
sudden raid of
a sin
to injure them
The importance
the
growth of
of
the
the
war
always
1
-
according to
Beloch,
Ibid.,
op. cit.,
pp. 315
i,
1,
et seq.
and
piracy,
to
laws
by
regulate
local
resulted
in
a
ob
heralds took the
Heralds
were
of
the
defence,
type
316 et seq.
it
barbarians.2
of
state
led to
this
rather
and
battle fought
well-established practices.
seq.,
appli
all
which
of
the
of the gods and
if they
for their
Corinth
the JEgean
rid
the time of Achilles.
even
pp. 281 et
Greece
Polycrates
by
rules were of
general
of
the
of
profession.
fields to the life
phalanx
unwieldy formation
as
scale
and
well-
occupation of
and custom combined
were
in
foreign
a
mainland
and envoys were under the protection
was
The
execute
by
honorable
Minos
Formal declaration
served.
large
The Delphic
character of war.
cation, but there
an
live
men
a
ancient
of
Religion
pests.
on
enlist
than had been the
With the
days.
country migratory
had ceased. No longer did
to
able
agreements
movements on
of
new colo
to Babylonia to
kings.1
better
was
to
of
found plenty
the
relations entered upon a new epoch.
policy, to
except
adventurer
still unsettled regions of
while men went
nies,
duty
the individual leader called
state and not
The individualist
war.
of excitement
then ceased to
the upper classes and became the
The
citizen.
The newly
important in battle than
war.
Fighting
caparisoned nobles.
warfare
cheapened armor
fit himself for
to be more
phalanx came
character of
had
industry
and
commoner could
magnificently
every
The very
of state or party.
changed.
43
The battle
[438
PEACE
HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF
44
over, it
was
the
for the
custom
which
side
had held the
of
captured
field successfully to erect a trophy composed
Religion then enjoined a truce for the burial
arms.
The life
dead.
of
the
enemy
wounded
the fallen foe
over
unseemly in
ransom at regular
the
and
barbarian
a
of
mutilation
and
the
Jubilation
rates.1
held for
oners were
of
was spared and pris
his
were
corpse
forbidden to
absolutely
a
Greek.2
The formal declaration
war
of
brought to
period when a natural state of war existed and
to a formal
treaties
earliest
take
treaties
tablets
that the
provided
but
factors
tionship
as
tageous.
nobles
ful
for
a
were also made
were
tending
to
Olympic
the
Ionian
definite term
to
cities
'Herodotus vi,
in
3
ii,
von
altars.8
of years only.
the
states
into
Many
such close rela
league.
The
of
The threat
close
touch
of
compulsion of a power
defense,
and
the
in the Boeotian
Lydia
and of
with each other.
rewards
and
Pelo-
Persia kept
Small
states
79.
Herodotus ix, 79;
of the lyric poets are
vol.
that any
from the
consummate alliances.
to the necessity
leagues.
of oaths and
formal treaty necessary and advan
of interests bound the Thessalian
Community
a
authorities should
excluded
of successful aggression resulted
ponnesian
of
The
were not regarded as permanent
bring
to
make a
together into
state added
be
should
were made
Treaties
drawing-up
and set
the transgression
the
treaty
Such agreements, however,
affairs
in the
up in the shrines
thus became their guarantors. One of the
cognizance of
violator of
peace
religion played a great part.
were engraved on
the gods, who
of
for
arrangement
In these, too,
treaties.
the
end
an
led naturally
Archilochus, fr.
made
64.
according to
3d ed.
(Leipzig,
1914),
Scala,
op. cit., p.
24;
vol.
Collitz,
iii,
2nd ed.
1150.
References
to
fragments
Bergk, Poetae Lyrici Graeci
(1882).
THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE CITY-STATE
439]
frequently
made
mutual aid with
A strong force in
in
districts,
the
veloped
daring
bringing the
cities,
of civil strife
overabundance of
find
which could
exigencies of trade and
far
shores of
peoples,
the
The
itself,
peace and
democrats
other cities
for
binding
force
point under
to the
of
alike
seized the
selves
by
citadel
armed
dangerous.
this
or
react on
states was
Civil
unification.
wars, nevertheless
friendship.
strife
aided
Aristocrats,
men of
their
the
oli
own class
sympathy
they found
home. Cities tended to com
when
their
compelled
the hazards
of
its highest
powerful
demagogues
Unless necessity dictated
The
governments.
reached
unscrupulous
force,
to
ties between
but
help
sympathy
To these men,
were
and
whole.2
as a
class
and
the
The mingling of
combined in the settle
looked to
at
finally,
Hellenes to the
Mediterranean
could not
character of
the tyrants.
wealthy traders
and,
the
support and
themselves in difficulties
bine according
adventurous
life in the individual
bloody
body
highly de
sea.
states
strengthening influence in
garchs and
in
the
found
was
in the
close social and religious
though it caused
interstate
and
agricultural
more
home,
Euxine
frequently many
colony, the
growth of political
cause of
the
and
energy
carried
western end of
the colony and the mother city,
the relations among the Greeks
another
together
in the
no outlet at
industry
recesses of the
since
ment of a
states
Over-population in
presence of unwelcome elements
the result
the hidden
friendship
neighbors.1
renewed expansion.
politic as
for peace,
agreements
their
45
to
maintain
war
or
nobles,
who
might
the
prize
had
them
prove
war-
Phillipson, The International Law and Custom of Ancient Greece
Rome (London, 191 1), vol. ii, p. 54; cf. Hicks and Hill, Manual of
Greek Historical Inscriptions (Oxford, 1901), no. 9Phillipson, op. cit., vol. ii, pp. 115 et seq.; Curtius, op. cit., vol. i.
1
and
pp. 491 et seq.
their
ranted or
positions were
tended to avoid
the
position of
of other
to
[440
HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE
46
their
The
cultural
Prominent
other means.
to the brilliance
horizon
better
and
of
their
with resul
their courts,
of
men
invited
artists and philosophers, were
interchange
commercial
their own influence and
advance
by
cities
states, poets,
come and add
tant
to
war and
the tyrants
sufficiently secure,
mutual understanding.
cities was widened
by wise
the
In advancing their own power they
Thus Periander of Corinth developed
other states as well.
acted as arbiter in
He
Isthmian games.
affected
measures.
frequently
the
disputes between warring
brought his state into close
Cleisthenes
states.
relation with others
in the first Sacred War
leading part
Sicyon
of
by taking
a
a mar
by securing
family of Athens. Similar
feeling of dependence among the
and
riage alliance with a powerful
ity
of position produced a
They
tyrants themselves.
changed
ideas
between their
The
in the
the tyrants
cause of
of the gods, the stories of early
heroes furnished to the Greeks that basis
the
war represented a national
effort of
any
thrill of
pride
one
city,
that was
poems were so
don
of
The
It
in its
was
these
Argos to his
Hellenic,
men
1
cit.,
vol.
great
into
his
a nation.
not
the
Already
all
these
localities
it in their
which
inspired
un
own
Phei-
attempt.
Beloch, op. cit., vol. i, 1,
things given in Herodotus.
op.
in
used and employed
tales, possibly,
and
the Greek felt a
local.
not
poems were used as evidence
Beloch,
wars
movement,
glories
widely known that
derstood the language
writings.2
and
The
of common
spirit of which alone makes a people
The Trojan
ex
Panhel-
the epic tradition.
of
legends
tory,
forth,
cities.1
in their treatment
was
and
and methods and established a sort of entente
greatest work of
lenism
back
sent envoys
i,
p. 356.
1, pp. 309
There
et seq.
for the
are
many
settlement of
instances
of
these
44 1 ]
THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE CITY-STATE
disputes
*
logue
and all
of ships
that the
noble
Greek
Still it
in the
was
sang the lays.
rhapsodist
their endeavor to break down the
festivals
and at
them
the
re
were
The tyrants in
of the
prestige
the
made
cata
court of
They
garded as the possession of the aristocracy.
created new
in the
states sought a place
in the Iliad.
47
epics
nobles
the heri
of every man.
Tradition ascribes to Peisistratus of
Athens the writing down of the poems that all might have
tage
a correct
version.2
Language
ently knew
came
no
guage
or
which
only Greeks
dent
to form
an added
bond.
difference between Greek
The
religion.
were
growth
of
admitted,
Homer
and
appar
Trojan in lan
oracle, of festival to
and of
mart,
made evi
community of language. In this the epic played a
leading part. Hesiod and Archilochus were the first to
a
Greeks.3
However, it was
apply the term Hellenes to all
when the Greek came into contact with the outside world,
with people whom
therefore
his
applied
kinship
however,
he
the
with all
could not understand and
name
barbaros,
the Greeks.
that there
is
On
Phrygians
same
rules of
relations
Greeks
The
and
'
evident
that
Lydians
and
courted, and that the
the gods on the
by
barbarians
and
important
and ever-present
after religion was
as
among the
L'
impulse to
to be found in
Arbitrage international
ches
peace
commerce.
les Hellenes
Its
(New
York,
ii.
p. 373.
19-
2Busolt, Griechische Geschichte (2nd
5
be remembered,
must
were enforced
between Greeks
most
Raeder,
p.
he
keenly
for ascribing to this
later philosophers for bar
and
respected
warfare
whom
most
themselves.4
unity
1912),
both
by
it is
the contrary,
were
It
to
no evidence
period the contempt expressed
barians.
that he felt
Hesiod, Erga 653 ; Archilochus,
?Herodotus vi, 48; vii,
136.
ed.,
f r. 52.
Gotha,
1895),
vol.
interests
in
in the festivals ; it
were served
in the
the cause and
ties,
those of
part
in the development
also
the cause of
that a
quarrel
Eretria,
over a
most of
the
mythical
were
Greek
a
held
family
of
trading
states of
the
duty
the
closest
the greatest
states
was
for the
inter
commercial
Chalcis
cities,
and
Euboea, involved
that day in the semiof
compelled a partial abandonment of
of
custom of
consulship.
of such men
in the treat
markets.
the situation, the old
To satisfy
time-
and
guest-friendship was developed
States secured guest-friends,
proxenoi, from among the prominent
was
rival
by
the island
the foreign trader in the city
form
by
played
which religion enjoined
the religious exigencies
into
it
war.1
the rigid exclusiveness
honored
together
between
the cities
plain on
prominent
Lelantine
added
trade and of the markets them
between two
little
Commercial necessity
ment of
wars
of
factor
it
interstate relations; but it
of
bitter
So closely
selves.
states
self-interest;
the highways
control of
ests
mutual
was a vital
many colonies;
of
success
to the tyrant's zeal; it bound
It
[442
HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE
48
to look
citizens of other states.
after
the
interests
of
the
they befriended, to take care of its citizens when they
arrived, to see that they were justly treated, to represent
state
them in the
courts
their business.
and
to aid them in the transaction
of
Save in Sparta, where strangers were un
frequently invited by the ephors to de
welcome and were
part,
was
accordingly the appointment of proxenoi
kept in the hands of local authorities, the state to be
and where
represented chose
stowed
became
its
hereditary
prized possessions of
established
own guest-friend.
and
institution in the
of
1
treaties.
Busolt,
of
century, the
the
It
one
the
Proxenia became
sixth
right of a citizen and a part of
the enforcement
usually
the family.
The right thus be
a
most
well-
recognized
machinery used to secure
created in the state a
party
op. cit., vol.
i,
p. 456.
THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE CITY-STATE
443]
favorable to the foreign state,
deterrent to
The
war and an aid
existence
of
a
to
difficult for
was
large
number
in
other
The
war.
to
one state
disputes.2
cause of
as
their
consequent
Champions
in the Hellenic
length
Thyreatis
strife
three
when
Spartans.3
number of
followed
was
to defend
chosen
shedding
and
Sparta
of
blood,
over
the
tale of
which
another
and
the
a curious
was settled
two
case of
dogs.4
by
a
battle between the
equal
a
fight be
This
method
Thyreatic
the
to
the
Herodotus tells
Indeed, in
by
struggles and
an
in the Chersonesus
not avail.
world.
over an
hundred Argives fought
tween two men, two horses
did
were
the
of
between Argos
war
decision
use of other means
cities and prevent useless
in the famous
as a
evenly-balanced
of
secure a
the uncertainty of success led to the
settle
frequently
which acted
alliances.1
states produced a sort of equilibrium
It
49
war
armies of
it
the
Recourse was therefore had to arbitra
opposing states.
tion. Later Greeks ascribed the origin of this institution to
The earliest cases reported among men are
The first historical case was in a quarrel
legendary.
purely
Andros over the village of Acanthus
Chalcis
and
between
in the Chalcidice, which was settled in favor of Andros by
the
the
gods.
Samians, Parians,
the
cided
question
possession of
disastrous
over
1
'
war
the
had failed to
the
control of
Phillipson,
Raeder,
i,
pp.
147
op. cit, p. 145-
v, 1.
'Raeder,
'Ibid.,
op.
pp.
17,
cit,
pp.
etseq.
Athens
accomplish a
16,
Athens
over
the
after a
long
and
decision.6
between Athens
war
Herodotus, i, 82.
'Id.,
of
and
the Hellespont on a
op. cit., vol.
Five Spartans de
Erythreans/
Salamis in favor
arbitrated
ander
and
between Megara
et seq.
et seq.
basis
and
Peri-
Mytilene
of status
quo,
HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE
50
victory for
a virtual
to
bring to
and
The boundaries
of
by
Olympic victor,
between Athens
an
of
these
of
the
states
of
the arbiters
involved,
disputes
of
have
which
century it had become
the Ionian revolt the Persians
to
was employed
at
hand,
In
ordered
interests
doubtless
were
this means be
the end of the
the
that after
under
states
in this
way.5
from the
It
evidence
prevent wars.
these movements
Greek,
Platea.4
over
to the
by
By
arguments
in the direction
The
regular and continuous.
the
were
Corinthians
recognized
however, judging
more,
spite of all
of
their
settle all
to end than to
wars were
acter
ended
survived.
sixth
and
the last the decision
There
final.
so well
control
the
Thebes
all except
was accepted as
few
these
sides
but in
good offices
Arcadia
and
and
cases concerned matters vital
instance
other
many
their
Elis
and
settled a quarrel
his
used
between Miletus
Pyttalus,3
fixed
All
he
an end a profitless struggle
Lydians.2
the
Mytilene,1
[444
the
preference
of
peace,
aggressive
which
he
char
showed
for
fight'
settling
by
arguments
involved him in broils
and
barbarian.
War
rather
a
with
than
by
a compromise
his neighbors, both Hellenic
remained
a
customary
part
of
the
citizen's existence.
The
influences which were affecting the relations
the Greeks with each other, religion, politics and com
of
merce,
same
reflected
Wealth, luxury
the
themselves in the
and
refinement,
older civilizations
the city,
its
gods
and
of
its
aesthetic
contact
life
of
the
people.
through trade
with
Orient,
the desire to glorify
victorious
athletes, to sing the
the
1
Raeder, op. cit., pp. 20, et seq.
Busolt, op. cit., vol. ii, p. 466.
3
Raeder, op. cit., pp. 22 et seq.
iIbid., p. 23.
2
r'
Herodotus,
Antiquity"
vi, 42;
in Classical
cf.
Westermann, "International Arbitration in
ii (1906-7), pp. 197, et seq.
lournal,
THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE CITY-STATE
445]
leader
praise of
and of
found inspiration
men
they
all
led to
the
In the
great epics of
delight.
and
different fields.
sought
hexameter
party,
literature.
new period of art and
They
51
outburst of
But for
a
old,
themselves
the stately
made mock of
Batracho-
by
writing such comic epics as the
myomachia, the Battle between the Frogs and the Mice.
Then in varying meters they sang songs of party strife, of
love
and wine and
the defense of
native
land
artistic sense expressed
beautifully
in
viduals
of
how
a great
and
why,
a
Discovering
the
filled
they began
a mutual need
;
statues and
to
philosophy devel
these artists,
wherever
which all could
and
understand,
they
epic
Greeks
bond
the
poets and
went
common
no
of
art
less than
of all
property
In the
of union.
they
presence
language
they became,
age, the
the great poets of the
and an added
spoke
in
indi
the questions
ask
ready welcome; in many quarters their
earnestly solicited; they
was
Their
themselves as
new science of
expression of their age,
philosophers
found
itself in temples, in
universe,
and
rallied their countrymen to
against present enemies.
painted vases.
The
oped.
or
nature,
endeavor
to
they thought, it is necessary to
something
remember that we have but the barest fragments of their
find
of what
out
be drawn
works and conclusions must
is to
is
possible
as
indicated in
notice
the
general
what evidence
there
The leaders in this fresh life
great
were
of
intrigues,
1
their
of
intellectual
of change and
Wars there
ment."
with
the
were
threatening
Symonds, Studies of
the
All that
opinions
hand.
to be found in the
coast
of
of colonial prosperity, of political
transformation,
1
at
wealthy trading cities along the
"
a period
It was a stirring age,
tyrannies,
states,
trend
is
and
Minor.
social
sparingly.
of
courts
Asia
and
animation,
development,
of
of
religious
uncertainty in every depart
aplenty, between neighboring
powers of
Greek Poets
Lydia
(London,
and
1893),
vol.
Phrygia,
i,
p. 239.
[446
HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE
52
invading Cimmerians,
the
with
Persia,
power of
side of
there
the
with
.Egean,
in
the
with
the overwhelming
the
aggressive cities of
to
addition
adventurers
were
later
who
civil strife at
looked farther
western
Yet
home.
They
afield.
into the colonies, they filled the armies of the
x
Saite kings with mercenaries; and the brother of the poet
Alcaeus won great renown by fighting a giant in far-off
thronged
Babylon.2
To
these
same cities came all
and
of new
for
luxury
All
Of the
lived
about
to them
a synonym
in the literature
reflected
the poets,
hundred B.
seven
Callinus
C,
of
swept
over
the
of
Ephesus,
who
but
one
there remains
threatening Ephesus.
to battle in a stirring poem, the
and
people
which
are
oldest of
The Cimmerians had
elegy.
Magnesia
They
ascribed
became
elegance.3
age.
his
industries.
the
products of
and refinement and
these things
of
Tradition
the Orient.
Mediterranean
the foundation
the
Lydia, destroyed
Callinus
were
main
called
thought
of
are
at
is :
The enemy
then ?
Do
wasting the land.
are
Cease to slumber, but
peace
you
arise and
think
fight !
you
When the
fates will, man must die, and there is no escape. He who dies
war is mourned
by all, while he who wins and lives is held
in
divine.4
as almost
Language
and
that the city
to be
Closely
1
Collitz,
2
Alcaeus,
When it is
defence,
on which
op. cit.,
ii,
remembered
poem seems
build
to
were effete and
Callinus in thought,
Busolt,
this
the as
peace-loving.5
more
vigorous
in
p. 479.
33.
and
4
Callinus, fr.
6
Cf.
Busolt,
in its
Ephesians
to
akin
5261 ; cf.
sBotsford
Homeric.
sufficient evidence
that the
fr.
are
was successful
hardly
sumption
idea
Sdhler,
Hellenic Civilization (New
1.
op.
cit,
vol.
ii,
p. 464.
York,
1915),
p. 203.
THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE CITY-STATE
447]
personality,
and
certainly the
stands
his
Paros,
colonizer of
native
younger
city,
The
restless
he is the
livelihood,
range
personality
him from the
poems, fables
importance
satires,
Greek to
in his
the
and a
wine
long
to
so
doing
soldier and
Enyalios
He is
as
and
I
"
a
poet.
am skilled
wrote
keen for
a
fight
I
as a
as an
the
of
older
lovely
servant of
the
thirsty man for
a
"
the
are
knock
them down.
drink.8
Hearten
4
and moderation.
Endure,
endure
setting thy
firm
stand
2
His
the
All
victory."
of the gods.
They set men up
The only remedy that he finds is
durance
lord
Muses."
in the hands
things
thy
himself
gift of
philosophy is that of a soldier of fortune.
young warriors but trust to the gods for
and
literary
is the first
He described himself
the
am
his
religious
The
shipwreck.
the fact that he
broke the bonds
in the
of
differentiate
series of personal poems
meters and created new standards.
as a
Born in
force
poems
He
epopee.
work rests on
in
and
age
slothful
aggressiveness.
vigorous
the poetic medium to express
use
individual,
his
of
the
and
expressed
topics varying from
on
Greek
personification of
writers of
as
no
contemporary
Thasos with the willing consent of his
warrior
depending on his lance for his
he
which
of
Archilochus.1
his interests
of
product
53
and
en
my soul, disquieted
breast
against
and close
thou conquerest,
the
amid
exult not
by griefs beyond remedy
foe, hold thy ground, taking
the
openly,
spears
and
of
if thou
the
enemy.
art
If
conquered,
meet
down in thy house and mourn. Rejoice in that which is
for rejoicing and grieve not overmuch at calamities, but
learn
what condition prevails
lie
not
He laughs
at
the
1
loss
of
men.5
among
his shield, that
Hauvette, A., Un poete ionien du
ses poisies (Paris, 1905)Archilochus, fr.
'Id., fr.
55.
1.
VIIe
siecle,
greatest of
Archilogjue;
'
'
Id., fr. 68.
s
Id., fr. 6.
dis-
sa vie et
[448
HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE
His
the
sense of
fitness
eternal
for later lyric
a precedent
thereby creating
graces,
things
of
poets.1
him that
warns
"
it
His
men."
is
to
not noble
ideal
man,
full
is the true
man
buckler
make mock of
his
with
of
the inspiration
Of the
His
and
which
wrote
chief
a war poem
name
dened
by
was
has
was not
with
heart
he turned
Ares.
seventh
century,
Colophon
of
the
richness
of
a proverb
fleeting
hand,
language,
His
greatest
and youth.
for luxurious verse,
joys
are
troubles,
other
Ionian heroes.
war, but love
the
on
Se-
satire on
avoidance of
Mimnermus,
into
passed
reflections on
the
wonderful
with
martial virtues of
theme, however,
His
feet,
service of
Mimnermus
philosophy
war was
praising the
his
The former is best known for his
one.4
of
on
life in the
of
side
Amorgos
representative.
women.
little
excelled most as a poet when
the Muses to the
peaceful
of
monides
of
firmly
swash
the
looks, but
disdainful
who stands
He
courage.3
the prancing
not
warrior,
curls and
bow-legged,
dead among
the
of youth and
the
sad
sure
steady progress of old age and death. They (his poems)
breathe the air of sunny gardens and cool banquet rooms in
and
which we picture
oring to
haunted
crowd
and made
wrinkles and
These
the
poet
his hours
lingering
life, endeav
kinds, yet ever
out a pensive
with pleasures of all
fretful among his
roses
by
the thought of
death.5
men are
the earliest signs of the transformation from
Homeric days.
Of the
in the
1
era of adventure and political strife which ushered
sixth
Arch.,
'Id., fr.
century the best
proponent
f r. 66.
2
/rf-j
Al-
fr ?
58.
4lCroiset, Histoire de la litterature
grecque
pp. 192 et seq.
6
is the Lesbian
Symonds,
op. cit, vol.
i,
pp.
227
et seq.
(Paris,
1891),
vol.
ii,
THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE CITY-STATE
449]
caeus.
A noble,
vivant, he is the
a
ranks with the
ical thought.
ous
life
traveler,
height
a
the
at
and one of
the period in the
of
But Alcaeus
the
field
bon
its
of
seven
of polit
represents all sides of the vigor
He took
the time.
of
best
a
soldier,
Mytilene
Pittacus, law-giver
greatest splendor.
sages,
a
politician,
product of
55
part
in the
war with
Athens
Sigeium where, like Archilochus, he lost his shield
after an honorable defeat.
After this episode he was driven
into exile by the success of the democratic tyrants. Travels
in Egypt followed, till he was pardoned and returned to
home and a settled life.1 His poems of love and wine are
over
best
known, but they
He was possessed by
show
even
fools had thrown her into
the
righteousness
of
his
strife with which
party
fire.
martial
though
party's
his
with
shields
mets,
corselets,
which
he held ready for the
day
garded as the allotted task of grown
and
On the
estate.4
their
rushed
swords
their
rank
full
of
of
of
an affair
men,
task
in
of
the
hel
Chalcis,
War he
use.8
youths who assumed a
into the first
fully
songs
comrades are
the bronze
and
of
his
and
cause,
rallied
His halls flashed
greaves,
He believed
confusion.2
he
character.
love for his country and a
men he regarded as
an ardent
desire to fight for her
his
one side of
only
re
befitting
not theirs
danger threatened,
when
recking little of themselves, he bestowed the highest honors
For himself, Athena was polemadokos,
that he might.
war.5
giver
"
of
Ares." 8
Yet the
1
Easby-Smith, Songs
Botsford
Ibid.,
glorious
same man called
1
and
For it is
Sihler,
of Alcaeus
op.
cit,
p.
to die in
friends
(Washington,
out
to
service
sail on
1901).
194.
p. 194.
'
Edmonds, J. M. in Classical Review,
8
Alcaeus in Bergk,
0
Id., fr-
30.
op. cit., vol.
iii, f r.
vol. xxx
9.
(1916),
p. 100.
to
the
[450
HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE
56
bay
in the morning or to join in
wrote beautiful poems of
and
drinking bout
a pleasant
The
spring.1
outlook of men
was ever widening.
contemporary of Alcaeus,
the happy freedom and wealth of the
of
She
lene.
stands supreme
among the
social
me
'tis the heart's beloved
host
a
a
one of whom
her
face than
beaming
men of
Erotic poetry
Thrace,
reached
Teos.3
of
from Teos
ships,
navy
I would rather
its
culmination
His life
he took
typical
was
part
in
for this century in
the age. Driven
of
settled
wars with
at
Abdera in
the native Thra-
After his poetry became famous he spent many
court of that piratical despot and adventurer,
Samos.
Polycrates
of
Athens.
at
to the
clung
and
epigram
golden
Dionysos
of
He did
not care
I do
not
the
Botsford
his
most
man
Ibid.,
pomp
happiness
all.4
above
loved divinities.
In
an
evil, for it took away the
left the coward in his
Sihler,
old-style poet with
who,
drinking
war, but he
his tales
from
a
of war.
full cup, tells
who remembers
to
mingle
op, cit., p. 195.
197.
of Greek Literature (New
et seq.
p. 104.
'Bergk,
and
and power and
war as an
for the
love the
and
glory he
went
place.3
Ibid.,
Wright, History
p.
court of
city's youth and
of strife and grievous
2
to the
there
tranquility
were
he
scenes of splendor and
envied not
mean,
he described
bravest
From
Amid
wealth, but desired
*
foot
in the
Hippias
1
brightness
chariots and armoured
local disturbances he
by
where
cians.
years
"
horse
of
Lydia.2
Anacreon
Eros
the
all
love.
of
the sweet sound of her footfall and the sight of the
of
of Myti-
life
poetesses of
The fairest thing in all the world some say is
men, and some a host of foot, and some again
but to
a product
more
was
Sappho,
op. cit.,
Anacreon,
fr.
101.
York,
1907),
pp.
102,
THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE CITY-STATE
45 1 ]
the glorious gifts of the
1
cheer."
lovely
In his
He
shield.2
The
and
experience
Alcaeus
willing to leave
with
their
he followed
by throwing away
to those
war
who
fight.8
to
wished
was
Aphrodite
and of
military
Archilochus
the precedent of
his
Muses
own
57
broadening
lectual life
deepening
and
produced at
the
the
of
time
same
intel
currents of
Thales.
a
This man,
merchant,^ traveler, statesman, engineer, mathema
tician, astronomer and physical philosopher, was the em
bodiment of the best sides of Ionian life. He drew inspira
who was
tion from every source,
with
its
to the
their
advantage of
in
success
and urged upon
for the
in
of
of
a small part of
Anaximander
to the
a
map
physical
however,
4
is
confined
work
His successors,
themselves
Anaximander
of
as
It was,
known.
well
activities.4
the knowledge
the
and social pleasures of
detract from the
Ionians.
1
his
His
rather
produced
the many trav
Miletus.8
The intellectual
otus
himself for
advantages of union
freedom.
philosophy, though
which embodied all
elers of
under
science
Anaximenes,
and
pursuit of
and
He apparently took an
his country against Lydia and
preservation of peace and
the founder
Miletus
war.
the Ionians the
however, but
and
What he learned he turned
his fellow-countrymen
trade and
in the defence
active part
Persia,
Egypt, Babylon, Lydia,
widespread commerce.
Lack
of
union,
subjection of
called
and
most
Herodotus, i, 74, 75,
6
Marshall,
cit,
79-
of
a
prosperity did not,
fighting
pp.
of Greek
170.
7
et seq.
zeal of
the
bravery, drew them
people whom Herod
of
warlike
'
s
Herodotus, i,
lack
Lydians,
94.
Id., f r. 92.
Marshall, A Short History
op.
not
the
the bravest
Anacreon, fr.
patriotism or
all
Asia.8
Id> fr- ^
Philosophy (London,
1898),
p. 2.
Lydian
interests demanded
commercial
For the
cities.
each successive
reduce
to
Alyattes,
which seems
by
to
long
a
for itself independence
A
terms.1
to have been formed
commercial
under
the
league
leadership
of
was
apparently of no avail in military
Lydian control came after Croesus had
culmination of
singly and subdued again all but
He followed his conquest up by making treaties
the
made war upon
Miletus.
cities
islanders
of alliance with
the
such centers of
Greek influence
a result of
his
his desires to
rule was so
the request
of
Croesus, Cyrus
for
the
Cyrus
win
of
the
Greek
After the
to
refused
with
cities were
friendship
cities refused
by
its
to
old
revolt at
them to
In
terms.
They
ex
spite
of all
Miletus, whose
resist.
retain
kingdom,
far the feeblest
with no great cities save
they lacked, they determined
allow
the burden
to
overthrow of
Lydian
the
which was granted
fact that these
Greek states,
showering favors upon
Delphic oracle. As
by
as
Persia.
accordingly
Miletus,
and
light that the
their former arrangements
of
Still
compelled
matters.2
Phocaea
cept
the
of
Miletus, by
city.
preserved
favorable
and an alliance on
The
Lydia found himself
Greeks again, city
the
resistance
king
the coast
horsemen
were, no match.
small city-states
of
control of
and
chariots
magnificent
inland kingdom the
of
[452.
HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE
58
the
support
fortified their
towns, held meetings to secure united action and sent abroad
to Sparta for aid. It was on this occasion that Thales
ad-
Vised the
as
union of
its center, the
was not
the
cities
forthcoming
Ionians into
a single state with
retaining their local
and
unity
was
autonomy.
impossible.3
Teos
Help
Harpagus,
Cyrus, attacked and took the cities one by one.
Though they resisted bravely and with many feats of arms,
they were no match for the might of Persia. Their
general of
war-
1
Busolt, op. cit, vol. ii, p. 19.
Hill, Historical Greek Coins (New York,
3
Herodotus i, 170.
a
1906), pp.
8,
et seq.
THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE CITY-STATE
453]
forced into the
riors were
the
were placed under
the
of
"
Herodotus,
ceived
to
endeavored
thence
and
mere
of
to
rule
to himself
put an end
One
Ionia
over
more
effort
his
to
and
made
was
mainland
islands,
the
of
said
human birth
who con
the sea
of
islands."
the
and
the
of
the design of gaining the empire
aspired
cities
" Polycrates,"
itself.
mainland
the first
was
control
domination
secure
their
and
tyrants.
control of native
the period of Persian
During
Polycrates
Persia
armies of
59
l
and
Treachery
attempt.
Greeks
the Asiatic
by
to
freedom in the famous Ionian revolt, led by
Miletus.2
Against the advice of Hecataeus,
Aristagoras of
secure
the
their
historian,
strong,8
feat
unity
in getting
The burning
refused.
Ephesus,
near
Athens
cities.
were
the
promise
their
union.
secured and
and
they
were
was
followed
by
they dispersed to their
a
de
own
was
won
defeated
sold
city after
besieged. Not even
the
fleet, however,
into
democratic
upon
too
tribe after tribe and
badly
were
enjoined
was
Sardis
of
Discipline in the
its inhabitants
Persia
among themselves and
from Athens after Sparta
Miletus itself
cities were restored to
tion
aid
favorable treatment
of
weak and
of action
after which
withdrew,
taken,
city
and
secured
successful
were
had
they
thought Miletus too
who
at
Lade.
slavery.
Greeks from
could not
be
Miletus fell
Though the
government and arbitra
them for the
settlement
of their
disputes, the Ionians had fallen forever from their high
estate.
As the result of this subjection, the name Ionian
became
a
followed
reproach
all spirited
and
the
Ionians
cultural
who were
With Ionia in the development
wealth and
1
luxury in
Herodotus
iii,
Busolt,
cit,
op.
early times
122.
ii,
'Herodotus v, 15-
pp. 54 et seq.
leadership
left,
of art and
ranked
of
Hellas
to the West.
literature, in
Sparta.
Agricul-
HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE
60
ture in the fertile valley
ishing
pottery
to the
manufacture
tradition,
literary
Ionia,3
"
the
where
clear-
Muse
voiced
the
of
spear
deeds."
fiery Archilochus,
fair
6
athletic
which appear
He is
happy
7
who
the
The
same
cheerily
In the
for
expansion
was
about
own
"
good
twenty
habitants
to
opening
war,
reduced
to
1
On the birthplace
of
his
and
and
next century.
webs
of
desire for
valley, the
his days
wealth was
was
desire for
room
the militarization of
9
plant,"
plow
of
and
the
finally
serfdom.10
Fowler and Wheeler, A
York, 1909), p. 468 n.
*
Ibid., p. 209.
Wright, op. cit., p. 106.
4Bergk, op. cit., Terpander
5
the
weaves
years'
after a
maidens
Sparta.8
its
the
the
and
dancing, ceryl birds
themes of love, pleasure
led to the first step in
Messenia,
invaded
power
contemporary
same period
to
narrowness of
Sparta.
has
in the broad streets,
in Ionian poetry in the
weakness
and
talent
Alcman,5
unweeping."
threatening
men of
sleeping nature,
girls,"
peace
"
of
Crete.2
for the Spartan
wrote
"
lyrics,
choral
local
and
seated
4
upholder of righteous
the
flour
According
warrior
justice,
and
a
Terpander, who came thither in
from Lesbos, described it as the
the early seventh century
city
probably
wealth.1
imported from
and
probably developed.
were
and
brought in
were
artists
from Crete
men
Eurotas
the
of
[454
good
seventh
to
century and,
its in
captured and
Some three
Handbook of Greek
generations
Archaeology
(New
fr. 6.
Alcman
and Tyrtaeus, cf. Botsf ord and 'Sihler,
Christ, Geschichte der griechischen Litteratur, revised
by Schmid (5th ed. Munich, 1908-1913), vol. i, pp. 170, 207.
Botsford and Sihler, op. cit, p. 13.
op.
cit., p. 12;
'
Ibid.,
p.
186,
8
Ibid.,
p.
185,
9
Bergk,
Busolt,
10
of
op.
op.
Alcman, fr. 4.
Tyrtaeus, fr. 3.
cit, ii, Tyrtaeus, f r. 5 ; Botsford and Sihler,
cit, vol. i, pp. 588, et seq.
op. cit, p. 185.
THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE CITY-STATE
455]
broke
thereafter a revolt
to
They
crush.
juncture
the warrior,
appeared
the
out which
driven back
were
Spartans
were unable
loss.
with great
6l
In
this
poet, Tyr
statesman and
With
taeus.
a martial poem whose fervor is magnificent
he urged the Spartans into the fight for native land.1 Under
his
leadership they
Local
disorder,
of the
war, he
osophy
followed
by
quelled
his
greatest virtue a man could
beautiful
sight
in his
as a result of
poem
Martial
was military.
Messenians.
resubdued the
rallied and
which
Eunomia.2
courage
possess.8
eyes was the
the
he
His
the
fitting
and
of a youth who
had
most
fallen in battle that his country might live.4
The conquest of Messenia marked the beginning
downfall
of
Spartan
durance the large
of
surrounding
the
to the military
artists no
marvel of
service
longer found
Cynuria taken from it.
to the formation
Peloponnesian
later
the
a welcome
power
Failure
This
rigid
the individual
Foreign
Argos
of
poets
broken
was
of conquest
and
Ex
and
in Arcadia led
the development
famous
in
alarm
beside the Eurotas.
of alliances and
league.
keeping
military
Literature and
ages.
state.
of the
the growing
stern subjection of
of
The
followed.
of
forced Sparta into that
way before the
art gave
The necessity
number of serfs and
states
system which was
pansion
culture.
phil
regarded as
The
body
hardships
the
of
organization
was
purely military in its character and was under the leadership
All the states of the Peloponnesus save Argos
of Sparta.
and the
little
defence
of
Sparta to
cities of
the land.
on
the
north
were
had
equal rights of
Plato,
4
Tyrtaeus, f r.
Laws 629.
10.
All
discussion
Bergk, op. cit, vol. ii, Tyrtaeus, fr. 10.
Tyrtaeus, fragments, i-7- Botsford and Sihler,
5
joined for
held in Corinth
settle questions of war or peace.
represented and
1
Achaea
Congresses
op.
the
or
states were
with
major-
cit, p. 184.
[456
HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE
62
ity
the lot
was
of
save
all,
loosely-knit
by
that
all
furnished troops to the army,
This
the Spartan kings.
command of
the
which was under
courted
independence
was no tribute and complete
There
rule.
was
military backbone of Greece,
desired aid. But culture had been sacri
the
body
all who
ficed to military
Elsewhere on the
prowess.1
mainland
culture was
school of athletic sculpture under
developed,
the
and
for later heights
careful
study
Poets
of art.
the
of
spell
the
is
most significant.
games
had
the way
body paved
flourished in
Of these, Theognis
A talented noble of
in Boeotia.
even
the best known and
of the
and poetesses
Argos, in Megara and
A
developing.
position, he began his life under the most favor
conditions, which he prayed Zeus and Apollo to main
wealth and
able
tain free from
his
delight,
ing
power of
Music,
evil.2
knowledge his
He lamented the
it
which made
money
wine and amours were
poetry,
quest.3
grow
for the wealthy
To
the
possible
but baser
element
the
between the nobility and the commercial class he
to maintain an intellectual superiority.
But
strife
to
intermarry
well-born.4
with
endeavored
when
he
the blow
came and
forced into
was
dered
at
the
down the
in Thebes
many
property
He
tune,
1
took
Busolt,
2
righteous.5
and
part
op.
Ibid.,
in
a war
vol.
183-192.
373,
to his
of
et seq.
was
seized and
endeavored
Muse,
which upheld
The time
Euboea.
cit., vol.
Bergk,
cit.,
'Ibid., 531-4.
5
recourse
Zeus
his
the
to
though
he
won
wicked and cast
exile was spent
There he
for the defence
i, p. 610.
ii, Theognis
1-10.
of
he
reconcile
first
Then he followed the footsteps
litterateurs to Sicily.
op.
'Ibid.,
by
plan of
exiled
aristocrats were overthrown
poverty.
fell into the direst
himself to the loss
the
flight, his
regained
Syracuse,
of
for
secured
THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE CITY-STATE
457]
pardon and a return
to his
land,
native
the Persian menace sweep down
see
widespread
which
he
of
popularity
his
possibly lived to
country.
The
the
the readiness
poems and
in his
was welcomed
and
upon
63
is
wanderings
with
evidence
of
how strong a bond of union these new poets had become.
The man he honored most was not the warrior of Tyrtaeus
Archilochus, but him who remained faithful and firm,
by honor, steadfast through good and ill, impreg
nable alike to danger and to
War, save in defence
He went into
of native land, seemed to him utterly useless.
or
bound
gain.1
it
by
shamed
May
the
call of
the
herald
rather
than from any
longings.
martial
peace and wealth possess
the state, that I may
revel with
Give not thine ear too much
For we do not join battle
when the herald shouts loud and far.
for our fatherland. Yet is it disgraceful when one is present
others, for
I do
evil war
not
love.
and mounted on a swift-footed steed not
to look
upon tearful
war.2
When the threat
Greece he
charm
he
the
prayed
people
prayed
Medes in
to
Persian
into fearlessness
he
of
the disunion
of
arrogant
the
over
be inspired to
might
To Apollo
the danger.
his city from the
of
hanging
advance was
to the gods that
save
spite
of
army
Greeks,
the
of
which
he
feared.8
The last
great state
though Thucydides
the
the first to
united
At
Ibid.,
aside
that
and
the new life
Attica
the
city-state of
period
the
756-768,
Athens,
least from
were therefore
attain
whole
Athens, partly by
conditions
district
peaceful
a
Ibid., 885-890.
4
Thuc. i, 6.
77-86.
773-782.
was
suffered
Athenians
their arms and
very early
a
into the
Theognis,
'
lay
enter upon
states
invasions,
recurrent
peace.4
to
of
was
per-
HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE
64
suasion and
aged
such
partly
expansion
Mountain barriers discour
force.1
by
Sparta
as
[458
was
and
undertaking
the
Athenian nobility turned themselves to securing control of
The ever-present necessity
the best lands of Attica itself.
for
food than Attica
more
For this
mercial growth.
session of
Athens
of
trial and
it
the island
and was
resulted
in
a
the Athenians
led
which commanded
control of
their
neighbor, Megara.
long-drawn-out
were so
inevitably
an essential element was
Salamis
of
in the
commercial
produced
badly
guerilla
to
the pos
the
attempt
port
indus
flourishing
An
com
to take
warfare, in
which
defeated that the ruling class,
interested in agriculture, forbade any one
The result
effort to secure the island.
another
suggesting
was a shattering of Athenian commercial interests, which
who were more
doubtless became
of
Draco
saw
the
and
With his
factor in the
felt the disgrace
the
people
up to the
success encouraged the
Sea
A desire for
and
the
the
ium in the
in the
It
rich
there to be
trade
the Troad
com
thus displayed.
market-place
Salamis.2
This
ventures over
with
gained
the establishment of a
northwest corner of
Hellespont.
cowardice
he sang in the
recapture of
statesman
Athenian
of
Athenians to further
a share
advantages
food-supply, led to
the
of
led to the laws
The latter
possibilities
warlike elegies which
stirred
seas.
the
and
crisis which
Solon.
reforms of
necessity
merce and
he
a
the
the Euxine
in the way
of
garrison at Sigeat
the
mouth of
colony but a fort for the pro
tection of trade. At the same time it broke the connection
between Megara and her colonies in the Pontus.3 This un
was not a
dertaking, in which Athens had the support of her sister
city, Miletus, led to that war between Athens and Mytilene
which was settled
by the arbitration of Periander. Civil
1
Busolt, op. cit., vol. ii, pp. 90-93.
Bergk, op. cit., vol. ii ; Solon, fr.
3
Ibid., vol. ii, pp. 249-254.
2
1
;
cf.
Busolt,
op. cit, vol.
ii,
p. 247.
THE EARLY PERIOD OF THE CITY-STATE
459]
troubles
and
the
The
put an end
footing
foreign
the Euboic standard,
on
a
industry
Athens
feud
on
the
Solon laid
Peisistratus built
the foundation for later
He
attracted
the Athenian
and
which was
the
to last
dependence
the
off
the
until
to Athens
coinage system
and
^Eginetans
He
these foundations.
on
lost.1
both
thereby cutting
Megarians
yEgina
with
were
and commerce.
artisans and organized
Salamis
to this movement.
Hellespont
administration of
Athenian
of
temporarily
on the
65
fifth
starting
century.2
established the
farmer in security and gave to Athens the backbone
Under his guidance Athenian vase manufac
the state.
peasant
of
ture and trade expanded to
his
to
court
Athenian
gave
him full
Sestos
His
made
the
He
writer
in thought.
control
the Thracian
friendly
was on
Lacedaemonians,
prepared
and
A
way f>r
Mytilene
the foundation
and
of
over
the Hellespont
coast
became later Athenian
terms
with
and endeavored
the
to
among the Ionians through
leadership
the
new war with
Sigeium,
control over
Athenian
relations with
policy.
and
artist
leadership
He invited
wide proportions.
secure.
Thessalians
and
for Athens
secure
relations
with
the
Delos.'1
shrine of
At the
Ionian
end of the
century the Athenians took
revolt and waged successful war against
for the
control of
ownership
of
Plataea
the Lelantine
vigorous and warlike,
quer,
and
the
The Greek
great
2
Bury, History
Busolt,
'Ibid.,
*Ibid.,
days
of
Sicily
under
Lydian
and
The
people were strong.
ii,
p. 307.
pp. 44L -et seq.
for
new
fields to
lay just ahead.
Italy had expanded
Here Ionians
or
the Thebans
Chalcidians for the
Persian
of Greece (London, 1913).
17-
ii,
Athens
in the
the
abroad
and powerful.
op. cit., vol.
vol.
plain.4
looking
colonies of
become wealthy
lack of freedom
1
and with
part
P- 196-
who
rule
con
and
felt the
found that
HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE
66
they desired ; here
which
ever
and
party,
Magna Graecia became the
many poets and
luxurious of the
overland
luxury
trade
her
of
in later
exiles were welcomed
cities
Hard
by
city
for the simplicity of its life,
discipline and the success of its athletes.
the
into
broke
war
most
and
the
controlled
of
Croton,
re
its
strictness of
In the
year 510
Though Sybaris
between them.
out
of
effeminate ease and
smaller
nowned
B. C.
what
home
byword among the Greeks
a
the
was
which
The
Italy.
became
from
second
wealthiest
Sybaris,
was
with western
citizens
days.1
The
philosophers.
[460
put
field, according to tradition, an army of three hun
dred thousand men, the Crotoniates, led by their famous
the
athlete,
fallen
Milo,
In seventy days Sybaris had
were successful.
been destroyed.
and
Its inhabitants
into slavery or scattered into
its ruin, love of luxury
exile.2
wrought
the
classic example of a
When the fall
world.
had learned too
object
lesson
in the train
1
Botsford
8
Grote,
was
the fate
because
of
was
loss
of
to the entire Hel
followed,
the
of a captured city.
all
It
arrogance.3
a shock
Miletus
to teach them
sold
the evils
which
Greeks
A
great
followed
of war.
and
op.
well
of
killed,
Truphe kai hybris had
and
overthrown
Its fate brought
warlike vigor.
lenic
city
were
Sihler,
cit.,
vol.
op.
iv,
cit., pp. 205,
et seq.
p. 413.
3Diodorus Siculus ed. Vogel-Fischer (Leipzig, 1888-1906), xi, 90, xii,
Strabo, ed. Meineke (Leipzig, 1904-9), vi, 263.
9, 10;
CHAPTER III
The Persian War
The
in the
movements
sixth
of success
fifth
a
toward
century
by
the
union and peace which appeared
to be
were
Politician
developed into
a measure
Persia in the first half
war with
Foreign danger
century.
time.
Hellenic Peace
and
to
was
unite
to
and writer were
the
Greeks for
doctrine
the
preach
of the
among the Hellenes and war upon the barbarian.
experiences of the war were to teach man most clearly
of peace
The
the blessings
The
of peace and
advance
the cruelty
of war.
the Persians found the Greeks divided
of
Athens had just finished wars with Thebes and
and was quarreling with JEgina.
Sparta, under the
in
vEgina and had
leadership of Cleomenes, had interfered
as usual.
Chalcis
defeated Argos
the'
height
throw
this
League,
power
by
the tyrants.
of
League,
forces
thon
its
of
of
The
again.
Peloponnesian
Athens
Darius
the
for party strife, for
Xerxes
was
Athens
measures.
isthmus
of
Corinth
patriotic states.
461]
The story
the period
used
a
the
Not
steps
of 481
congress
of
over
until
taken
Mara
following
the islanders
.Egina.
were
autumn
after
her membership in
to Sparta for aid when the
aggression against
assembling
In the
Athens
threatening.
a renewal of the war with
was
ground of
appealed
needs no retelling.
strength
of
had been brought to the
addition of
On the
were
element
one
which
and
for
the army of
for defensive
there assembled on the
of
This assembly formed
deputies
an
of
Hellenic
all
the
League,
67
was
which
The
virtually
the
of
armies
organization were under
new
Argos,
Thebes,
outside
because
of
to the
claims
the com
command
harmony.
Many states re
of jealousy for Athens;
Sparta; those of Thessaly
out
her hatred
of
her
yielded
the fleet in the interests
mained
Peloponnesian.
the
of
extension
an
Athens
Sparta.
mand of
of
[462
HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE
68
of
The
out of necessity, because of their exposed position.
It was this
western Greeks were in difficulties of their own.
however,
alliance,
began
To it
^Egean.
It
cities.
tween
bone
Athens
were admitted
and
They
Nor
not under
to
and
island
were
the
As the leader
Persia.
unite
Hellenes in the
all
extra-
interested in
Spartan leaders
immediate
The Lacedaemon
policy.
Peloponnesian
separate alliance with
when
Athens,
defence
the affairs of distant Hel
control of
forces
overseas
states
they
a success when
the
officials of
therefore willingly surrendered to
mand of
Asiatic
cities of
keep
were not
the
against
Peloponnesian
a narrow
endeavored
They
and
Asia Minor, however, Sparta
Conservatism and the menace of the helots
failure.
lenes.
the larger
should
which
free the
and
dictated
less.
Plataea
nominally in force until the breach be
Sparta in 461. Sparta had been the back
Hellas in the defence
of
^Egean
ians
and
remained
of an organization
was a
fought Salamis
which
the movements of retaliation on the other side of the
objected
Athens
Ionians,
the
to the
were
the
state.
the
com
already in
leadership
of
Pausanias.
As long as Athens remained a friend and an ally
busied herself in Asiatic affairs Sparta had nothing to
fear. The result was the formation of the Delian Confed
eracy.
Projected by Themistocles, it was organized by the
and
wisdom of
Aristides.
a number of
pendent,
was
states,
It
for the defence
to be
consisted of
all of which were
of
of
perpetual union of
to be
equal and
the yEgean against
a general congress of
the presidency
the
Athens, in
the members
which all
inde
Persia. There
at
Delos
membershad
under
an equal
iii!
THE PERSIAN WAR AND HELLENIC PEACE
463]
vote, to decide
Delos
to the
fleet ; the
The larger
tion
of
determining
Aristides,
to
was entrusted
who
the confederacy
carried
was
Eurymedon in 468,
when
of each state
the Persians
work of
the battle
after
until
on
satisfac
Cimon the
of
ships
according to their
duty
the
twelve
furnished
fulfilled it to the
Under the generalship
of all.
states
smaller paid contributions
The task
by
administered
was
and
Athenian Hellenotamiae.
resources.
The treasury
questions of peace and war.
was established at
69
of
from
were excluded
iEgean.1
the
From the very beginning the confederacy was dominated
by Athens. The Athenians were able to control a sufficient
number of
the
finances,
dividual
this
As
league
an
as
was
Athenian
supported
Sparta.
by Cimon
of
vol.
in the
power
iii,
pp.
Sicily
of
1,
and a
Persia
reduced
and
The
was
from
culmination
Hellenic
abroad
and
at
Athens
by
the
was
Sparta
revolt
peace came
united
Busolt,
to
at
op
Spartans
request of
helot
peace
of
and
led to
breach between Athens
Hellenic
cf.
secede
next period.
war
had been
this period
et seq.
the in
The first
the policy of the
the
the
addi
empire came
attempt
the time of the
period of
of
history
at
Cimon
Thus the
On the
;
in
expedition sent at
The Greeks
1
was
followed: namely,
the overthrow
et seq.
down this
condition of a subject state.
Cimon
with
to her.
Athenian
To this the democratic party
The failure and mistreatment
posed.
treaties
that the danger from
put
In
members.
close
of an
movement was reached
long
home.
convinced
Cimon
alliance.
Naxos to the
of
development
the
con
managed
and
tired of making contributions, tried to
past and
the
bound them
states which
Naxos,
when
the
payments of
made separate commercial
step in
real
majority in the
secure a
treasurers
as
served
collecting the
tion, Athens
to
small states
Athenians
gress.
and
an end.
before this time,
op. cit., vol.
ii,
pp.
557,
[464
HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE
0
for the
Theron
men
part
most
Akragas
of
had
mastered
the might
by
Gelon
and
their
own
of
tyrants,
great
These
able
had brought
under
their
of
cities,
the two
Syracuse.
themselves to
control the neighboring cities, had bound
gether
by marriage alliances, and had accomplished by force
that
union of
bring
ties
Carthage
success with
The
the defeat
of
courts
the
the
all
the freedom
The
period.
and
appreciation
and
to
states
the
great
resulted
in
the
most
held
brilliant
found there
and artist
which
a congress was
compose matters and
ence of all
The
461
474.
at
could
tyrannies was followed
overthrow of the
fusion that in
this
Cumae in
were
dramatist
to
the
Gelon, followed
the Etruscans
Sicilian tyrants
Poet
of
of
was
stopped
favorable trea
and secured
successor
of
Persia
of
Together they
Himera
at
Hieron,
peace.
of
the threat
which
in the iEgean.
about
armies of
Hellenes
be desired.
by
of all
such con
the Sicilian
to re-establish the
independ
cities.1
deeds
of
the foreign
a wave of religious
wars
in Greece
devotion,
an
and
Sicily
increase in Hel
lenic self-confidence, which stimulated all activities but
found its best expression in literature and art. The writers
the
of
deeds
the
period reflect
the
spirit of
their age, the glory of the
heroes,
the
value of
Hellenic unity,
of
the
horrors
Pindar
of war
and withal
itself.
),2
lyric poets, was a
Though his city Medized, he himself
was thoroughly patriotic.
Much of his life was spent in the
courts of the Sicilian tyrants.
He was an aristocrat to the
native
of
( 522-442
the
greatest
of
Thebes.
delighted chiefly in the noble achievements of
young aristocrats in the service of their states, in the games
and in war.
His extant poems, ranging in date from 502
core
1
2
32,
and
Grote, op. cit., vol. v, pp.
Wright, op. cit.. pp. 119,
et seq.
236,
et
et seq.
seq.; Botsford
and
Sihler,
op.
cit.,
pp.
THE PERSIAN WAR AND HELLENIC PEACE
465]
to 452 B.
He
C,
in
are
praise of
praised the victors
by
legends
recounting
Bacchylides (ca. 507-428),
Hieron.
Pindar's,
the
master
of Simonides, suc
He, too, sang of the
Contemporary
and
great
deep feeling
center of
with
the new
and
same as
originality
the
literary
stage.1
^Eschylus,
the
pre
of an old Eupa-
Native
Panhellenism
and
battles
visited
written
service
Sicily.
his
and
in his
state
in
war
literary
He took
Salamis,
writings.
His epitaph,
himself, indicated
to
abroad.
Marathon
of
tributions to the
which
that he
and
^Eschylus,
who
part
in the
his military
Like the lyricists,
said to have
he is
valued more
highly
his
than the renown of
termed
his
own
dramas
know.2
morsels
Homer, followed his master in stirring pictures of
The Seven against Thebes was filled, said the ancients,
Ares.8
The heroes are pictured as
the fire of mailed
'Jebb, Bacchylides (Cambridge. 1905), Introduction.
'Glover, From Pericles
Aristophanes
ed.
to
his
great con
world.
Here Aeschylus lies in Gela's land of corn,
Euphorion's son, in far-off Athens born ;
That he was valiant Marathon could show,
And long-haired Medes could tell it, for they
s
of
delightful though they are.
poets.
Drama was there
these men was
age.
experiences are reflected
he
the
general
of Eleusis,
family, educated as befitted a noble, in athletics, music
Homer, he was a follower of Cimon in his conservatism
home
at
in
the classical lyric
of
to occupy the
cursor of
trid
subjects are
graceful and
poet,
He is the last
after
His
but they lack the
ancestors
cities.
nephew
ceeded to the older poet's position.
glories of
their
of
great games.
heroic
glorifying their
the ancient
and
the victors in the
ji
Philip
(NTew York, 1917).
Hall (Oxford, 1902), Frogs
P- 43-
1021.
from
war.
with
men
HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE
72
of might and valor whose
song
the
of
chariots, the
chorus one
delight is in battle.
the whirling wheels, the
shriek of
the
Through the
hear the thunder
still
may
the
air
battlements.
No less thrilling is the description
in the
Persae,
of
Greeks,
the
crashing
the wailing of the
against
the
the
the
Salamis
of
the high-
the advance, the struggle, the
ships, the victory
of
stone
Persians,
the preparations of the
spirited pseans of
confused
rattle
of
moans of
spear-shaken
and
[466
Persians till
night
Greeks
the
of
put
an
end
and
to the
battle.1
Yet there is little
Warrior
himself,
triumphs
of
the attendant
other
to
in the
participant
sufferings
and
the
Persian War, ^Eschylus knew full well
hardships both to victor and to vanquished.
and
the
Persae
present
the results
of
war,
king is returning victorious, the
which suffers under ruinous defeat.
Even
have been made for the rhetorical or dra
a people whose
a nation
when allowances
matic
a
in the tragedies.
of war
the
The Agamemnon
the one to
the glory
of
values,
enough remains to make one
feel the terrible
side of war.
The Agamemnon
the
while
at
Troy.
king
riors
the
are
sufferings.
battlefield
*
pictures the
-Id.,
seq., 203
Agamemnon,
'Ibid.,
of
as
437-44-
calamity
ed.
ct seq.
63-63.
of
fails
and war
war-spears
clash.2
the
brave
pyre-ashes.3
Cly-
place of
the wife, who
is com
from her lord and is
(Oxford,
ct seq.
winning glory
evil, set
those terrible grap
the
apart
Sidgwick
; 553
the host
of
foreboding
where men's strength
in the house
Aeschylus, Tragoediae,
et
think
return
still
yearning hearts in
forth but an urn of cold
pelled to sit alone
1 nebes, 152
They
comes to
man who went
temnestra
are
with an air of
in the dust
crushed
Then there
before the
his followers
The chorus,
forth their
ples of
and
opens
1899) Seven
against
467]
THE PERSIAN WAR AND HELLENIC PEACE
driven many times by
suicide.1
of
In their
heart-shaking
grief
the
for the
execrate their rulers
rumors
people of
woe
the
73
to the
verge
outraged nation
they have brought
upon
them.
The war-god who exchangeth
Men's lives for gold,
And where the mad spear rangeth
The scales doth hold,
Sends back to hearts that
For a brave man's return,
Filling
Pyre
yearn
one small sad urn
ashes cold.
With
sighs love tells their story:
In battle bold
Was one : one fell with glory
With garments rolled
In blood : and each man died
All for another's bride!
In whispered pain
Is the tale told.
and pride
While here
grief's hushed defiance
Chides bitter-souled
Atreus'
avenging scions,
There lapped in mould,
They,
round
In death
yet
the
The land they
Doth them
Amid these
ing
army.
steep,
won
and
keep
enfold.2
plaints there comes
He, too, has his
dier's life, the
embattled
comely sleep;
tale
the herald
of
the
of
the
hardships
more vivid when one remembers
return
of a sol
that it is
a
soldier who writes them.
1
Aeschylus, Agamemnon, 859-865.
2
Ibid.,
437-455.
Way,
Aeschylus in English Verse
(London,
1908).
[468
HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE
74
Of travail might I tell, bleak bivouac,
Of iron-bound coasts, hard-lying, groans on
through the straitened days.
Who knows how
Then came new ills on land to vex us more :
groans
many?
Hard
foes'
by
And dews from heaven
Down-drizzled,
lay;
walls through the night we
our
and reek
from the marshy
mead
clammy-cleaving, rotting vest,
And making man's hair like the wild beast's fell.
But O to tell of winters that slew birds,
By snows of Ida made intolerable,
Or heat, when on his noon-day couch, the sea
Unrippled sank and slept, and no breath stirred.
Yet is his
home
attitude
that
of
overcomes all other
What boots to
Why
of
the
victor.
His
joy
at
his
return
thoughts.
grieve o'er
these?
Our toils
those wasted lives take nice
are past.
accounts
?
The Argive host is victorious, the gain outweighs the loss.
At his tale of victory the people, too, lay aside their mis
givings.1
This
comfort comes not
scribes the
to the
The
vanquished.
poet
de
scene when
With clouded brow a herald brings
Hideous disaster from a field of rout,
And speaks a nation stricken with one wound,
Speaks many a light of many a home doom-banned
Ares'
twy-lashed scourge of fire and steel,
By
Twin slaughter-curse, blood-boultered chariot
pair.2
To the Persian
and
wives and mothers who
counting the
days till their
comes
the messenger
death,
and grief overwhelms
for her young
1
Way,
2
Ibid., 638-643,
3
op. cit.,
sons
of
Agamemnon
Aeschylus, Persae
44,
spearmen shall
Xerxes
killed
with
the
and
555-584.
61-64,
have been sighing
532-547-
his tale
land.3
return, there
of
defeat
and
The land. cries out
the pall of death covers
it.1
No
word of
cessive report
A
WAR*
THE PERSIAN
469]
tells
Trojans in
to the
Thebans,
victory lightens the gloom but
of new losses and brings fresh
fate than this
worse
the
should the
Seven
less babes
gifts, the
warriors, the
of
In this
maids.4
matrons and
the
scene which
Homer himself deplored has
mind
the destruction
Miletus
of
ascribes
threatens for the
and
all
too
of
help
the captive
vivid picture of a
not
the
poet
in
Sybaris,
may he
survival of barbarism ?
and
and of
be protesting against such a
Though the dramatist regards the dead hero
not
of
ruin of
murder of
the slavery, the terrible fate
and
sorrows.2
take the city, the plundering
of earth's precious
city, the death
75
each suc
the Persians /Eschylus
of
Agamemnon,3
wealth, the destruction
an ancient
AND HELLENIC PEACE
still
as
despises the cowardly, skulking stay-at-home,
comely
heart,5
yet he realizes the other
^Egisthus womanlike in
and
side of
the picture, the danger to the
state
in the loss
of
As long as its men remain,
the flower of its manhood.
he writes, its bulwark is sure, but when they are gone it?
low."
So the Suppliant Maidens pray
strength is brought
for Argos that
the flower
of
Ares, bane
her
of
humankind, may
and consume
youth
the
never pluck
choicest
of
her
men.7
War in defence
tified;
war
law.8
His
as
1
8
4
the
on
own part
greatest act of
Aeschylus, Persae
Id.,
Id.,
of native
behalf
Agamemnon
Seven
of
in
his
land,
life."
in
Of
'
h
8
103-5, 349-
Id., Suppliants 661-5.
Id., Suppliants, passim.
Vide
wars
supra, p. 71.
good
2
710, 640, 673.
Thebes
regards as
ordered
Hellas he
326-9.
against
as
the defence of
321 et seq.
Id., Agamemnon 1224-5, Choephoroi,
*ld., Persae
^Eschjdus
suppliants
305.
by
jus
divine
esteemed
cause,
Ibid.. 909
wars
et seq.
foreign
with
foes, thuraioi, Athena in her
in the Eumenides
those
in
whom
them that
in the
the city to
the
[470
HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE
76
be
promised
fierce love
the Athenians
of
of
burned,
glory
speech
to satisfy
assured
and
to
Useless
peoples.1
the
uncrowned amid
condemn
;
such wars as
Persian,
the Theban,
fought for a woman; the
quarrels
enough
glorious strife of wars she would not allow
poet would seem
arrogance
wonderful
conquest;
caused
brought
on
Trojan^
foundation
whose
civil strife
; above all,
the
wars
by
by
was
brothers'
Of
passion.
disputes Ares, who sells men's lives for gold, is a
No witnesses or payments of money
bitter
these
arbitrator.2
does he accept, but
by
the death
of warriors
he decides the
cause.3
In the
solution
path of
of
the
and with aliens
weal
may
keep
justice
and moderation
By
problem.
the
the
government
state without
Fame
.Eschylus
dealings
righteous
which
seeks
calamity in
the
finds the
at
home
common
peace.*
above measure given
Brings man but woe :
Zeus'
Full in his eyes
levin
Flasheth its glow.
Let mine unenvied weal
Nor crush with armed heel
Cities,
Nor
Bacchylides
and
The few
represent
attitude
odes and
survive are eloquent
in
feel
thralldom know.5
Pindar
lyric Muse in their
ature.
nor conquest
toward
the
culmination of
war as well as
fragments
of
praise of peace.
the
in liter
Bacchylides
which
He disliked to sing
1
Aeschylus, Eumenides 858-869, cf. Way, op. cit.
Id., Agamemnon 448, Persae, passim, Seven against Thebes
seq. ; Eumenides 858, et seq.
2
et
'Id., Seven against Thebes 934, Agamemnon
4
Id., Suppliants 698-703.
6
Way, op. cit., Agamemnon 467-474.
437,
Suppliants,
934
933-7.
THE PERSIAN WAR AND HELLENIC PEACE
471]
war; for "the
of
choral
the
of
too,
wrote,
lyre,
the
of
the clear strains of
accord not with the grievous stress of
song
clash
voice
hath
arms
the uncertainty
of
kinsmen in the fight but
x
amid
of
death-dealing
as
He
discerns
which
war,
the
sends
battle
festivity."
place
no
7y
no
missiles
foe.2
In a lyric treatment of the em
blindly against the
of
Menelaus
and
Odysseus
to Troy he represented the
bassy
as
their
Trojans
hands to the gods in prayer for rest
lifting
from their
"
3
with
forth the
sets
of
thighs
of
In
land
the
one of
altars and
flutes
and
shields
heart
with
at
the
Pindar,
the
wealth
youths
revels.
and
spiders weave
feasting
though
his
of
his
poems
he
the full
mortals and
delight themselves
their
lyre
even
Bacchylides xiii,
'Ibid.,
v,
'Ibid.,
xiv, 40-56.
i-V-35-
*Ibid., fr.
1.
in
glorious
the
12-
No blast
of
which
The
brazen trumpet
streets are
deeds
in the
the
flame
games
filled
forth.4
led him
of their ancestors
the
Sicilian
in the fact that
Ares left
of
destroys the
comforteth
praise of youths
rejoiced
violent
r6.
with athletic
webs and rust
martial valor of
nevertheless
the
of
Jebb,
for
praise of victors
the
recitals of
themselves,
i
her to dwell
Upon the iron-bound handles
and songs
ancient wars and of
sound
take
of peace.
is sleep of gentle spirit
dawn stolen from die eyelids.
to
and prudent
the most beautiful
nor
joyous
often
at
obeyed)
whose sons
spears and the two-edged swords.
is heard
of
path
unswerving Justice,
well
blessings
manifold
to them the
honey-tongued song; her gift it is that the fleshy
oxen are burned to the gods in the yellow flame on
the carven
feats
showed
pursuit of
Peace brings forth
Mighty
bloom
in the
Happy
them."
the
war
Eunomia (good laws
tendant to
Themis.
Menelaus
woes.
safety from
aside
his
in
princes
at
the
sharp-
HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE
78
pointed
spears
Muses.1
He
warmed
and
proclaimed
contention,2
his Muse
and
or
had Medized, he had
service in the Persian
the
had
to those
sweet
hand,
he
to him the
who
"
knowest
alike
6
how to
season."
Any
perity for his
because in those
to
must
seek
and
cities were
Justice
He
for the
and
nation
poet
stood
by
no
thou
found the
as
who
radiant
JEgina he
means
great,
in due
of
desired
light
praised
secure
above
peace
at
pros
high-
especially
on which
of wealth
being
for
of
base
for gain, that Zeus should shield them from wars
them glory in good laws and in the festivals.9
The
other
withhold gentleness
the
./Etna
a
and
Peace, dispensers
men of
On the
wars
councils
give and
Corinth
cities rest
prayed
of
makest
citizen, he proclaimed,
state
Peace.7
minded
who
5
O, Kindly Peace,
praise of peace.
holding
The
the Tantalus-
War may indeed be
"
he said,
but once ex
dread."
the supreme keys
personal
not,"
Righteousness,
of
ex
which
"
a source of
in the
gloried
removal of
Hellas.4
know it
it becomes
Daughter
over
to
object
Thebes,
citizen of
the
of strife
had fired ^Eschylus.
war which
hung
to
seem
shrine of
fond
the background of that
not
war meant
stone which
perienced
A
praise of
the
at
one not
as
would
warriors.3
travagant
end of
his heart
himself
[472
to
the
men.8
desire
and grant
any
price.
Rather Peace herself roused to relentless wrath, he
thought,
had crushed the might of the Persians at Salamis and of
Pindar,
Schroeder in
ed.
;
Id.,
3
Id., 01.
4
Id., Isthmian vii, 5
"'
Id., fr.
6
Id., Pythian
01. vi,
Bergk,
vi,
19.
21.
et seq.
no.
viii,
''Id., fr. 109.
'Id., 01. xiii, 6-7;
"Id., Nemean ix,
1 et seq.
viii, 1,
28-33.
22.
op.
cit.,
i, Pythian, i,
10-13.
THE PERSIAN WAR AND HELLENIC PEACE
473]
Etruscans
the
Cumae.1
at
Athens
and
against
the foreign foe.
^Egina
the death
and mourned
for
in his
were
Yet there
Athens.2
the
praised the
had fought
who
To those
he
the highest honors that
accorded
blood
bringing
who survive such
in
old age a
The Ionian Revolt
very different
for
valiant men.
For let
freedom
cessful
tion
clared,
of
city bitterly
interest
as
1
Pindar, 01.
'Id., fr.
8
Id., fr.
the
i,
the downfall of Ionian
the suc
growth of power of
Greeks.
honors.8
god
attacked
a
philos
This transforma
The warrior, he de
Gods
while
the weakling re
while
the
and men united
the
people
rest
of
became
his
own
7^-74; Isthmian vi,
Gomperz, Greek Thinkers, 4
ix,
31 et seq.
26-30.
5
44.
vols.
(London,
Die Fragmcnle der Vorsokratiker (3d
53-
produced
recluse
xiii, 8-12..
78; Isthmian v,
Ubid., fr.
youth
self-
Id.,
Diels,
seen
his freedom
4
6
the
in
utterly base and worthless seekers of
Heraclitus'
"
It is clear from the drift of
76, 77; Pythian
Nem.
Persian Wars
Heraclitus,
He became
philosopher
alone.8
of
the
result of war.
preserved
The
slaves.7
of righteousness
race of
calm.4
the European
the highest
to glorify him.
man,
deeds
He had
to him the
received
mained
in
and character and
leaders
seemed
who
keep from his beloved country
destruction upon the enemy's host
day
and
reaction
Ephesus.5
opher of
against
great cloud of war
shower of
promised
deeds
had died
who
know of a surety that he increaseth the renown of the
his fellow-citizens greatly both living and dead.3
To those
of
struggles
to bestow.
remaineth renown
in the
soever
Thebans
land, he
native
power
in the deeds
rejoiced
In later life he
of
the aggressive force of
fighting
He
the Sicilians in their
and of
yg
'Ihid-> fr-
1906),
ed.
I21-
vol.
Berlin,
i,
p.
59
et seq.
1912), fr. 24.
80
argument
HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE
[474
and
preserving
that he
the
qualities
the
competent
conceived
testing
war as
distinction between
mankind, as making a
of
incompetent,
the
and
founding
as
These ideas he
x
the state
carried
society."
and
organizing
the
of
explanation
"
law
of strife.
common
to
universe and
We
he
things, justice is strife,
all
"
he said,
must
and all
into his
the natural
enunciated
that
war
things
is
come
2
necessity."
through strife and
II
The Age
The breach between Athens
in the division
between
under
the
perialistic
of
of eastern
leadership
and
Sparta in
461
resulted
Hellas into two opposing camps,
Athens
for hegemony.
followed
strife
which
Pericles
of
of
Pericles,
the
head
of
im
the
democratic party, started forthwith on a career
The Athenians, to secure control of
aggrandizement.
the lucrative trade
with
the west, took
the
who escaped as a result of
Naupactus,
ance
the
with
Corinth
Sparta
mouth of
democrats
then
was
she allied
the ^Egean
the
the
at
secured.
herself
revolt
the
of
building
the
and settled
on
Her
by the conquest
Long Walls. Sparta
them
An
of
outpost
.^Egina
of
against
own position
had
in
alli
the Isthmus
secure an
Argos.
was assured
of
the helots
charge of
Corinthian Gulf.
Megara
To
with
3
and
countered
in
by
by
aiding the Thebans in the re-establishment of the Boeotian
League. Athens answered that manoeuvre by the defeat of
the Thebans
consisting
Locris
and
of
and
the
the
close affiliation
1
Gomperz,
Heraclitus, frs. 53, So.
op. cit., p. 72.
Vide supra,
p.
of a continental
federation
Phocis and eastern
Boeotia,
Achaean towns on the Gulf of Corinth with
with Thessaly.
Athens was well on her way
2
3
formation
the cities of
69.
of
THE PERSIAN WAR AND HELLENIC PEACE
475]
to a control of
tunity
to
Athens
The
destroyed.
thian Gulf had
The
trouble.
from exile,
with
altogether
Sparta,
Persia, too,
and sent
him
off on a
a
the
the
over
of
the
were
Corin
final
Cimon
recalled
a
years'
five
truce
expedition against
Cyprus the Athenians
Persians but Cimon died
Athens had
campaign.
resources
successful; Argos had
Athens
that
was
Pericles in
through his influence
On the island
victory
undertaking
the
left that city a free hand
in a position to cause more
was
the Persians.
ing
to the rebels
two Athenian fleets
and
which
outcome
and
great an
much of a strain on
failed
been
obtained
Sparta,
to be too
meantime efforts of
not
Athens.
too
revolt
made peace with
against
proved
and
In the
Persia
revolted against
It
sent aid.
Athens.
Greece, Egypt. The other
Sicily, were already under her
region and
Egypt had
for the Egyptians
of
came an oppor
food supply for
the Euxine
control.
At this juncture
to her spheres of influence the third of the
add
great sources of
two,
Hellas.
all
81
exhausted
these distant struggles; her forces
were
won
disease dur
of
her
energies
needed
at
in
home.
There followed, then, as a natural result, negotiations with
Persia. While no formal treaty was procurable, a verbal
agreement
worked
developed
attain
for the rebuilding
of
cessation of
both
Athens had
of
strife.
This
in the trade that
parties
the
to
of
at
her disposal
unifying Hellas
his goal, then,
posed a conference
the paying
of
the Athenians.
which
to the task
tried to
for the
advantage
under
The forces
equal
reached
was
to the
meet at
the
vows
by
force.
by
to
not
Pericles
He
peaceful means.
Athens,
shrines
were
pro
consider measures
destroyed
by
due to the gods, and
Persians,
the
"
concerning
x
peace."
the sea, that
This
i
all might sail
attempt
to
put
it
Hellas
fearlessly
on a sound
Plutarch, trans, by Clough (N'ew York.
keep the
footing of
and
1910),
Pericles
religious
17.
[476'
HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE
g2
commercial
and
blocked
by
unity
the
leadership of Athens was
jealousy of Sparta. In 447 a
the
under
watchful
A defeat
crisis suddenly developed.
force at Coronea was followed by the
Spartan
a
Megara
the
federation
the continental
and
day;
Euboea
and
the Spartans
to
lost.
was
on
make peace
The
next
the
at
year
same
time
to
save
managed
the Euboean revolt was
withdrew and
suppressed, but Megara
compelled
and
Pericles
rebelled.
Boeotia
revolt of all
collapsed.
invaded Attica
force
Athenian
of a small
Athens,
terms
which
was
exhausted,
in
restored
gen
existing prior to 461. Peace was made
for thirty years, extending to the allies of both parties on
Athens thus abandoned all
the basis of the status quo.
the
eral
conditions
to her
claim
continental
Plataea.
and
edged.
other
Her
thus divided into two
keep
the
by
and
an ancient custom.
to the means
states
Pericles
of
of
Delian
finally
position
of
by
to be
It
intended to
the
a
disputes
be
should
was regarded as
made, unfortunately,
thus
situation
that for
settled.
prevent
its
contained
time
a
In
least
of
the
established
upset.
period of peace which
had been
at
place
balance had been
the Athenian Empire.
Confederacy
To
should
in arranging for
left to the honor of the
was
appeared
power
that trade
employed
Hellas had been
one
all
this time
Though the
made use of
consolidate
until
was acknowl
well-balanced parts.
was agreed
provision was
future strife, it
with measures
the
No
proceeding.
problems
domination
to
which
or methods
concerned.
seeds of
the
to Naupactus
however,
furthermore that
arbitration,
this judicial
fairly
between them it
peace
be free to all,
as
empire,
Neither party was to interfere with the allies of the
Hellas
but each might seek allies among neutrals.
was
settled
except
possessions
maritime
Gradually
reduced
to
followed
her
allies
in
subjection
only Samos, Chios and Lesbos were left in a
independence.
The treasury was moved to
THE PERSIAN WAR AND HELLENIC PEACE
477]
Athens
the
after
the
of
protectress
disaster in Egypt; Athena became the
organization in place of Apollo; the
Delian Congress fell into
disuse,
the Athenian assembly
and
relating to the empire. The
divided into tribute districts and quadrennial
settled measures
were
with
established,
Legal
and
domestic
dustry
Athenian
justice to
matters assured
The
tended to legal
and
settling Athenian
of
while a source
was nevertheless a potent Atticiz-
to the allies,
of grievance
force
administration
the empire,
citizens at various places within
ing
force.
the
maintenance
of
democracy
empire was
an
organization
The
all
The Athenian policy
assimilation.
to be sent
binding
the
was
Athens.
to
required
the development of trade and in
strife aided
and produced prosperity.
legal
of
empire was
assessments
Freedom from foreign
together.
empire
appeal
were
Self-interest
to Athens for trial.
held the
for
provision
importance
cases of major
which
83
strongest element of
in
however,
union,
all
the
for the
was
cities.
subject
perpetuation
of
democracy.
With
all
its
tained fatal
excellent
political
It
in the
violated
to
and
sought
Samos
which
with a great
of
the
deal
situation.
system con
allies
from
tendency
a
to
Hellenic
right of every state, no matter
kai autonomia, freedom and self-
put
opposed
everywhere
In
overthrow.
was
produced
the
the
Oligarchs
its
this
most precious principle of
eleutheria
government.
however,
exclusion of
government
the
philosophy
how small,
The
weaknesses.
representation
revolt.
purposes,
down
of cruelty.
The
440 a
after
of
the
broke
considerable
Athens
leader
revolt
was still
the
empire
out
in
difficulty
the
master
anti-imperialistic
itself had been ostracized shortly be
party in Athens
Peloponnesian interference
prevented
had
Corinth
fore.
commercial
reasons.
No one
for
in the Samian revolt
seemed
strong
enough
or
willing to break down Athenian
[478
HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE
84
in the iEgean,
power
Pericles
and
to devote time
was able
money to the beautification and
Hellas.1
make it the cultural leader of
to
city,
The only writers of this golden age of Hellas
and
the
opinions on
press
any
dramatist
who ex
subject of peace and war are
(496-406 B.
Sophocles
his
of
glorification
C.)
the
the historian
and
Herodotus (ca. 484-425 B. C). The former in his long
life spanned the period of the rise and the fall of the power
his
of
As
city.
the victory
boy
a
he
turer of munitions,
he sang
praises
in
Samian
the
War,
in his
The
was
able
in the
a
term
old age
as a
the state,
of
Though
the
defeat
treasurer
the Sicilian
of
ability
in the
generals
the empire,
of
acted as a commissioner
the
whose
of no great
was chosen as one of
served a
celebrations over
wealthy manufac
to devote himself to the
of
service
so eloquently.
empire after
part
son
to the
and
affairs, he
public
and
letters
of
pursuit
he took
Salamis.
of
to
reorganize
He
expedition.
his highest glory as a finished master of the dramatic
In enjoyment of a less troubled life and of a gentler
gained
art.
spirit
to
than his
solve
the
reasoned attitude
devotion to the
closer to'
the life
service
a
of
the
manufacture
not
Athens,
of
appeal; he
references
to
arms, the
'This survey
2
of
Wright,
his
problem
support
vehement
in his
war
opposition.
monster who stirred
of
the period
Busolt,
et seq.
him,
from the
did
occasionally do
When the subject
in his dramas.
cf.
216,
called
Only
history
op. cit., pp.
was
period.2
of peace and
manuscript,
the
his
Aristophanes
offered no solution.
war appear
History in
of
more
in his
its gods, he
and
who received
did arise, however, he was
condemned Ares, a blind
Hellenic
as
In his
and above all
true interpreter
To this easy-going, eukolos,
of
state
less inclined
was
of man.
towards the world,
the people,
gentleman
he
predecessor ^Eschylus,
great problems of
op.
Botsford
is based
cit,
and
vol.
up
on
all
He
evil
Botsford's
iii.
Sihler,
op. cit., p. 34.
THE PERSIAN WAR AND HELLENIC PEACE
479]
things.1
On
several occasions
for the state,
left the
since war
"
weaklings.
he
pointed out
took the best
The
well-born
the
the
and
loves to snatch,
he who is bold in tongue,
danger, is free from harm, for Ares careth
while
2
The
hardships
their
chorus of warriors
the
end of
long
Ares
fleeing
from
for the
not
Ajax, longing
Troy, recount
the man who by
years of woe around
deprivations
and
men and
good
in the
coward."
for the
evil effects
the young
of
85
and curse
his toils first taught the Greeks to league themselves for
"
in hateful
war
arms.
3
ruin
of
Yea, he it was who wrought the
Trachiniae, Deianeira expresses
In the
men."
pity for those helpless
deep
women
captives,
"
slavery,
brutally
ill-fated exiles, homeless
land."
eign
4
fatherless in
and
Far better thought the
He
should cease.
To those
so
innocent sufferers, the
treated and carried off into
and
counseled prudence
who made war on
give
the victory, for it
war
must
be
behalf
was an
He
avoided.8
of
poet
in the
same
dramatist
the
about
the
and
the
joy
end of
would
useless
Thebes,
at
the trial of
destruction.6
generals who
punishment
of
for
wars
choice of war.
suppliants, Zeus
pictured
was one of
subjection
a
all
honorable thing, but
the night-long dance and song, when the
war had come and Thebes was safe from
this
that
the
Yet
brought
revolting
Samians.
Herodotus, born in Halicarnassus,
city,
1
a great
exiled
was possessed of
traveler,
Jebb-Pearson, The Fragments of Sophocles,
from his
native
broad Panhellenic
3
vols.
(Cambridge,
1917).
'Sophocles Tragoediac,
tetes 435-6; fr. 554, fr-
sId.,
Ajax
*Id.,
Trachiniae
ed. Dindorf-Mekler
7*4-
1185-1210.
298-302.
Id., Oedipus Coloncus 380.
'Ibid.,
119-126.
1045-100&
(Leipzig, 1912),
Philoc-
somewhat colored
sympathies,
The historian
of
on
the early
the
the Persian Wars
of
Hellas, he
wars of
general
by a
beginning
the
Asia.2
of all
for
Athens.1
and recorder of so
many
seldom expressed an opinion
The Trojan
war.
of
subject
predilection
the later
war
he
Yet he felt that it
garded as without sufficient cause.
at
[480
HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE
86
strife
between Europe
re
lay
and
among the Greeks he objected. He praised
the Athenians for yielding their right to command the fleet
at
the
To
war
great
necine
ternal strife
by
congress at
"
struggle.
is
a
thing
"
war.
bury
sons
war
1
2
Since in
in
their
Botsford
and
fathers
fathers,
a
viii, 3.
4.
For in
bury
no one
is
3
than
terrible
while
so senseless as
op. cit., pp. 21, et seq.
In
condemnation of
their sons,
s
Sihler,
inter
to avoid
rightly.
peace."
worse
peace."
place of
Herodotus i, 3,
'Id.,
itself is
he delivered
war
order
they judged
as much worse than war carried on
a united people as war
one short sentence
Corinth in
Herein
in
to
peace
choose
CHAPTER IV
The Peloponnesian War
The
Years'
Thirty
between Athens
damental
and
Peace
Sparta, but it failed
and
questions
vexing
the mutual bad
to
put an end
feeling
and
of
open
to
settle
and
distrust.
hostilities
the fun
to
rivalry
The balance
remove
was
too
giving Sparta any occasion for opposi
tion, Pericles departed from his earlier aggressive policy to
The first step in
one of conservation and consolidation.
To
delicate.
avoid
the direction of
aggrandizement
was
certain
to be
chal
the exigencies of Athenian trade
lenged.
Events
industry
forced the leaders
and
of
Athens into
such a
step
and
and
trouble followed.
The Megarian decrees formed the first
aggression on
state,
sunk
the
of
once
to the
part of
great
her
markets,
merchants
facturers
furnished
strong
protection
had
resented
the
of
response
the Athenian assembly
the Megarians from the
nians
In
and
which were
competitors
and tradesmen.
industrial
vegetables
her wares,
and
over-populated
importance, Megara had
position of a second-rate
ever, her farmers
Athenian
commercial
piece of renewed
A small,
Athens.
city.
How
meat
to the
good,
the Athenian
made
manu
to local demands for
decree excluding
The Athe
the empire.
passed a
markets of
withdrawal
of
Megara from their
federation and probably hoped to force the Megarians into
regain the favorable position on
subjection that they might
decree meant financial ruin and
the Gulf of Corinth. This
starvation
481]
to the Megarians
and served as a
warning to any
87
[482
HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE
88
the Spartan
of
state
other
It
Athenians.
alliance
might
apprehension
much
aroused
which
block the
the
on
part
of
Corinth.1
states, particularly
other commercial
of
episode added another element
The Corcyraean
Corin
to
Athens.
Corcyra,
increasing power of
inde
few
the
one
of
but
remaining
Corinth,
colony
with
war
at
herself
Corinth,
pendent naval powers, finding
appealed to Athens for aid.
They had cogent arguments-^
thian
the
unrest at
of
a
their navy,
nian
fleet,
over
the trade
and the
Athenian
a valuable addition
control which
route
that the true
argue
be
which would
to Sicily.
they
In
to the
were able
vain
to
Athe
exercise
did the Corinthians
expediency is the path of right.
the Corcyrean offer meant the strength
path of
refusal of
ening of the only important naval rival of Athens and a
loss of prestige to Athens itself if it yielded to the desires
Corinth.
of
To
any infraction
defensive alliance
avoid
nians concluded a
resulting
thus
aroused
a minor
The
Years'
vited
war
difficulty
the
at
Corinth
affairs and
came when
the
of
situation
to draw
reluctant
to take defensive
Corcyra.
was
In the
The enmity
increased by
the test
of
Corinthians, fully
the
The
situation.4
Thirty
aroused, in
Peloponnesian League to
the
the
to the Spartan
conservative,
meet
grievances
at
were
assembly.
Thucydides
made use
a comparison
between the
Spartans,
to
action
assume
only
Aristophanes, Acharnians, 515
History of his Age (London,
the
and
the Athe
Potidaea.3
Peace
consider
with
peace
worsted.2
in Hellenic
to
the
were
crisis
submitted
of
between Athens
the envoys
Sparta
Corinthians
the
of
et
the aggressive and willing
when
seq.,
1911),
absolutely necessary,
cf.
ch.
Grundy, Thucydides
Meyer, Geschichte
iii.
Alterthums, vol. iv (Berlin, 1901), pp. 288 et seq.
2
Thucydides, i, 33 et seq. Meyer, op. cit., vol. iv,
3
Thucydides, i, 56.
*
Grundy, op. cit., ch. xv.
p. 2S2.
and
des
THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR
483]
the
and
Athenians,
the advantage,
ready to
They
were
to have
born,
Sparta
to
deeds
they
their
to
turn elsewhere for
They
Archidamus,
the
the
aid.
pres
They recounted
They explained
past.
the
the
justified it on the ground
the risks involved in war
pointed out
Spartans to
the disputes to
submit
arbi
treaty.2
conservative
supported
Athenians
action.
plea
empire and
tration according to the
He
threat that if their
Athens in
and called upon the
delay.
veiled
prevent such a result.
of
establishment of
of necessity.
alert
their ends.
would
the
made
success
ent endeavored
glorious
the
on
gain
men.1
in this way forced into
was
to
all
said
The Corinthians
no
risk
the Corinthian ambassadors, neither
themselves nor to allow it to other
peace
met with
always
revolutionary,
seize
go,
king
of
Sparta,
counseled
the Athenian demand for arbitration,
pointing out the absence of a real cause, the superiority of
the Athenians in the materials of war and in money, and
the uncertainty
of
the
They
stronger.
the immediate
the Athenian
tion.
"
Let
the
issue.3
The
charges against
empire
no one
itself,
tell
war
daemonians,
*
mands."
us that we should
suffering
prepare for war,
It
was
voted,
however,
Athens but the
which was not a
injustice,"
when we are
party,
that the basic issue
realized
said
as
was
was not
existence of
debatable
ques
take time to think
"
the Ephor.
the honor
of
Lace
Sparta de
then, that the Athenians
were
treaty.5
guilty of an infraction of the
At the assembly of the league
the keynote
1
Thucydides
2
Id., i,
a
73
Id., i, 80
'Id., i,
86.
57rf.,i. 87.
of
i,
the
68
et seq.
et seq.
which
war was sounded.
et seq.
followed
Athens
at
Sparta
was a menace
[484
HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE
QO
to
Some
all.
states she
to
assure peace
erty
1
The
war."
for
On every
Athens, followed by
The Athenians
be
would
Pericles
a
to
sitions
the
the
Acting
Sparta,
war upon
the settling
proper
of
his
inevitable
advice
the onus
that city
by
of
party
3
and
fair
war was at
willing to defend
crucial test as a means
control of
enough
the
the
for
a
enforce
There
its decisions
did
was
on
either
without prejudice
was
too
not support
the
appeal
to
no
much
to
in
Further
a
judicial
enforcement of the agreement to arbitrate
treaty
Thucydides i, 119
et
op. cit., vol.
Thucydides i,
to
secure.
Peloponnesians to be impartial.
public opinion
The
provision
for
procedure
sufficiently
The Delphic Amphictyony
act as arbiter.
Meyer,
that
well aware
have been difficult to
and at the same time
2
beginning
upon
arbitration
in the treaty the
Such a
have been brought to a head.
powerful
1
blame for the
of
offering
regular
state
by
felt that Athens
made counter-propo
Had there been
disputes.
would
left
weakness.
of
"
treaty,
body
was
they
and
concession
3
tribunal and
decision.
or
wrong-doing
war as
on
put
quarrel might not
more,
upon
for the dissolution
The least
yield.
Arbitration had failed in its
the
made
were
order
for peace, but ready
anxious
themselves."
to
refused
terms according to the
hand,
in going to
The league voted
demands
peremptory
confession
regarded
was ready.
of
a
to
for the lib
empire.2
the
of
of
ground we are right
minor
of
series
love
was a war
fighting
are
a
make war upon
It
rest.
We
argument was unassailable.
A
war.
"
Hellenes.
all
Hellas.
of
dominate the
soon
would
she
If from
ruled.
the Peloponnesians failed to
peace and ease
her,
already
to the honor
seq., 123.
iv,
pp.
140 et seq.
294
et seq.
and
the
religious scruples
THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR
485]
the
of
it
was
nian
be
contracting parties themselves. When the issue came
found to be unarbitrable. The existence of the Athe
empire
debatable
was not a
Corinthian
and
91
jealousy
of
expansion could not
Considerations
to a tribunal.
submitted
Spartan fear
question.
Athenian
of
expediency founded on fear or ambition were
ful than the most binding of sacred oaths.
All Hellas
by
was excited
prophecies
and
both
Outside
sides.
popular
extremely
liberators
of
of
the
Athenian
and
the
Spartans
Hellas.
The Spartan
Nor
war.2
of
excitement
Sparta.
the coming
was
The Athenian young
cloaks and snow-white
slippers,
Prodigies
conflict.
Enthusiasm
abounded.1
individual
more power
manifest
was
were
hailed
youth were eager
this
men
on
empire the war was
feeling
gladly
flowing
the
as
for the
confined
exchanged
ringlets,
baths
to
soft
and
oil, for the breastplate and the greaves, and dropped the
games of the banquet for the greater game of war, to fight
for
gods
them.3
and
In
country
as
the defence
of
their
fathers had fought before
the city
all
parties were
united.
In the Children of Heracles, written in 430, Euripides
warned the hated Peloponnesian invaders that Athens would
not
brook dictation.
For in brave
The honor that fears
He
warned
them of the
'Thucydides
shame
power of
is
men's eyes
more
than
lite.4
Athens.
ii, 8.
'Ibid.
3Hermippus fr. 2,
(Berlin,
1839-1857).
Graccorum
ed. Meineke, Fragmenta Comicorum
Aristophanes, Knights 576 et seq.
Tragedies of Euripides (London, 1912), Children of Heracles,
Euripides and the Spirit of his Dramas trans.
199 et seq., cf. Decharne,
P- 128 et seq.
1905).
Loeb
(London,
by
4
Way,
[486
HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE
92
Peace love I
6
tyrant,
well
but I
thee,
warn
treacherous-souled,
Though thou
to the
march
Not the
crown
Not for
thine
hand the
Nor the brass
on
hold,
gates of our
thy hopes
of
thee.
alone
spear
war
adorn
shall
the buckler hath
!
shone
O thou that in battle delightest,
Trouble not, trouble not with thy spear
The one that the Graces make brightest
Of
but dread thou
cities:
forbear.1
and
In the spring of 431 the Spartan king Archidamus pre
Pericles coun
pared his forces for an invasion of Attica.
tered
by bringing
thus
and
all
avoided a
Athenians
the
decisive battle
ravaging the Peloponnesian
on
within
land,
to city
increased
by
general
into
following
leader
of
ucts of
the
himself died
people was
fered
of
Cleon,
was
their attacks,
the disease.
by
a new
the
added
to the
party temporarily
peace
over
courage.
with
pleasures
Attica in the
unusually
particularly.
country,
4
of
taken
severe.3
gained new
'
Sparta
His
but the
place as
type of men,
tanner,
and
prod
Hyperbolus,
lamp-maker.2
The invasion
2
brought the
the people, like
garded, as
1
and
Pericles triumphed
year
the
toward
Athens
plague which ravaged
discomfort
power.
was
the destruction of their crops and their olive
The
orchards.
Walls
the fleet
The suffering among
small farmers unused
coasts.
Athenians, most of whom were
life, was great, and their enmity
the
Long
the
while
were
all
The
They
their
restricted
a result
wealthier
had lost
houses
427 Thucydides
year
As
noble
11,65.
peace
class
and
rich
in the city ;
4
re
party
had
their fair estates
Way, op. cit., Children of Heracles, 371-380.
Grundy, op. cit., pp. 333 et seq. Meyer, op. cit,
Thucydides iii, 26.
Id.,
the
suf
in the
furniture;
their
the exigencies
vol.
iv,
pp.
307
of
et seq.
THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR
487]
war
had led to
them
upon
to the
posed
the
that he
had
the
bitter
a
the
grown
hatred
but
Spartans,
beginning
issues
warrior,
might
be
evil
Athenians,
tians,
he
the
he
the
that
and
ridicule
thus
1
Glover,
Arist. Acharn.
'
Ibid.,
0
182 et
in
with
of
to
professional
war
that
full
secure
he
pay.7
farms,
the
trade, both for the
the
many
products
and
of
Boeo
a condition of starvation.
manifold
In
advantages
a most
2
seq.,
the
for the Megarians
op. cit., p. no.
*
common
were not
the Athenian
commerce.8
cultivation and
they
the
war.0
war on
represented as
with
contrasted
war.4
the causes of
joined in
prolonging the
deprived
Megara,
and of
whom
were
the
end of
particular
claimed
the interference
who
and
cramped and confused
commands and
of
strong
peace
vineyards and
He treated
and
accused of
for
The
clubs.2
He felt apparently
be
best
settled by an honorable
of
could
effects
of
results
Boeotia
he
chosen
The disastrous
op
The
was so
his
of
for the
He held up to
peace.
whom
the
war party.
that the basic
lasting
bitterly
Aristophanes,
Acharnians, Aristophanes made
admitted
blame for the
and
of
poets, in
In the
trivial,5
the
of
Sparta
of
longing
comic
the
attack on
as
weary
was
spokesmen.
war
fell
democracy.
oligarchic
for the destruction
life in the city and
Of these people, the
were
were
to support any movement for
revenge
orchards,8
they
the
of
his hatred
though
refused
demanded
and
in the
opposition was
farmer,
small
weight;
1
which
property tax,
of a
developments
new
their
center of
imposition
heavy
with
93
Ibid.,
of
peaceful
delightful way he
p. in.
228 et seq.
32 et seq.
Ibid., 524
et
seq., 509
et seq.
'Ibid., 513 et seq.
Aristophanes and the Political Parties
ilbid., 572 et seq., 597. Croiset,
1909), PP- 58 et seq.
Loeb
(London,
trans,
by
at Athens,
8 Arist. Acharn. 623 et seq.
opposed
the
to the
man who
himself to the
Off to
wine and
paths ye
the
his
wine and a
from his
vigil
song
from the banquet
rocks, murmuring
an appeal to the farmers to
of
Hellas
most of
leaders
power
to the
support
to the
were rife
;
and
the
who
put
women and
and
the
Party
and
the
fell into Spartan hands
Athenians
Spartans
retaliated
to death
all
the
to
or
in kind.
of
ancient
in Mytilene the
leaders
war.
their
of
crime and
forgotten.4
intensity
were
of
The
feeling.
killed forthwith
When Plataea fell the
men who remained and sold
on
the
brought
into slavery with no softening
After the defeat of the oligarchic
Athenians,
'Arist. Acharn. 1083
the
strife
children
custom.5
the
on
assure
violence,
religion and oaths were
by
back
The democratic
arisen.
Athenians,
hardened
dizzy
The play was
the movement for peace.
Lacedaemonians.
to the
practices of war were
Sailors
head
Healer.3
establish
many terrible calamities; anarchy
perfidy
with
warrior comes
confusion as a result
factions had
endeavoring to
by appealing
oligarchs
in
was
the cities,
were
The
wounded, dizzy-headed from a fall
a prayer
All
lasses.2
with the sweetest of
his lips.
on
cold,
antagonist passes
hours
man of peace returns
thrushes and
pleasures.1
his head;
wreaths on
Lonely
while
may de
bold,
watch and shiver with
sweetest of
eat
life
tread ;
One to
The
from
cloaks,
enjoy his
duties my heroes
your
Different truly the
One to drink with
The
has
secured peace and
couch and soft
meats, drink his
choice
the hardships of the soldier's
pictures of
the
picture of
vote
In
[488
HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE
94
the motion of
Cleon,
of
revolt
et seq.
1143
the
voted
2
Rogers, Aristophanes, Acharnians (London, 1910),
'Ibid., 1 190 et seq.
*
Thucydides iii, 82.
''Ibid., ii, 67; iii, 68; cf. Glover, op. cit., p. 134.
the
et seq.
to
THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR
489]
to death.
put all male citizens
and
on
guilty.1
in this affair,
in
and
the comic poets protested,
tribute,
for
Babylonians,
and
They reconsidered
this action,
the ground of better policy killed
only the most
Against the general policy of Cleon towards the
allies as exemplified
the
95
he
which
of
the
prosecuted,2
was
Eupolis in the Poleis in
later increase
a
Aristophanes in
unsuccessfully
which
he
the
represented
cities
appearing in person and begging for
The capture of the Spartans at Pylos in 425 furnished an
opportunity for peace. The Spartans offered peace, alli
relief.3
as
"
friendly
ance and
relations.
instead
choosing
peace
and rest
to all the
the
imperialistic
Cleon,
had
jected.
in
a
The
The
reconciled
ourselves, let
The
credit
peace
and,
us give relief
for the
peace
hopes
were
the
and
disappointment
great
be
us
hopeful, but
party
the
democracy, led by
among
element
gained new
beautiful
Let
Hellenes."
Athens.4
to
would go
of war
Spartan
was voiced
offer was re
by
Euripides
plaint :
Ah, Peace, exceeding rich and of the blessed gods most beauti
ful, how long dost thou delay. I fear that old age will over
its burdens
whelm me with
ere
I
see
thee,
ing with the beautifully dancing
loving festal processions. Come to the
graceful
drive fearful tumult from
and makes
The
merry
following
with
year
this plea, but in
so
our
the
city, august
dwellings
garland-
Queen,
and strife
that
and
rages
steel.5
sharpened
Aristophanes, in his Gcorgoi,
doing
appear
one,
thy
and
choruses
expressed
the longings
of
mimicked
the Attic
farmers.
O
Peace,
be
granted me
1
-
exceeding
Thucydides
Croiset,
to
iii,
Meineke,
'
Thucydides
iv,
ed.
yoked oxen
;
cf.
Busolt,
dig
op.
!
When
the ditch
cit.,
vol.
iii,
pp. 40 ct seq.
op. cit., vol.
'Euripides,
O
from war, to
36 et seq.
op. cit.,
8
rich and ye
cease
i,
p. 140.
20, 21.
Xauck, 3
vols.
(Leipzig, 1892-5), fr.
462.
and
shall
it
then to
p. 1030.
[490
HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE
96
to drink
rest and
the oily bread
new wine and consume
and
cabbage.1
Cleon
dides
his
was
charged
rogueries
less
Thucy
many sharp attacks.
that he favored war because in quiet times
the
of
subject
would
be
more
transparent and
Aristophanes, in
credible.2
the
Knights,
his
slanders
accused
him
gain fresh
preventing the peace, not that Athens might
while he kept the people crowded in the city
but
that
glory
of
he
might
haze
and
view
he
hold
the
them
dust
of war was
might plunder
Athenian forces
Delium
in dependence
the
that while the
obscuring his
actions
from
will.3
cities at
defeated in the
were
by Brasidas,
and
in the Chalcidice.
him,
on
the
following
the
ablest of
The Athenians then
years at
Spartan generals,
attempted
to
secure
peace, but without success. In the final battle at Amphipolis
both Cleon and Brasidas were killed. The two chief ob
stacles
to the making
both
conservatives on
agreed upon.
Nicias,
terms
The Spartan
were overruled.
of
of
after
were
into
sides came
thus
removed.
The
control and peace was
allies were
dissatisfied, but they
The treaty, which is known as the Peace
the Athenian commander, provided for
mutual restorations and peace
for
fifty
years.4
Aristophanes burst forth into jubilations in a play called
Peace? He represented the farmers as rejoicing in the
advent of peace.
One Trygaeus has scaled Olympus to find
the
the goddess
disgusted
Peace, only
with
to be told
Hellas because
by
Hermes that the gods,
its failure to
determined to grind the
of
war, had buried Peace and
pieces in a huge mortar.
With the death
1
Aristophanes,
2
Thucydides
f r.
of
end
cities
Cleon
109.
v, 16.
3
Arist., Knights 790 et seq.
Meyer, op. cit., vol. iv, pp.
5Croiset, op. cit, pp. no et
'
411 et seq.
seq.
Thucydides
the
v, 16, 17.
to
and of
491
THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR
]
Brasidas their
hails this
pestles
as a glorious
farmers,
lenes,
islanders
up Peace.
and
The
craftsmen,
him in the
Only
ranks
and
the
who
Hermes
aside.2
bribed to
keep
The
After
the
The farmers
and
lay
the
festivals, flutes, thrushes,
wordlets
may despair, but the
...
the vat, full-bosomed
of
sickles
return
and
arms
be
crest-maker and the
manufacturer
their
rejoice.
to their
fig
"
Peace
their farms.
Euripidean
The
spear-burnisher
aside
must
Peace is brought into
an effort
cities are reconciled.
pitchfork-maker
and
stand
shields,
silent.
sword-cutler and
trees
its
in the task, midst laughter
the Megarians, the dissatisfied ones,
who sells spears and
view.
digging
task of
throws away
nation
Hel
aliens,
have been gaining from both sides, the profes
soldier who desires a commission, and the merchant
Argives
sional
Hellenic
Trygaeus
to engage
and squadrons
dancing.
artisans,
unite with
whole
however.
and calls upon all
opportunity
merchants,
all, to
lost,1
had been
g7
smells of
the
plays,
harvests, banquets,
odes of Sophocles,
bleating lambs,
the
matrons
.
.
the
.
the
tipsy
ivy-leaf,
maid, the
blessing."
drained
and
empty flask,
Think
of all
Comrades,
All the life
Which
Figs
and
many
the thousand pleasures,
which
to Peace we owe,
of ease and comfort
she gave us
and
another
long
ago :
olives, wines and myrtles,
Luscious fruits, preserved and dried.
Banks of fragrant violets, blowing
By the crystal fountain-side;
Scenes for which our hearts are yearning,
Joys
that we
have
missed so
Comrades, here is Peace
Greet her back
1
2
dance
and
song.*
Arist., Peace 204 et seq.
seq.
Ibid., 301 et seq., 441 et
Ibid., 434 et seq., 529
(London, 1013)*
with
long,
returning
Ibid.,
571 et seq.
et seq.,
545
ct
seq., 1210
ct
seq., trans,
by
Rogers
HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE
98
The
be
could never
There
the two
feeling
no good
by
the young and
at
Athens.
Mantinea
rise and
In
which
Athens
a war
Justice
refused
were
into
of
one
in
vain
The
restless
Sicilian
brought
on
but
Egypt, had
were
the
in
an
refused
the
blot
situation.
The Melians
All
the
in the
orators
play, the
sold
name
next
It is thought
Troades,
who
the rest
and
on
it to
compel
of
century
by
some
was written as
action.3
imperialistic leaders
soon
involved the city in
expedition which resulted so
the
a renewal of
war
advantag
join the
to
the
practice.
to death
to explain away.
this
to
overwhelmed.
greatest
Athenian
powerful
of
Sparta
The little island
episode.
Euripides'
a protest against
the
Melian
age were put
which
in
The battle
prestige of
alone controlled
was
which
isolated.1
with
surrender,
military
It
endeavored
the
expediency
honor involved danger in
to
Argos
with
settlement which was
slavery.2
Athens,
that
caused
how
which
war
party led
back into power
came
in the Peloponnesus.
Military
and
these
The Athenians decided to
Athenian Empire.
submit.
in it.
minimize
The
support.
made
consent
acquiesce
defensive alliance,
was
was again
for trade
eous position
To
sides.
Alcibiades
followed
Dorian
a
both
in its
reckless
alliance
in entirety
had refused to
the
without
a
the famous
416 came
Melos,
of
An
Athens in
volved
on
cities concluded
had
ever
who
allies
infractions
were
The treaty
unstable.
thoroughly
out
carried
the Spartan
of
to be
peace proved
[492
war
dragged along
with
disastrously
in Greece.
and
From that time
varying success, with many
by both sides. The oli
useless attempts to secure peace
garchs made
their effort to secure control
1
Meyer,
2
Thucydides v, 85
3
Glover,
op. cit., vol.
op.
cit.,
et
pp.
iv,
pp.
seq.,
157
465
cf.
et seq.
Grundy,
et seq.
op.
cit.,
p. 356.
of
Athens
and
THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR
493]
peace
with
Sparta,
but
were
99
Finally,
overthrown.
after
Persia had been drawn into the struggle, Lysander, the new
Spartan leader, won the battle of ^Egospotami. Athens fell,
the Long Walls were pulled down to the music of flutes,
Hellas
and
free.1
was
Throughout the
that the
clared
cease
until
Aristophanes
period
He did
ponent of peace.
had
gods
the
wolf
the lamb
worked
through
Hellas.
In the Acharnians he
the alarms
full
was
allowed
of the
to
the
sufferings of
always
chances
the
Lysistrata,
women whose
The responsibility for
He
of
to blame
of
power
turers
war
and
their
the
the
the
poet
were
fear
of
girl whose
laid
wrath of
Spartan
compelled
rulers.4
He
who
upon
to
hatred
people were
suffer
seeking
soldier,
the
the farmers
accused as
were
professional
of
the
gain.5
pursuing
personal
state while
the
for the
perpetua-
position,
manufac
In the final
they were seek
they were actually
analysis
1
Meyer, op. cit, vol. iii, pp. 550 ct seq.
Arist., Peace 1075, 6.
*
Arist., Lysistrata, 99 et seq., 585 et seq.
2
0
they
without
of munitions, all who pretended that
ing the best interests
*
The Peace
when
and admitted equal
that the
be
demagogues
graft,
the
war
fields
and should not
evil machinations of
tors
the
But he declared
Sparta.
of
for
and
later play, he wrote of
husbands and sons were
the righteous
recognized
the destruction
not
a
peace
of peace.
country homes
but he
hardships
perpetual
away at the wars and of the unmarried
destroyed.8
for happiness were thus
leaders.
at
secure
compared the
the farmers
of
to their
In the
de
never
should
united,2
were
the happiness
jubilation
return
the invaders.
to
plays
of war with
the great pro
that wars
willed
and
his
was
not agree with the man who
I 'ide
supra, p.
93 ; Peace
Vide supra, p. 93;
cf.
627
et seq.
Croiset,
op.
cit,
pp.
54
et seq.
the
cause of
HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE
I00
war
of
women
peace,
In his
the
all
to
hellenic.
He did
for Athens
sisterhood
had
who
not
Aristophanes
of
Spartans for
all
fighting
possibility
of
his
in her
basis
for the
mind
than
rather
endeavors
of
to
the common
Athenians
bickering,3
and
Pan-
thoroughly
for Hellas
women, rebuked the
their
in the
was
speak
efforts were
So Lysistrata,
friendship on the
and
the
remove
the
establish
make
hesitate to
All his
to
peace.1
to
men
Lysistrata,
the
combined
alone.2
peace
to unity
the
general attitude
hated Spartans.
secure
states
compel
In
money.
the treasury, thus to
seized
gain and
desire for
the
was
[494
and
and called
the
them
brotherhood.
name of religion and
And now, dear friends, I wish to chide you both,
That ye, all of one blood, all brethren sprinkling
The
At
selfsame altars
Pylae, Pytho,
And many
In the
and
with
Armed, looking
fight
poet's
was
dream
peaceful
Thucydides,
He began to
it
others which
the
on1
and
of peace
its very
laver,
ay
'twere long to name,
barbarian foes
intercourse
Athenian,
write at
selfsame
Olympia,
That ye, Hellenes
blend in
wars.6
from the
and
destroy Hellenes !
the reconciled
and
wrote
laugh for
the
history
*
cities greet
joy.5
of
beginning, because he
the
war.
felt that
going to be great and memorable above all
His own part in the war ended with his exile
other
after
defeat in Thrace for which as general he was held respon
sible, and he was able to devote himself to the gathering of
his materials. Though he had been himself a
general, was
the historian of a war and wrote his
as a text-book
a
history
1
Arist, Lysis.
487
'Id., Lysis.
1159
'Ibid., 1 128
iId., Peace
et seq.
*
et seq.
et seq.
538 et seq.
Thucydides i,
1.
2Arist, Peace
302 et al.
THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR
495]
for later
statesmen
supporter
But he
of
pointed out the
to Hellas
and
:
by
of
the capture
by
was
this
regarded
war
no
means a
inevitable.
as
many calamities which it had brought
and depopulation of cities, the exiles
debasement
the slaughter, and especially the
acter, both
In
generals, he
and
He
war.
I0I
of char
of cities and of men.
prosperity both states and individuals are actuated
higher motives, because they do not fall under the dominion
imperious necessities; but war which takes away the com
peace and
fortable
provision of
life is
daily
assimilate men's character
a
to their
hard
tends to
master and
conditions.1
He knew, too, how to draw a picture of the hardships of
he wrote of the sufferings of the Athenians after
war when
the
plague and of
the terrors of the
retreat
from Syracuse.
Besides the reasoning which showed that the conflict be
Athens and Sparta was necessary and inevitable,
tween
speeches which
tions of the
sized the
war
against
arguments
many
Thucydides
appear
general
Again
various parties.
fact that
in
composed
to
represent
in the
the
posi
and again was empha
war was a matter of
chance, hazardous
to both sides, that men began with blows and then when
defeated had recourse to words, though the exercise of pru
beginning.2
The
dence would have restrained them in the
sufferings of
greater
than
the
in
state
lands,"
houses
and
for
houses
and
lands
3
men."
stowed
The
1
Upon the
the highest
said
men
143-
its
of
Pericles,
"
men so
lost,
the
held to be
men was
"
property.
Mourn
but for
may gain, but they
state and
not
men.
will
not
for
For
gain
its leaders be
honors.4
clearest statement of
Thuc. iii, 82.
'Id., i,
in the loss
the loss of
the
whole problem of peace and
a/rf., i, 81; iv,
'Id.,
11,46.
20,62.
HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE
I02
in the
war was
The Sicilians held
cusan.
deavor to
secure
had brought
who
ing words the
You
by
among themselves.
the meeting,
and
ignorance
deems the
is
which
smallest
of
Hermocrates,
presented
in
no minc
therefore I shall not rehearse to you at
Nobody is
of war.
and no one who
advantage greater
But
compelled)
thinks that
The
truth
he
is that the
risk
any
when such
and
than
feelings
any
aggres
the
side
the
suffer
on
unseasonably the time for offering
operate
to go to
will gain
than the suffering ;
attacked would sooner run
immediate loss.
either
en
in Sicily.
thing from it is deterred by fear.
sor
in 424 B. C. to
a congress
about
the misery
all
to Hermocrates the Syra-
peace
situation
know
well
length,
war
ascribed
speech
[496
the
part
counsel
has arrived, and such counsels if we will only listen
to them will be at this moment invaluable to us.
Why did we
of peace
go
to
?
war
Simply
from
a consideration of our own
interests,
and with a view
by means
of
not
before
to
"
The
The
who are
nor
full
of
and
being
hope.
ficent, for
they
;
and
in getting
the
if,
after
all,
our respective
threatening danger
I do
and
not
willing to
trying
we
do
rights,
craft
of
of
Athenian domi
the
blame those
Athenians
who wish
are
to rule,
serve."
is
The justice
wrong is
of a
cause,
merely because
it is most
victory
not always successful
strength most assured of
The inscrutable future is the
the most treacherous
where
there is
of all
mutual
fear,
appealed
for peace,
when
controller of events
things is the most
men
make aggressions upon one another.
Then he
individual
we are now
no sufficient guarantee of success.
revenge of a
it is just ;
obtain peace
ambition
pardonable enough.
he held to be
interests
war again.
pointed out
nation.
but those
our
we separate succeed
we shall go
He
discussion to
to
'bene
think twice before
THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR
497]
And why if
peace
blessings,
should
of
Whatever
likely
And has
?
other
by
unattended
dilate
of
Greek
the
the
prime of
Peloponnesian
human, in
am
his
He
war.
his
contrast with
the
he
was
in the
was carried
the
intensely
was
'
interested in
things
human relations,
dealt with the great
of a
the
except
Thucydides
Cf. Dechanfe,
peace and
To Euripides they
lover
of
appealed
bitter
lies,
vilest
of
the goddesses,
Menelaus
that
the
and
cit}-.
weavers of webs of
for their
men,
fame,
(London, 1883), iv, 59
seq.
op. cit.. pp. i-'S ct
of
mistreat
Hermione,
He called
guile, covet
immoral
the most
martial
as
of
Yet
wealth.8
Sparta into advocacy
attack on
of
nurse
and
which concerned
by
he hailed
whom
peace,
of
happiness
hatred
princess
princes of
murderers,
Jowett,
of
Greek politics, had
relationships of
a
by
away
chiefly
women, and,
1
during
prytaneum
men.2
The Andromache,
the Spartans
ous
despising
educated
Sophocles had treated
giver of
ment of the Trojan
consisted
of
to
miseries
manhood at the outbreak of the
beautiful
and most
children and
war.
own
them.1
the
of
predecessors who
essentially
richest
the
her
the
on
instead
Salamis,
the leader
universe.
as vital elements
fair
and
his safety in
war as an academic question.
the
not
alleviate
the solution of the problems of
problems of
He
than
becoming
was
to
and glories of
more
saying,
year of
Athens
when
wisdom as well as
reached
by
I
us, is
of
any
(But it is unnecessary
any
man seek
Euripides, born in
days
honors
of war?
of peace
what
portion of
greatest
ourselves?
among
preserve the one and
not peace
my words, may every
the
to
to be the
all
peace
make
is the
the dangers
Consider
war.)
not
war
blessings
the
on
than
by
acknowledged
we
of good or evil
peace more
the
is
T.03
the
of
meanest of
et seq.
; Botsford
and
Sihler,
op. cit.,
p. 34-
"Euripides, Suppliants,
ct seq.
489-491;
Bacchantes, 419-420; Orestes,
1682
[498
HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE
I04
In
mankind.'
Trojan
in the
war
Menelaus
the war,
she
"
Hellas
had
put
the
the
arguments
for
were responsible
for
into
wrought
nevertheless
ignorant
who were
turned them to manly deeds.
causes
the
the chief
one of
that, if Helen
claimed
For those
:
he
play,
Menelaus,
braggart captain,
war.
same
of
mouth of
concerning the
argument
an
boon for
great
a
of arms and
Fellowship
battle's
in the fight is the
"
men."
teacher of all things to
great
The
the
on
had
caused
throng
las,
keep
the
Troy
peace at
off
in
Those
among those like
who
geneia,
fatherland
might
prayed
that her
among
men
walls.8
it
clear
in boldness
as
bring
peace
youth who
had died
of
Menoeceus,
live.7
with
be
et
Helen 38-41; fr.
fr.
556.
fr.
1039.
Id., Troades
and
the latter
hated to play
honor,
Creon,
et
fr.
a crown
than
they
characters
and Iphi-
up their lives that the
wife
of
Erechtheus,
outward show within the
was
seq.; 724
like
Parthenopaeus,
et seq.
1067.
400 et seq. ;
'7(7., Phocnissae 995
'Id.,iv. 364.
use
mixed with
Id., Andromache 681-4.
'Id.,
'Id.,
'Id.,
was
such as would win renown
in war, not by vain
The poet's ideal citizen
445
Hel
that he
his finest
son of
give
Praxithea,
sons might
Euripides, Andromache
made
Some
willing to
were
mightiest son of
regarded as more alive
dishonor.0
were
with
might
who
glory to their city, he
her troublous
He felt the danger in the
He despised the
war.5
bringing
that Zeus
Greece.3
Euripides
former
lived
6
glory to the
price.
any
who
2
relieve mother earth of
bring
in
part
old epic argument
without courage
foes.*
for their
gods
the
and punish
though the
man
to
other writings
intelligence
folly,
repeated
war
men, to
of
for
never
of
He
the
to ruin
In his
of
the
poet reproached
strife.
363.
seq.; Iphigeneia in Aulis 1378
et seq.
THE PBLOPONNESIAN WAR
499]
Arcadian,
though
who
host like
when
the city
He
Greece.3
choice of
praised
He
the
attacked
obtain power or gold
of
the
the
no
felt,
to
thus
people
had
he
state on
liking.
that
ambition as
ized how
man
Thousands
by
and
had
strained
of
peace
win praise or
the bow to
its train followed injustice,
sufferings of
trophy.5
He
Every
regarded
man
real
than
war.
they had chosen
beyond the
war,
for
mankind
eyes
In
mark.7
shoot
man
In the
the
warrior
was
before their
overthrown city.
to
by
from
glory of itself he
humble lives were sacrificed.
For
greatest curse of
Yet
part of
and
uprisings
men who
men."
better
justice
for themselves drove the leaders
misused.4
much
ill.1
went
the better
civil
and
a general might erect a
the
as
who
war and considered not
with ambition
had
discretion
wise
the young
to
Argive
rejoiced
against useless war and coun
away battles
took
advice
good
things
prospered and grieved when
prudence, the
valor.2
the
stood midst the spears of
Argive born, fought for the land,
an
Nevertheless, he inveighed
seled
IC>5
had
enslaved man and
had
end men
yielded
to
city
stern
facts.8
Madmen,
in war,
all ye who seek advantages
to lay
mighty spears, seeking senselessly
life. If struggles of blood be ever judge
cities of
shall strife withdraw from the
aside
of
peace, then
men.9
1
Euripides,
'Id.,
Suppliants 896-8.
Suppliants 506-510,
'Id., fr.
284,
161-2.
23-28.
'Id., Suppliants 229-37, 160.
8
Id., Andromache 694 ct seq.
'Id.,
''Id.,
Phocnissae 53!-4. 812.
Suppliants 479
'Ibid..
'Id.,
493
et seq.
Helen
iiSi-7-
et seq.,
743
ct seq.
fighting
with
the burdens
of
never
HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE
I06
If
considered
men
for
death for themselves
war, then never
would not
would
be dashed to
that the sword could
posed as
the
they
to pass,
bring
is
seus
burial
represented as
of the dead
the
sue
In the
of
This
done,
he
poet was not
strife, the thunder and
and
the
field
heaps
of
Here The
compel
to
refused
impressed
the
pur
by
the
of mailed
Ares,
Above the
clash
ring
only destruction, ruin and sorrow.
shields he heard the groan and shriek
the
pro
a remark
home.3
saw
saw on
Euripides
to Thebes to
and returned
battle the
scenes of
glorious martial
but
having
gone
chieftains.
further
conquest
this
He drew
in the Suppliants.
able picture of self-restraint
voted
Hellas
and
vote
could accomplish all
and
problem.2
the
they
when
their
Reason
ruin.1
solution of
cast
[500
of
dying
the
and
the shattered chariots, the rivers of gore
corpses.4
On many occasions, especially in the Hecuba and the
Troades, Euripides wrote of the sufferings occasioned by
war, the
grief
Trojans,
lot
of
the grey-haired
of
both among the
victorious
who were
the
deprived
younger women
women
Hellenes
of
their sons,
Troy,
of
and
and
aged
the
conquered
and
many
of
men
the terrible
whom
saw
husbands slain, their children torn from their arms
dashed to death upon the ground and who were them
their
and
selves
dragged into slavery to
hands
of
Euripides
suffer
fresh
outrages at
the
Greeks.5
the
echoed the
application more
thought
direct,
when
Sophocles and made the
he declared that war took
of
1
Euripides, Suppliants 481-5.
Id., Phoenissae 515 et seq. Suppliants 747 et seq.
'Id., Suppliants 724 et seq.
4
Id., Children of Heracles 832 et seq. Phoenissae
Suppliants 684 et seq.
2
'Id.,
et
seq.,
Troades
et
a!.;
371
et
seq., 562
Andromache
et
106 et
seq.,
seq.,
et
1 192
al.; Hecuba 473
et al.
et
et
seq.
seq., 154
501
THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR
]
the
most
men, the
excellent
valiant
i0y
left
youths, and
the
To the city this is a calamity for the noblest to
and a loss, he said, that can never be replaced.
For
coward.
x
die ;
"
loss that
the one
mortal
the life of man, though
he
who would
he
considers
So Euripides
O
deal
death
never make good again
wealth
his
may be
the
war upon
2
is this,
rewon."
state will
desolation
sorrow and
exhorted
Surely,
hesitate
when
follow.3
which will
countrymen.
mortals, why do
miserable
out
bring
the
may
upon each other?
yet get yourselves spears and
Stop and
withdraw
from these
Peaceful, 'mid the peaceful, guard your towns. Short
is your span of life. Best then to pass through it as gently as
toils.
may be,
not worn
by
burdens.4
Thus the difficulties
and
the advancing
of the
ease and
the other, had led the
war
and
to cry for
fifth century,
luxury
writers
peace.
of
on the one
and culture of
the period to
Among
the
people
of
the
advantages of peace and a
tration had failed to
century
ned all
saw
accomplish
the downfall
of
who
of
i
Euripides, fr.
2
Id.,
3
Id., Children
*
Id.,
1
>ok
745-
of Heracles
Suppliants
But the
728.
Suppliants
949-954-
161 et
for it.
end
the tyrant city that had
Surely the people might
happy independence.
Hellas.
long period
it.
longing
seq.; Suppliants 591.
on
condemn
suffered so many hardships there had come, too, a
tion
hand,
life
had
realiza
Arbi
of
the
threat-
forward to
a
CHAPTER V
The Fourth Century
The opening
of
events
the Peloponnesian war,
for
the
peace
Ere
long,
with
more a rival of
former
to
accomplish
the growing
was crippled
Persian
Sparta,
greatness and
and
help,
power
Hellenes to
but
empire.
of
allow
not
Thebes
hoped for
as
Athens
beyond
to
repair.
once
a renewal of
her
The tyranny of the Thirty
further hope of estab
there was no
an
democratic
parties
real attempt
held
them
To
had
in
had been
apart.
other grown
cities against oligarchic
made
to lessen the
Nor had their hatred
any the
Sparta.
differences
No
which
distrust
of each
arisen.
Thebes
and
less.1
complicate matters a new power
had
Her
strong on the misfortunes of Athens.
had been increased by refugees, her wealth had
grown
population
been
magnified greatly by plunder
Boeotian League had been
and
her
control over
strengthened.2
stood
the Persian
ested
in
1
nothing.
afresh, became
she rose
and even
so much
settled
oligarchy in Athens. She remained a democracy
the rallying point for all democratic cities and for all
lishing
and
Athens
overthrown
was
much
the condemnation of all
be destroyed.
was
Hellas, had actually
of
Sparta feared too
well as
the fourth century proved that
which
Meyer,
keeping
op.
cit,
2Oxyrhyncus
108
king
and
his
any Hellenic
vol.
v, pp. I,
Hellenica,
On the
outside
They were inter
from becoming too
satraps.
power
et seq.
xii, in Botsford
and
the
Sihler,
op.
cit.,
p. 386.
[502
THE FOURTH CENTURY
503]
strong and in regaining
this
Persian
Empire, for which
Hellenes bargained, gave it
lenic
both
among the warring
influence in Hel
sides
dominating
a
affairs.
The
a
Once
cities.
accomplished, it would be to the interest of Per
trade to have peace in the ^Egean. The wealth of the
were
sian
be
Asiatic
the
control over
j.09
freedom to Hellas
gift of
delusion.
The
small states
by
Spartans
the
had but
proved
to
exchanged masters.
Spartan military hegemony interposed its iron hand in place
of Athenian control.
Lysander, anxious to secure power
and
glory for himself
Spartan influence
of
into
were
driven
control of
how to deal.
the
To
under
risons
Sparta,
saw
to it that
the former allies
was
boards
out and
With
states.
keep
harmosts
"
sult
for
among
The democratic leaders who were favorable
Athens.
Athens
as well as
was established
them
in
power
were placed
oppression
plunder,
of ten
such
men
to
were put
bodies Sparta knew
Lacedaemonian
in the
gar
The
cities.
re
Spartan
and
military force, and therefore required
It would endure only so long
maintain it.
force
to
military
Meanwhile her
and sea.
land
supreme
on
as Sparta was
power was
based
planning revenge
With the decline
fell, but
Thebes
against
share
and
the hatred
Corinth,
Athens, felt
they
The
and
of
and
of
the
the
populace
power of
fear
and
who
of
was
the
were
exiles
becoming
restive.
Lysander the decarchies
Sparta did
had borne their
not
decrease.
share of
the
that they had been deprived of
Spartan ambition frightened
the rewards.
lead.1
Sparta's
follow
to
refused
war with
Ten Thousand
Greeks in
Everywhere
increasing.
were
enemies
on
gave
a great
1
Persia
which
to Sparta
Panhellenic
followed the
an
march
opportunity to
movement.
Botsford, Hellenic History,
Allies in
ch. xxi.
war
their
them
of the
unite the
Thessaly
HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE
II0
[504
Hellenic
had already been secured in the formation of an
of Aga
steps
the
in
Agesilaus planned to follow
league.
sacrifice.
He
memnon and led his forces to Aulis for a
his
misused
appointments
Thebes
and
his
men
there
The
had
gone, Agesilaus
making
in Greece
proceeded
considerable
called
him
wage war once again
headway
common
Athens, Thebes, Corinth,
islands formed a league, and in 395
Though it
began.
Gorgias
hopes,
to lay aside
seemed
Conon,
Athenian,
victory
off
Cnidus
and
the
of
then
Long
which
with
Walls
admiral
of
many
to
all
urged
and unite
for
of
Hel
the
war
the
Greeks
a great war
impossible.
the
Persian
destroyed Spartan
and
Panhellenic
this
fleet,
In 393
won
a
naval suprem
Persian money aided in the rebuilding
Athens. Persia knew well how to pre
of
among the Greeks. Athens,
to lift her head and hope for a renewal of
vent united action
able
of
the Corinthian
put an end
made
event
and
the orators,
local differences
One
an
acy,
to
Lysias,3
and
these
Persia.
with
2
cause
for the freedom
Argos
las.
Asia Minor,
against Persia
to
home.1
Sparta had found
of
enemies
to
to join
Theban cavalry scattered
openly hostile.
Though all chance of a Panhel-
was
united
gift of
by
sacrifice.
was
when events
the
refused
allies
Other Greeks
his friends.
was
at the
lenic army
and
to
his
and alienated
powers
once again
wealth and
empire, began the formation of a new league among the
Sparta.4
islanders and refused to follow the lead of
In
land.
1
3
spite of
her
naval
The Boeotians
defeat Sparta
were
was still supreme on
discouraged
and an attempt was
Meyer, op. cit., vol. v, pp. 204 et seq. ; Xenophon,
(Oxford, 1900), Hellenica vii, 1, 3, 4.
ed.
Marchant
vols.
2
Philostratus, Vita Sophistarum ed. Kayser (Leipzig, 1870-1), 9, 2.
ed. Heide, Oxford 1913 Olympiakos; cf.
Jebb, Attic Orators
from Antiphon to Isaeus (2nd ed., London, 1893), vol. i, p. 155.
s
Lysias,
4
Meyer,
op. cit, vol. v, pp. 238 et seq.
THE FOURTH CENTURY
505]
in the
made
Greeks,
she
Athenian fleet
tenance of the
if
that
out
reminded
gained
and
had
suffered and
that
That to
Athenians."
2
clearly,
following
victory
on
year
land.
Peace
could not
King
fair
seem
prospered
with
that she
had
Sparta he held
the
and
all
He
peace
of
war
of
nor
just
you
the Athenian
arms
nor
peace
is
to
the
much
understand
be secured, however.
Iphicrates won a
general
The tide began to turn
To have Sparta
to Persia.
she appealed
Great
regained power.
intervals
men
enter upon a
war
the orator,
peace.
; that Athens had
the
out
on the
had been disturbed
lost in every
the
neither
to
the
nor
For the crushing
than to carry on
wiser
The
during
city.
that Athens had
money.
was crushed
power
property
opposition
democracy
them that the
her
waged with
"
and
was
they held
Andocides,
their allies
neither
Athens
when
and
Sparta,
lost lands
event of victory.
Athe
old
the dangers
of
and
the fruition of the dreams of
would allow
only
follow,
might
the
main
before Sparta
were made
to break down the
endeavored
talked
an
all
the
allow
But the
walls.1
They
control.
peace
losses that
Chersonese in the
He
and
the recovery of the
of
pointed
in
was
the
of
crushed,
hopes
party
democracy
to the
freedom to
grant
the seas, and to
of
Sparta
secure peace.
willing to
was
common use
nian war
to
winter of 392-1
that
nounced
m
against
Sparta
and
crushed was not
to
In addition, the Lacedae
Once
price for support.
his
monians were willing to pay
her
and
allies,
his financial aid was withdrawn from Athens
the interest
they
King
Sardis,
1
the Great King.
naught
but
of which
accept
Meyer,
of
Clazomenae
his
terms.
proclamation was
this
Artaxerxes deems it
the islands
2
do
could
met at
of
right
and
that the
Cyprus
ed.
conference
the
cities of
should
belong
op. cit.. pp. 251, 2.
Andocides
A
Blass (Leipzig, 1906), On the Peace.
outcome :
Asia
with
to himself.
HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE
II2
The remaining cities,
pendent,
three
which
the
of
or
formerly
as
those
with
them
who share
by land
and
principle
had been
With the
exception of
cities, the
brought
sea,
broken up
that
League
the
in
Sparta
the
might
peace
mean
was not
Exiles
cities were
again
life
and menaced
went
Asiatic
taken
of
of
vindicated
in
weaker states nor
was
Sparta.3
in
were none
easily trans
Decarchies
a new series of
armed
mercenary
property throughout the land.
during
the
v,
1,
Botsford, Hellenic History,
the
period of
peace.
31
;
cf.
To
the
Meyer,
punish
op.
peace
than
Blass,
2
vols.
ch. xxi.
(Leipzig,
Mantinea for
cit., vol. v,
op. cit., p. 108.
ed.
hopes
principles
concluded.4
Xenophon, Hellenica
4Isocrates,
the
there
and
followed
there
wandered
and
was so
The Boeo
The
et seq.
'Cf. Glover,
Athens
seas.
had been
injured
friends
and
up
Sparta herself broke
2
the
generally understood that she
Persian backing.2 Her power
was
the rule of the
before it had been
1
it
gainsay her, none to protect the
itself against her. Autonomy
revolutions.
More
It
peace with
were once again set
bands
and with
the
remained the gainer.
which she stood
word.
enforce
lated to
a new
armed enforcement of peace.
naval power of
disbanded
was
force for
not
the
and
in the Peloponnesus
that
kai autonomia,
shameful surrender of
pirates once more ruled
Only
of armed
to
money.1
eminently fair and just. In fact, it
confusion.
The Athenian maritime alli
shattered
fact if
peace,
will wage war against
with ships and with
the
the
Should any
I, Artaxerxes,
peace seemed
untold
Thebes.
my views,
inde
Scyros.,
and
to Athens.
of eleutheria
added
ance was
was
belong
to
to leave
wishes
Lemnos, Imbros,
of
are
To the familiar terms
tian
great, he
small and
exception
parties concerned not accept this
together
him
the
with
506
1885), Peace.
pp.
267
THE FOURTH CENTURY
507]
disaffection
she crushed and
II3
destroyed that
Then
city.1
a
Spartan commander without justification seized the citadel
of Thebes.
When he was tried at Sparta for his infraction
of the peace, Agesilaus defended him on the ground
that
he had acted for the best interests of the state and he escaped
with a fine.
The citadel was kept.2
To the
north a
group
of states were
tion to the problem of peace and
offering a new solu
Olynthus in the
federal union. Citi
unity.
Chalcidice had become the center of a
in each state of the league were
given full rights of
in
other
state
and
thus were held together
citizenship
every
by a common interest. Even those who had been forced
into the organization soon lost their local interests in the
zens
Its growing
welfare of the whole.
had
thian
goal of
the
a world
had been destroyed
union
had
reached
its
Sparta.
by
a
Federalism
When the
short
war, Spartan
Agesilaus had
climax.
Olyn-
attained the
led his city to these achievements was Agesilaus,
the Lacedaemonian spirit, patriotic, ambi
man who
embodiment of
tious
efficient, but
and
tested the
age of
right or
Sparta,
blood
The
these
armed
preparing
and
unprogressive alike
in humanism
by
every
vision, limited to brute
wrong
whose
of
forces
action
roused through
a man who
the sole
advant
power, took no
Hellas
by
his policy
iron.3
and
moral
ideals,
with stunted
art, in statesmanship
account of the moral
forces
forces
to
crush
of
of
Diodorus Siculus
8
Xenophon, Hellenica,
Athens
and
disappointment
the
1
'
Spartans.
his desires.
in military
of
by
ruled by
power was regarded as a
the
neighbors and
in
no place
power
The
its
by
menace
power cf
xv. 1.
v. 2.
25
Botsford, Hellenic History,
et seq.
ch. xxi.
Thebes,
and
Sparta,
supported
indignation,
to
punish
by
were
her for
HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE
II4
her breach
of
the
peace and
to
lenes to live in peace, free
busy
Chios,
Byzantium
second
Athenian
the
port of
ful to
Confederacy
peace.
No
of the allies met
and
only
required
was
collected, but
Thebes
League.2
headway.
Athens
and
to
stroyed
the
action.
No tribute
be
contributed
were
to
league
the
of
had been
able
to
defence
was
to drive the Spartan
reorganize
Sparta in strength, they
Thebes left the
the Boeotian
increasing
of liberty and
Thespiae
again,
and
King's Peace.
to
the
to
the
which she
had
own power at
law for
subjugated, Plataea
the conquest of Phocis was
alarmed
and
Sparta
turned to Sparta.
reaffirmed
the
But the difficulties had
a
small
The Second Athenian
state
war
cost
was
The democratic party in
'Marshall,
were unable
prosecution of
her
war.
peace conference at
was
In 374
principles of.
not
been
appealed
de
started.4
a
the
settled.
for help,
Confederacy (Cambridge,
1905),
et seq.
On the
tion and
organization of
Politics
of
the
'Ibid.,
pp. 390 et seq.
League,"
"
cf. Botsford,
The Constitu
in Political Science Quarterly,
this confederacy
Boeotian
(1910), pp. 271-296.
Meyer, op. cit., vol. v, p. 381.
vol. xxv
3
money
citadel and
turned to
Athens became
2
for
sanction
purpose
the very principles
14
The
alliance with
allies outmatched
pp.
each
autonomy.
Athens accordingly she declared
Hellas.3
Though the
Sparta for the freedom of
In
war upon
gone
care
in ;
free from Athenian interference
ships and
meanwhile
garrison out of
of
and
come
Sparta.
against
make
the sup
with
forced to
one was
Athenian
The
needed.
when
secured,
launched,
with
in 377 the
and
was
for local freedom
assembly
Alliances
confederacy.
were
In this Athens had been
maritime
provided
treaty
Chalcis
states.1
the
keep
and
Hel
the
allow
Athens had been
secure.
and
the formation of a new
in
her to
compel
[508
THE FOURTH CENTURY
509]
and
Timotheus,
the
same
the
a congress was
was
represented
impossible to
prevent
It
of strife.
In every
ances
vided
that
both
its
in
and
all
in
lay
friendship
open
bring
to
its
in the
The
aid
the
3
The last
strife
between the two
local dis
such
affairs, the
peace pro
be withdrawn, each state
its own form of government
armaments should
"
Furthermore,
lay
states
at
so
the
provision
state
option of
injured,
compulsory
be disbanded,
if any
on
proved
while
any
any
trans
power
conversely,
power against
to be the
weak
link
chain.
success of
power of
1
to
Party
was agreed that
to interfere in
choose
alliances, and
such aid was not
will."
in
Sparta.
should
governors
these stipulations, it
whatsoever
and
involved the two
It
war with each other.
naval and military.
gressed
way
difficulty lay
power.
these
compass such a state of
own
chief
the party in
will of
be left free to
should
and
sought a
most prolific causes
in Greece the democratic party looked
Alli
the oligarchic to Sparta.
both sides,
on
solution
To
the
at
felt that it
men
they
wars,
that the
powers and an agreement not
putes.
Here
an
support and
states
the only
all
which were
the
to hostil
1.2
Though
and
check
an end
differences between Athens
small state
appeals
leading
to
put an end
followed the
led to
Hellas,
and
was recognized
Athens for
to
this,
bring
Sparta in 37
Persia as well, in
general peace.
the governmental
to
to
to
and
democracies
called to meet in
disputes
the
aid
Thebes
all
tempt to secure a
was
To
power of
ities
Athens to
put an end
and
continued.1
war
advancing
to
Athenian admiral, gave it. Elsewhere
followed.
Sparta continued to
the
consequences
oligarchies
establish
IIS
Thebes.
Diodorus xv,
4-
'Xen.,Hell.
vi, 3-
s
20.
Ibid., vi, 3.
the
plan
Athens
Xen.,
involved the
and
Hell, vi,
2.
Sparta
end of the
growing
would allow no rival.
Epaminondas,
the
the Theban representative,
to
congress
Boeotians to
for Thebes only and
for themselves. This
sign
sign
Rather than
the Boeotian League.
garded as virtual
the
their
Thebes.2
One Spartan
be
that the army should
cording to the treaty; that
placed at Delphi ;
then, if any
states,
one violated
all others could
The
sanction of
thus
be
opposed
assembly
hearing
the end
of
they
what
re
from
withdrew
treaty.1
from the
the
least
these
this
would
to the
pro
the
be
be
the
of
at
hand.
peace would
But the
states.
that this
ac
then
should
enforcement of
annoyance
words agreed
He
independence
funds
and
before
action
disbanded
and
contributions
the peace or the
and
secured with the
on
the other
suggestion.
recalled
be invited in
heaven
to
state was excluded
the assembly and made a remarkable
posed
meant
yield
by
ordered
allow
up the burden of enforcing the peace
thereupon took
against
was
to
the Thebans
destruction,
conference and
Sparta
ing
[510
HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE
n6
man was
talk
nonsense.3
The Spartan army advanced against Thebes unsupported
Leuctra followed, and with it came the collapse
by
Spartan supremacy
of
Athens.
the
peace
and the end of all the
years of oppression and
in
spite of
the
war
crease
group
peace
need.4
her
own
its
Thebes,
made
powers.
She
the
use
Athens,
mutual obligation
of
the
gathered
held
long
situation
around
Xen., Hell.,
Diodorus xv, 6.
vii,
for
to in
herself
a conference and
a
secured
among them with a pledge to protect them in case
Thebes followed up her victory by an invasion
2
4
bright hopes
remembered
broke loose from Sparta.
the smaller cities,
1
3
state
recent pledge and
against
her
of
Every
conference.
of
of
of
1 et seq.
Xen., Hell., vi, 4, 2. Trans, by Dakyns,
Ibid., vi, 5, 1 et seq.
3
vols.
(New
York,
1890-97).
THE FOURTH CENTURY
51 1
]
the
Peloponnesus.
The
league
sene was rebuilt and a
dians to
act
as
old alliance was
check
a
was
ny
Mes-
broken up,
formed among the Arca
Not until Theban
Sparta.1
on
became threatening did Athens remember her
engage in the war in defence of the
power
oaths
peace.2
and
The army
position,
of
Thebes
was not
so she
in turn
called a series of
Persia,
aid of
hostilities.
gation of
Susa,
which
to
and
whose
resulted
smaller
many
bans
proposed
peace
and
resulted
recognize
usual
however,
It is
Though
to
A balance
to dominate.
oath which
that the
Sparta to
other
The
accept
the
states
de
the Thebans to
secure control
came at Man-
in the
and
in the death
resulted
power of
general chaos
of power more stable
than that between Athens
by
and
defend themselves
effort of
one state stood out
power
freedom
to take any
This the
of Epaminondas and the end of the
No
naval
acceptance
probable
Theban victory, it
a
in the
terms of
compel
Messene.
and of the other states to
tinea.
the
leadership, but they
for the Great King. A seventh
the
of
alliance
The final
clined.3
Thebes,
refused,
an
her
with
meetings,
Athenian
Theban
them to Thebes.
bind
would
states
They
autonomy.
at
destroy
of
contempt
meeting, this time
secure
was
to
recognition
only in
to
enough
suffering from the prolon
Meetings were held at Delphi and at
trade
attempted
secure
strong
his
city.4
strong enough
it was thought
Sparta had been
established.
"
All
save
Sparta
that putting
make
his
1
Meyer,
'
Xen. Hell, vii,
(3d ed.,
*
the war
aside
own
op.
united and a common peace was
city
each
other,
each
so
shall
and
as great and prosperous as possible,
cit., vol. v, pp. 449 et seq.
1
;
cf.
Leipzig, 1915),
Dittenberger, Sylloge Inscriptionum
Xen., Hell,
vii,
5.
^3-
graecorum
159-
Xen. Hell, vii, I, 27, 33
p. 430.
*
against
made,
et
seq., 39
et seq.
;
cf.
Meyer,
op. cit, vol. v,
[512
HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE
n8
An
strong."
unite with
the
Great
did
King
Phocis,
with
had
which
in
called
A
peace was vain.
easily
Athens and Sparta
offer
them, they
to
If
was refused.
would not
went
Philip
a
to the
between Thebes
aid of
With his
Macedon.
of
Phocians,
the
the
and
entrance a
in Hellenic history.
Athenian
the second
meantime
quarrel
been settled, led to strife, which
Sacred War by the Thebans.
not
into
new element appeared
In the
interfere
not
turned
Thebans
Persia
him.1
The hope for
was
and
satraps against
revolting
make war on
and
to friends
useful
remain
shall
Confederacy, from
times.
had been expected, had fallen on difficult
The Athenians had departed from their lofty re
solves,
had failed to
so much
which
Some
of
others
had been
were
the league
the money of
spent
the
states
had been
plundered
by
terfered,
and
independence
posed
the
lost, but
peace
the
of
peace
the
Within
All the
Theban,
of
during
powers
and
Dittenberger,
"Marshall, op.
a year
Athens
the
had
182.
days
of
113
Byzantium,
Persia in
some who
what
polity
op
had been
prevailed and
the confederacy
of
the
had
the short-sighted,
col
self-
in Hellenic
Greek freedom had
failed.2
Athenian, Spartan, Olynthian,
again.
Diodorus,
cit., pp.
and
up
the
of
recognize
the last experiment
passed
Athenian
to
were
regaining
finance
stirred
several
revolted.
There
of
Thus because
entirely.
unification
the city of
seceders.
sound counsels of
seeking policy
and
were compelled
and
soldiers which
in 357
Caria,
purposes.
subjection
and
of
in the hope
was made.
lapsed
1
Mausolus
Athenians
own
to
Epaminondas had
discontent among the allies,
islands, led by Chios, Rhodes
by
for their
reduced
the mercenary
hired to defend them.
and supported
had
the allies properly and
protect
xv,
et seq.
There
10.
was no power
strong
THE FOURTH CENTURY
513]
lead,
to
enough
peace and
city willing enough to follow. When
to the Hellenic world, it was com
no
came
unity
from
pelled
IZg
without.
To the north, in the valley above modern Saloniki, lay
Pella, capital of the kingdom of Macedon. Its kings had
been in close relations with Athens for a century. In the
early
fourth century before the Christian era,
seized by Philip.
He possessed a genius
the
part of
the throne had been
for organization,
had
produced
had
acquired
had been his
the throne
he had learned
ambition
trolling
what
be
might
to
All
him
was
plies of
to
in
money
states
seasons.
no
own
In early life
rule.
of
Greece
and
were
It became his
advantage.
his little kingdom, despised
Greeks of the south, to a con
the
organization of
Every
opposition was crushed.
trained
He
he knew his
world.1
the newest methods of
his
own
king
man subject
warfare.
to
Sup
and munitions were gathered and the entire
nation was placed on a war
Greek
violence and
Greece
science.
with
in the Greek
was
general
tutor in military
his
mind, but
a shrewd
greatest
weaknesses
the cultured
by
place
the
used
Philip's first task
dom.
by
himself
raise
barbarian
as
The
character.
the absolute nature of his
powers and
how they
foresight,
remarkable
unscrupulous
an
had been
To the
armies
difference ; they
The
basis.
accustomed
that
were
Philip
to
citizen armies of
fighting
organized, seasons
ready to fight
at
the
only in dull
made
any time, in any
conditions.2
place,
under
The
any
problem
same efficiency.
1
of
Measures
relations
were
Pickard-Cambridge, Demosthenes
dom (London, 1914),
'
foreign
1907),
4.
trans,
143
and
with
the
friends
and
solved
the Last Days of
Greek Free
et seq.
1891Dindorff, rev. by Blass, 3 vols. (Leipzig,
vols. (London, 1003). Phil. lit. 49,
C.
R.,
5
by Kennedy,
Demosthenes,
01. i,
PP-
was
taken to secure
ed.
coalition
prevent a
of
Greeks
against
freely among the venal to
flattery of friendship sufficed.
of support
promises
bitions
his
of
Greece
of
in local
power won
flict began there
city
Gold
him.
gained
were
petty
Before the final
the fearful.
by
Exhi
wars.
or
con
in every
strong Macedonian party
his
themselves
declared
had
cities
some
was
and
Others
politics
dis
was
For some,
obtain support.
bursed
the
[514
HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE
I20
a
friends.1
Philip
warfare
The old rules of
entirely without scruple.
truces he broke
and
him.
Treaties
did not bind
was
whenever
his
for
friendship
Once
purposes
a
city
foothold
a
was
and
he
avowed
and
alliance.
Frequently
required.
support
promised
in this way, he forgot his
Captured, it might expect no
secured
the city fell.
The surrounding country was devastated, the city
destroyed, its men killed or sold into slavery, while its
promises and
mercy.
women, too often,
suffered a worse
In the
fate.
neighbor
colony of Macedonians was settled to secure the
Spies in Philip's employ were everywhere. One
Athenian was executed for accepting his bribe to burn an
hood
a
region.2
in
arsenal
Athens.3
Two things
of
the
.ZEgean
were needed
to
by
world : recognition
leading power in order that he might
and
the
tium
modern
from
and the
1
Cf.
Thrace, but
which
he
above all
might
states as a
dominate their councils,
Athens.
Theban invitation to take
Dem., Phil, i, 6 ; ii,
Pickard-Cambridge,
Demosthenes,
give
and
him
crush
Conquest
part
of
a vantage
the
com
Thessaly
in the Sacred War
19.
op. cit, pp.
On the
to
outrival
155
206 et seq.
3
Greek
sun
reaching from Saloniki to Byzan
Constantinople to secure for him the rich
mercial and naval power of
2
the
in the
place
stretch of seacoast
gold mines of
point
his
establish
Crown,
132.
et
seq., 159
et
seq.,
pp. 191 et
seq.,
THE FOURTH CENTURY
515]
him the first
secured
the
of
Greece,
and all
land.
tremendous
with
in the very beginning.
end.
One Athenian
Philip
sought
it
and
or
publishing
and
declared,
to
and
power
ultimate
"
pots cannot exist
freedom."
save
they
4
training
to
must report.
only
no avail against
the
1
Pickard-Cambridge,
1
Dem. Phil,
i,
4-
the
skilled
"
Democracies
and
and
the people,
was
and
a
could
to the
the only means of
large fleet,
Hasty
approach of
forces
des
despot is
speed and precision were
of
levies
danger,
Philip.5
op. cit., pp. 288 et seq.
Id., 01. i, 4, 25 ; et seq.
Id., Phil, ii, 25; 01. i, 5Phil,
objective; her democratic
by
Philip's
plun
murdering
Demosthenes
Every king
citizen army.
at
ii, 7, 8.
s
and
he had
that
Athens,
of
Preparedness
strong
arms
2
without
and
creation and maintenance of a
of a
them that
empire
universal
In democratic Athens leaders
deliberation
after
impossible to them.
safety : the
before the
went
showed
justice;
realized
and
brutal in execution,
hated foe.
most
together."
act
He
peace or
enslaving
and
the king's
constitution, his
foe to
the orator,
desired
in strategy
wealth
was
Philip
of
Philip.
him nearly
attended
a
pillaging,
The
mercy.8
'Id.,
resources
despot in his ability to send his men
wherever he willed, answerable to no one,
concealing his designs as he chose; that he
was unscrupulous
dering
purposes
who
without regard
whenever
Success
against
despot
a
the advantages of
called
body
religious
All his
prestige.1
Demosthenes,
declaimed
was
the
saw
threatened.
people and
people
him head
made
great
coast-
to the
not
the
his ability were directed towards gaining the
Clever trickery and quick action won him important
gains
what
Success
these.
of
Amphictyonic Council,
of
121
of
and
the
citizens,
would
be
of
[516
HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE
I22
The
in Thrace
situation
Demosthenes
showed
and called on
the
the
people
for immediate
called
Philip's treachery there,
their friends
nature of
to
attention.
avenge and protect
allies.1
and
Opposition
does
all
this
immediately
How is the
signify?
in Thrace
actions
justice have the
?"
same
"
2
obligation,
to Athens.
cern
be
would
testations
or
war
will
of
is between
terms
rest content.
they
as
is
Philip
on good
neglect, he
cities,
"
be the
war
be
soon
friendship
will of
by
with
"
with
Already
bringing the
wrought
a
the
the
and
offence
off and of no con
toward the city
Philip's
war
ruin
Athenian
by
to Attica.
The
choice
by
deceit
therefore
more
enemy discredited
and
Pro
Thracian
the
of
we are careless.
successful,
and
character will
made great
war yonder with an
close
subject of
is far
friendly
Athens if
in Philip's
Religion
replied :
us."
let him
not
But the
What
asked,
state concerned
To them he
small."
great or
"
Some
arose.
3
enemy."
powerful
Men, probably in
bitterly.
They
the pay of
called
him
Philip,
a soured
that he was in the employ of
cities
or
else
ciently high.
Philip
of
the
tors
base,
They
and claimed
"
him.
Philip's
that
Better to be
Greeks."
offer
extolled
that it
on good
These
men
to him
opponents
had
not
character
and
useless
terms
in
been
other
suffi
ability
of
for Athens to fight
with
the
Demosthenes
coming leader
attacked as trai
happiness by their belly and
freedom and independence they
who measure
while
Demosthenes
water-drinker, declared
Philip's
the
was
attacked
all
that is
count
as
nothing.4
1
Demosthenes, 01. i, passim.
Id., Phil, iii, 16.
3
Id., 01. i, 14, 15, 26.
4
Pickard-Cambridge, op. cit., p. 280, Dem., Phil, ii,
296; Aeschines, On the Crown, 81, 173.
2
30; On the
Crown,
THE FOURTH CENTURY
517]
Lovers
of peace
talked
the abundant blessings
breakdown
with
the
large
forces,
the train of
tions in
pealed
Thrace
to
his only
war.1
of men and
They
money,
war.
to be the leader
of
the
those
The
their wealth, Demosthenes
of
the evils
Greeks,
even
ap
held that
interests
to the expense
to
and
in
humilia
suffer
Isocrates
whose personal
declared,
maintaining
and all
better to
in
rich objected
Athens,
of
and compared them
all
opponents were
challenged.2
prosperity
expense
thought it
than to risk
Philip
great
tranquility,
trade, the
of
the loss
the
of
of
123
were
and concealed
escape
the burdens.
in the city were willing to vote for war in the
Success
but
were not willing to go themselves.
assembly,
or failure in the war meant little to them, while absence on
The
artisans
possibly loss
service meant
phon complained that
though Attica itself
beyond
see
they
were
of
life, but
would
leave
not
invaded.
the confines of
surely
ruin.
their
The farmer
Attica.
He
Xeno-
benches
could not
ready to
interested in a
was ever
of his own fields, but was not
in far-off Thrace which did not appear to be his
The peace party declared the whole dispute was due to
fight in defence
own.3
war
desire
of
such men
danger,
He
a
few
menace
who scorned
1
88
to
Demosthenes
the
the
the
the
To
treasury.4
public
the reality of the
could only show
Philip's despotism to free Athens.
to live if it
the way to
Dem., On
of
plunder
them of the glories of
reminded
pointed
men
could not
past
be
days,
with
of
the
men
freedom.5
He
success :
Peace,
24, 5.
On the Chersonese, 8.
On the Embassy,
et seq.
2
Isocrates, Philippus 73
et seq.
Econ. vi. 5-8, cf. PickardDem., On the Na-Jal Boards, 25; Xen.,
Demosthenes (Oxford, 1912), Intro
Orations
Public
of
Cambridge,
duction, p. 20.
* Dem., On the Chersonese, 5-'
0
Id., 01. iii,
el seq.
-S
et
seq.
On the Chersonese 40; On the
Crozvn,
205
If
[518
HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE
124
each of you can
his
and when
has money
enlist
to
relied upon
be
he
his
act when
of use
and
contribute
will
for the
Not her
be
services will
duty
bids him
to his country; if he
is
who
of
military
age
who
will
campaign.1
commodities
marketable
made
wealthy, but her freedom and
The fire of the orator's eloquence
Athens
great
and
power.2
They
enthusiasm.
momentary
expeditions, then failed to
The time
the assembly
of
the
the
conduct of
ing
larger forces to them.
armies were
the
not save
Philip.
and
a
He
hopeless
advanced
Bosphorus
dispatched,
idle." 4
went
"
fleets
late.3
a
and
Demos
"All
Voting
to form
Athens
of entrust
small
throughout the
attempt
mistrusted
with
and
words
alone
will
Peloponne
league
against
and would not
and
Byzantium.7
On
Greece.
The
constant
success
Alliances
fol
Philip was
Athenian
a convenient
words
of
power alone
pretext, he
348,
blocked his
marched
Demosthenes had
Dem., Phil, i, 7.
Id., Phil, iv, 50.
3
Id., 01. iii, 4.
'Id. 01. ii, 12; Phil, ii, 3.
bId., On the Chersonese, 77.
6
Pickard-Cambridge, Demosthenes,
Ibid.,
reached
supply.
made, fleets and armies
driven back from under the walls
1
et seq.
he
were
2
pp.
until
threatened the Athenian food
awoke.
empire.
7
but
these arrived too
and
to
enlist.
money
in discussions over
or
the advisability
a result
to
for large
war and
secure speed and service.
vain
5
As
people
her.6
Then Athens
of
to
The Greeks
Philip
the
was wasted
the
state."
in
sian states
low
vain
action are
without
for
contribute
generals and
dispatched,
thenes tried in
voted
aroused
p. 306.
path
south
come
true,
to
into
the
THE FOURTH CENTURY
519]
war
was
coming home.
ance was secured with
sent
forth to
Athens
The Athenians
Thebes,
him.
meet
12-
All
An
rallied.
alli
the army was organized and
was
too late.
The
citizen
levies
Thebes were no match for the trained armies
of the Macedonian king.
The battle of Chaeronea estab
lished Philip's power in Greece.1 The character of Hellenic
of
and
The
history was changed.
^ The long series of
led to
them
war
discussion
greater
by thinking
day
of
the
of
had
passed.
to
end
the question of peace
and
Supporters
men.
city-state
man)-
wars and the
attempts
like Xenophon
of war
Demosthenes, the philosophers, Socrates, Plato and
Aristotle, and orators like Lysias and Isocrates, all had
and
something to say about the general problem.
Though Xenophon might admit that peace
curse,2
and war a
ship
to
He judged
all
Industry
war.
things in the
he
by
class who were not warlike
to
expend
On
state.3
cause
toil or to
the
other
hand, he
body
and soul
it trained
of co-operation and gave men
half
of
their
lands.4
own
butt
him
general
like Agesilaus
good and
a
brave, lofty
of scientific
i
condemned
PickardJCambridge,
Xen., Hiero, ii, 6.
Id.,
Econ. vi, 5-8.
4
Id.,
Econ. v, 6.
6
Id.,
Symp. xi, M-
op.
to
relation
produced a
docile, unwilling
of the
be
large
of
a
leader
judgment,
a man
of war, a
from his
cit., pp. 359, et seq.
was a great
him to be,
conceived
secure
the coward and
His ideal hero
of soul and
able
their
lives in defence
knowledge in the business
stout commander,
2
He
he
a martial
for war, taught the lessons
a willingness to fight on be
of
as
but
blessing
Called agriculture noble,
ridicule.5
thought
by
him
because it
nature
their
venture
given
state
condemned
was a
the Ten Thou
experiences with
Agesilaus in Asia had
sand and with
fervor.
his
yet
strong
soldiers such
and
obe-
dience
that
and respect
into the jaws
and
under
his
of
for
sight
But
a
friendly
failure.2
things that
pursuit, the
at
warriors
bind
on
the
was
hard,
the
of
deeds
efficiency
a splendid
trireme,
terror to the
of
enemy.
worst example of confu
own experience all
the tasteless
horrors
food,
the
battle.3
of
victory, the
rout of
the
restless
But he had
the enemy, the
slaughter.
I describe the
shall
their feats
of
With
arms.
their brows the glittering
mirth and
jollity they
their cities to
have
joys
language
what
thing
He knew from his
pains and
tasted of the
symbol of order and
or a noble
army
make war
slumber, the
follow him through fire
would
and would achieve great
eyes, but a
disorganized force
sion and
also
they
death
Xenophon's
eyes.1
was a well-organized
In
[520
HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE
I26
shared
in the
congratulate
heights
newer
plan
of
Indeed it
greatest number.
Each
and
would
on
having
what
raised
to
citizen claims
to have
be hard to find
the
slain
where
false
to be
slain
creep in,
So truly
exceeding those that actually perished.
does
seem
them
it
to
to
have
won
so
great
a
thing
the
embellishment will not
with
glory ;
themselves
campaign
they
what assumption
wreath of
fame.
of
these
of
exultation
number stated
glorious
a
victory.4
For
a man who
most
of
its
which appealed
he
a
aspect of
not
the
The
to him
state
neighboring
was
experienced such
that a
recognized
felt
had
terrors.
a
as
1
best
4
5
Ibid., ii,
Ibid., x,
14
et seq.
7 ; xi,
3.
war
prevention
was preparedness.
standing mercenary army
armor
passim.
had lost
of
war
Though
would
lead
protection
like that but the
state.5
Xen., Econ. xxi, 3-6; Agesilaus,
Id., Econ. vii, 4-6.
3
Id., Hiero vi, 15.
2
feelings
of
to desire peace, the best
brilliant
whole-
method
he
warlike
THE FOURTH CENTURY
521]
With the
The only
ancient
attitude of
he
salvation
spirit
Xenophon, Demosthenes
saw
the
and
for Athens
creation
Greeks in
states
;
a maintenance of
and
becoming
to that
strong
end
he
a
the
well-trained
strong,
as
the existing balance among the
strove
to
enough
of
concurred.
was a renewal of
has been seen, were of no
of the difficulties among the
But his efforts,
He found his solution
citizen army.
avail.
127
to
prevent
assume
any
again
from
state
dominating
a
position.1
In the immediate
were
politics,
problems
Hellas the
of
particularly interested.
not
however,
philosophers
In their discussions
the general question of
of
up for
war came
discussion.
In the Memorabilia
Socrates
apparently felt the
upon
him that the
the
out of
called
was no guarantee
walls,
been
attacked and
regarded
on the struggle of
village,
family
of
product
Ibid., ii, I.
ws
When Glaucon
war.
of
Athens, he
urged
by
and
war enrich
the loss of
valued posses
to the fact that
had fallen
war as
victims
inevitable,
country
against
family,
and
to
a
had built
yet
they had
allies,
injustice.3
country,
village
individual
man against
Primitive
state, based
natural
himself.4
civilization.
preparedness
men
man
against
against
As
such
had
not
it
indi
was
known
the Megalopolitans.
4-
Burnet, 5 vols. (Oxford, 1900-1907), trans, by Jowett,
London, 1S92), Laws 625 et seq. Cf. Shorey, "Plato's
(3d
in Classical Philology ix
of Plato's Thought
and the Unity
'Plato
vols
of
of protection, that though
qj Demosthenes, For
2
Xen., Mem. iii, 6, 8.
L
defeat
against
i
expressions
itself
going to
its enemies, he rejoined that there
attention
vidual, and of every
3
few
a
soldier
a
collected armaments and secured
Plato
the
of
state might
resources of
He
Xenophon
Himself
futility
was equal chance of
sions.2
of
recorded.
are
ed.
ed.
(iQU),VP-36oetseq.
"
wars, but
The
sire
art of
as
a part of
causes of
war,
he
said,
the
cost of one's
led
which
men
to
to
regard
they had
regard what
and
in turn
embrace
the
stirred
power, the
led the
to
rulers of
destroy
Plato
enemies
cities
In
slaved
too
own
and
their
keep
He
to
this
test, to dis
the
devastate
love
who were
in the
On the
war and
continually urging
life,
raised
end either ruined
other
for
search
In the Statesman,
the military
of
persons
plunder which
their people in
lands.5
good
he felt that the
condemned
involve
that those
hand, he held
it
that
up
or en
people
making money
quietly looking after
to take war in earnest, found ways too
and
the
peace
unwarlike,
inevitably
between
deprecated.
view of
busy
state
enemies and
Wars
state
state and
affairs
readily to
that ignorance
for glory, the desire for
and
it to its foes.
these he found in
on
to the few discontented
evil.4
same as
to observe, to hate the
agreed
evil.3
an excessive
for the
who were
their
the
pointed out
from
war
up the
ambition
the
of
discontent, de
territory at the
expediency as the best
guilt of war was confined
who1
all
founded
was
the arts
were
state :
expansion of
The basis for
neighbor.2
injustice,
in the
other evils
for money, for power, for
which
to live together
compelled
war
the
government.1
causes of all
had been
men
when
they had learned
the
[522
HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE
I28
out
became
Hellenes,
Since they
of
and so
lay
at
made
their
the mercy
of
sons
their
slaves.6
the
were
season,
philosopher
brothers
and
particularly
kinsmen, he
among them discord and disorder rather than
The only justification which he admitted for it was
called strife
war.
1
Plato, Laws 678-9; Protagoras 322.
'Id., Republic 351, 373, 4; Ale. i, 109, 112; Euthyphro 7; Phaedo 66 C.
3
Id., Ale. i, 113; Republic 338; Laws 686-691.
4
Id., Republic, 471 E, 575 B.
5
Ibid., 544 et seq.
6
Id., Statesman 307, 308.
THE FOURTH CENTURY
523]
the necessity
securing freedom. Then it
the guilty few and to
of
to
waged
as
burden
as possible on
be
made
The
slave.
reconciliation
in
whole
The
mind.
common
interest
of
the
city.
as well as a
Every boy
training
ceive some
should
Hellenes
should
Hellenic freemen
be
with
waged
he
viewed
should make war
in
Hellas.1
preparedness
as
distinct
a
necessity for the individual and for
every girl, he declared, should re
and
that
so
Not only
sity, but it developed the
city.2
nor
barbarians, however,
Plato believed thoroughly in
advantage,
off,
affair
as natural enemies on whom
the
lay
so
little
as
Houses
the many innocent.
nor crops carried
be
should
punish
be burned
not
I2g
was such
they might aid in defence
training useful in time of
body
and
taught the noble
Even the ideal
of the
neces
lessons
self-control.3.
of valor and
But they
trained defenders.
those
arts which
taught
should
state
be trained
courage and removed
required
not
fear
only in
of
death,
in philosophy which embraced other virtues, that
they might be like watch-dogs, gentle toward friends and
In the Laws he showed that
fierce only toward
but
also
enemies.4
the Cretan
and
Spartan law-givers had
prepared their citizens
age
is but
one of
the
only for
war,
virtues and
erred
in that they
forgetting
that not the
that
cour
highest,
that
be just and temperate and wise as well as cour
Since he felt that only the perfectly just could
from
attain the highest aim and be safe from inju^
for
war
preparation
he advised for the average city
a man must
ageous.5
ever
others,
Hence it
peace.8
in
times of
was
that
education and
Menexenus 239.
Plato, Republic, 470 ct seq. ;
422.
2
Id., Laws, 813, 4; Republic
Laws 815, 6; Protagoras
>
Republic
399;
Laches
182;
Id.,
the arts
1
4
Id.,
Republic 373
Id.,
Laws
Ibid-, 829-
et seq.
630, 661,
7.
359.
HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE
I3o
to be in common,
of war and peace were
the bravest
osophers and
In the last
one
has been,
purpose,
speaking
it
and as well as
No
a
in
peace.
war
?
true
;
he
long
he
ever
be
for
room
or
for the
in
courage
first
He
sake
peace
views
had
Plato, Ajisjgtlg, did
of
regarded
self-interest
The
so racked
men
the
as
not
had brought
who
on
the
of
the wars
Hellas he declared had looked only
the interest of their own form
government and were not
at
all.4
to be unlawful.
be the business
certainly is to
but no
might
Cretan
as
materially
greatest
own advantage and
interest
of
legislator
a sound
sake of war and not war
not
the happi
aims at
looks only
state who
nor will
for the
as
3
causes of war.
which
the
or
be kept
should
is,
2
statesman whether
And is there
With the
differ.
their
be."
external warfare
who orders peace
of
be any
Peace
war.
can
the individual
of
to
all
be
one can
ness
in
of
waged
neither
instruction
or
amusement
nor ever will
to be
There
which was peace.
phil
kings.1
war was
"
for but
worth
warriors should
Plato felt that
analysis
the best
and
be
[524
of
How
can
that
the statesman
which
or
rule without regard
right."
5
statesmen who
So he
of
concerned with the public
really
The desire to dominate
"
to
over others
he felt
is
lawful
not even
legislator.
to justice
Unlawful it
where
condemned the
there is
Spartan
and
had framed
their constitutions
solely
with a view to
war, to conquer and to rule.
no
higher
Knowing
employment than
war, their
knew
not how to
Like iron unused, they had rusted.
They had
attained happiness and their empires had
passed
citizens
use peace.
not
1
3
4
away.6
Plato, Republic 543.
Id., Laws 628; Laches
Aristotle,
trans,
ed.
by Jowett,
'Ibid.,
Acad.
2 vols.
vii, 2, 12.
2
/^ Laws g03
191.
reg.
boruss,. 5
(Oxford,
vols.
(Berlin,
1885), iv, 11,
1831-70);
18.
eIbid>
vii; 2>
lg.
I3
Politics,
THE FOURTH CENTURY
525]
Preparedness he
thoroughly, both on the part
individual. It was the business of the
supported
of the ruler and the
leaders
power, capacity
ity
it
its
of
of
making
He
virtues of
elsewhere, that
have the
appreciated
commended
thirsty
the business of
Those
peace.3
for the
selfish reasons or
In
villains.4
"
who
only
The
lawgiver
should
pate
in
them."
The
life
a good
great champion of
ian,
Hellas,
of
He
exiles
that
Greece.7
over
they
the
eternal
the problem;
blotted
peace
condition
lands,
serving in
and
Id.. Politics
vii,
13-
Politics v, n,
'Ibid.,
Ibid.,
vii, 1.
were
so
taken up
by
the
for hire.
treaties
made
jealousies
Ethics iii, 6,
and
which
7.
10.
seq.
vii, 2, 16 et
Epist
ix,
petty
failed to
hatreds
14-
et seq..
with
actual calamities
Ethics 1177 b.
Isocrates, Panegyrictts 167
the country
armies
out.
vii, 15, 3;
of
the enslave
the tales of calamity composed
were not moved
saw
the rhetoric
peace was
side of
Aristotle, Rhetoric i, 4, 9
*Id.,
'
dark
and
statesmen
and
He
'Id., Politics
8
wandering
fit to weep
men saw
the poets,
were never
1
Hellenic
the
saw
cities, the destruction of property,
interests
may
is attainable
which
the endless wars, the wasting of
ment of
settle
in the happiness
inquire
partici
6
Jj3Cn|te$.
of
and
blood
development
was a proper
good
states and races of men and communities
by
discipline
called
how
Yet
of
advan
war only as a means
brought on wars for
itself he
sake of war
peace
possible.5
virtue
full
option
the
courage.2
Aristotle
by
own
power and capac
the lessons
life,
military
only its
not
stronger and
the weaker/
to the final end of
of
the
peace with
war on
tages of the
and
held, to know
history, but also the
and
neighbors and the results of wars
keep
might
he
the state,
of
j.31
4, Phil
2.
which
[526
HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE
I32
It is to
that we make treaties
no purpose
but only defer them
not settle our wars
when we shall
be
able
to inflict
irremediable
some
; for
of peace
and wait
we
do
for the time
injury
on one
another.1
He therefore
When they
that
war
spoke of
Athens.
rich
war
vigorously.
pointed out
taken away safety and prosperity and even the
had
necessities
party in Athens
he
recovering lost property,
the
attacked
of
life,
and
He drew
in fertile
and
a
had destroyed the
never-ending wars,
between the Thessalians
comparison
extensive
and
of
repute
good
lands
yet
want
by
had little
or
reduced
the Megarians
who
to
nothing to start with and yet by keeping peace with all had
Hellenes.2
He com
become the wealthiest among the
the fact
plained of
that,
though the
in war, yet the people regarded the
the true democrats and the supporters of peace as
war
overthrown
He
attacked
use of
tories
contrary
he
the
imperialistic treatment
mercenary troops in defence
such
as
the
to right,
Spartans
and
with contempt
declared
win over
might.5
that true prosperity
justice.
on
right
the
the
party
as
oligarchs.3
allies and
Thebans had
the
Vic
empire.4
gained
oaths and agreements,
disgraceful than defeats
In the
suffered without cowardice.
of
of
the
for
regarded as more shameful and
prevail and
had been
democracy
long
run
On the
was gained
by
justice
would
other
hand, he
peace
founded
For then followed freedom from wars, dangers
disturbances, increase in business, release from the
burdens of war and the privilege of tilling the land, sailing
and civil
the
1
sea or
engaging in any
Isocrates, Panegyricus
'Id., Peace 6, 117.
3
Ibid., 51.
4
5
other occupation without
172.
Id., Areop. 9; Phil 96; Paneg.
Id., Peace 136 ; Archidamus 34.
185; Peace
47.
fear.
THE FOURTH CENTURY
527]
1^3
Then
merchants and aliens flocked to Athens and revenues
income increased
In common with all Greek thinkers, Isocrates believed in
defensive war and in wars against oppression on behalf of
liberty.2
He was proud of the record of Athens in this re
and
abundantly.1
"
Not
spect.
in
battle,"
he
in defence
was
Philip,
country,
he
qualified
was
to
his
bad,
absolutely
lead to prosperity
necessary.
a
ernment,
death
few
For
grace.6
were
perishable
a
to
and
that
body
by
it
a
of
in
it
He
was
foe."
in committing
Epist.
ii,
6
Id., Archidamus
'Ibid., 104,
'Ibid. 59-
107.
cf.
49.
7
His
advice
"
nations.
a good gov
Be
preparations
51.
op. cit.. vol.
v, p.
dis
"
fight to the
for the
no unjust aggression.
Meyer,
ex
preparedness was
4-
Id., Archidamus;
better to
with cowardice and
Paneg. 75; Panath. 60.
4
called upon
that distinc
war
self-control, and readiness to
Isocrates, Peace 25; Areop.
Id.,
loss.5
was
life
up in a Golden Rule for
concerns knowledge of war and
'Id.,
to
For the individual he prescribed,
the
suggest
In this
project.4
explaining that nothing
he believed that
summed
1
probably to
for imperishable fame than to
more years of
life
Greeks
that war, though uncertain,
won, and that
such a war
against
peaceful
and
such a
as well as
remember
tion and renown
change
Spartans
the
pacific utterances
Spartans to
When there
Sparta, he wrote a pamph
Archidamus, the purpose of
would not consent
good or
purchase a
3
of
a speech of
arouse
might
the
fall
of praise when
might secure a union of the
destruction
the
let purporting to be
Athens
considered glorious to
but it is worthy
parents and
danger that Thebes
which was
"
children."
of
and accomplish
that
is it to be
always
wrote
450.
state
he
warlike as
for
Let
it,
but
your in-
tercourse
that of
The
ties of
the
at
[528
HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE
I34
Hellas he
Hellenes,
lay
to
Gorgias
peace.2
Greeks for
his
and
380
be delivered
gatherings
to
and
together as
treaties
make
urged a union of
This
Panegyricus.s
of
the
Isocrates
proposition
symmachia,
he
for giving to the
assemble
Lysias had both
was a
to
these
of
their founders
Persia.
for the difficul
offer
speeches
led them to
B. C. in the
scheme
value
quarrels
aside
a war upon
developed in
tial of
praised
which
a custom
through
The
festivals.
great
with
Isocrates had to
presented
would require
such as you
x
to be
stronger states
solution which
appreciated, and he
Greeks
be
with weaker states
The first
essen
an offensive alliance
Nominally he proposed a joint
strong leader.
leadership of Athens and Sparta ; actually the burden of the
under
a
speech was
ness of
the
Sparta.
Athens to
right of
It
the
command and
unfit
a piece of propaganda to
was
probably
in making the second Athenian Confederacy an Hellenic
League.4
He recalled the glorious past of Athens, showed
aid
how the Athenians had
defence
the
and
Hellas.
of
prosperity
ceding century
caused
by
the
painted what
the
wrongs
downfall
of
stood
in the forefront
He brought back to
the
period
and compared
Spartan
Athenian
of
it
with
empire.
the
by Athens,
as a result of
them
but
mind
rule
battle in
the
peace
in the
pre
great unhappiness
Idealizing
he hoped for the future.
done
of
He
claimed
the
past,
he
acknowledged
that
from her
Athens had learned her lesson.
The first necessity that he laid down was a sound demo
government in Athens under the
leadership of her
cratic
best men, such a government as she had had in the days of
Persian wars. The leaders must then lay aside all jeal-
the
1
2
Isocrates, Ad Nicoclem
Id., Paneg
24.
43.
3Kessler, Isokrates und
4
Ibid., pp. 24 et seq.
die panhellenische Idee
(Berlin,
1911),
p.
8.
THE FOURTH CENTURY
529]
and greed and adopt a true
ousy
administration
righteous treatment
their
internal
democracy.
state.1
the
of
Such
Greeks willingly to
Athens
by
program
a
the
be freed from
with
of
the
bring
all
the
would
ing
This the
first Hellenic league
felt
It
would
would
be
more
bring
orator
war
like
All the
small
from larger states, the sea
Hellas would be delivered
King.2
from slavish homage to the Great
The second essential of the alliance was
purpose.
interference in
in defence
Athens.
support of
pirates and
no
except
he felt
states could count on protection
would
Panhellenic policy in their
called for
Furthermore, he
the allies,
of
affairs
T.35
found in the
against
Persia.3
a
strong, bind
the
principle of
Such
a
war
he
embassy than a campaign.
home for those who desired it; it
a sacred
peace at
free the Asiatic Greeks from slavery; the homeless
unfortunate would be given employment and a chance for
would
a new start at
the
expense of
cess of such an expedition
the
march of
The
plan was
such
impossible
because
the
of
was no room
and
had
not
was
shortsightedness
Still Isocrates did
not
had
Of the
for
despair.
made
his
doubt,
as
the
In the
Sparta
own attempt
support.
gained
formed,
of
suc
shown.6
of accomplishment, since
Confederacy
Athenian
second
barbarians.4
Agesilaus had
expedition
an
there
the Ten Thousand
entirely disregarded it.
at
the
and
The
then failed
Athenian leaders.
speech
On the Peace,
in 356, and in the Areopagiticus, in 355, he once again pre
Reform of the administration
arguments.
sented the same
of
which
1
the laying-aside of that overweening
Athens,
had
again caused
Isocrates, Panegyrikos
Kessler,
2
/fcid, 104 ;
'
Isocrates, Paneg.
'Ibid.,
173-
*
182.
Ibid.,
cf.
158.
her downfall, the
76 et seq.
op. cit., pp. 12 et seq.
ambition
strict enforcement
terms of peace,
of the
grant of
had
which
Social
the
ended
had done
to
so much
make
the only things the
Athens to her former high
orator
were
defence
sufficient
states
other
against
come
would
But Athenian
democracy
Such
estate.
Athens
hated,
these
be
reforms would
to the
flocking
be
not
Greek
states
had learned to distrust
found
out.
Thus the
glorious
restore
could
he argued, for then the
Thebes,
could
the
all
end of all cleruchies which plundered other states
felt that
the
War,
independence to the allies, the discharge of
mercenaries who
the
[530
HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE
T36
the
and
reformed
Athens,
dream
Athens.1
of
aid
Demosthenes
as
Isocrates failed
of
of
realization.
Isocrates had
afield
for
a
he saw,
the
was
man
ies, but
know
to
lead
Philip
them
nadcus,
haps to
2
-
a
of all
to
In the
eulogy
the
of
ad
3
rule, but
Philip, he believed,
by jealous
to
So to him
him to form
called upon
organize a council
under
his presidency,
He felt that the
But they
in
and
attacks upon
persisted and war
this Isocrates issued his Panathe-
Philip
Phil.
Syra
Macedon
fatherland.4
his
past of
what a
Isocrates, Areopagiticus, passim ; Peace
Id., Phil 119; Epist. i, ix.
'Id., Phil; Epist.
4
Id., Phil. 127.
'Ibid., 16.
Philip
of
man who would
He
the glorious
to
appealed
to Dionysius of
In
Greeks,
nothing.
midst of
make clear
as
deliberate
Persia.5
He
quarrels or affected
turned.
might
against
amounted
followed.
1
Greeks
but had looked
one.
Panhellenic hero, Heracles ; he
great
Hellas
all
old age
friendly alliance
the
Sparta.2
be involved in local
would
Pherae,
of
lead the Greeks.
who would
Isocrates in his
which
of
alone
find
might
did Demosthenes the
descended from the
would not
a
Jason
to Archidamus
not as
he
wherever
to
without response
cuse-arid
trusted to Athens
not
leader
his
city it
native
was
19, 20, 44 ;
city,
that
136-40
he
; et.
per
was
al.
531
J
THE FOURTH CENTURY
j.37
preparing to crush. Chaeronea was to him, not the death of
Hellenic freedom, but the overthrow of a faction in Athens
which made possible
the congress of
the
consummation of
Corinth
his
congress adopted
home,
the end
Greeks
of
freedom
program :
democracy,
states with support of the
his
But that
autonomy in
and
peace and
wars, exiles and piracies,
Before
plan.
Isocrates had died.
met
all
security
an alliance of
at
the
Macedonian
leadership and declaration of war
Unfortunately for the Greeks it was a peace
from without.
Liberty and autonomy were but
under
Persia.1
on
forced
names and with peace came stagnation.
In the
same year
peace an unknown
Athens.2
of
they
It
the
might regain
the
Isocrates issued his
to
was an effort
felt that the first
were
that
treatise
writer wrote a
show
wealth and power
most fortune- favored which
the
on
the
revenues
the Athenians how
they had lost.
Those
essential was peace.
in times
speech on
had
states
He
he
said
peace
in longest
men
flocked to
season.
It
Athens
the mariner, the merchant, the wealthy dealer
corn and
was
wine, the
peace
of
pleasure-seeker, to add
All the
wealth
that
lavished in war,
The
act
gained
chief
the
in times
of
of peace was
revenue
were
of prevention which the
Let
of
as guardians
in
the
and wealth of the city.
sources
method
novel.
writer suggested was
board to
the
while
themselves cut off.
banker,
philosopher and poet and
to the glory
had been
all
many cattle, the
owner of
artist, the artisan, the sophist,
that
the
Athenians
the peace, to
appoint a
settle
disputes
see to it that Athens refrained from in
among the states, to
justice and to harmonize warring states and warring fac
in them; let the
tions
serve
op. cit, pp.
1
Kessler,
1
jfen. Poroi
On
vol.
the
i,
center of
the independence
date,
p.
'93-
et seq.
;
the
pp.
73
their
endeavor
Delphic
be to
shrine.
pre
Such
a
ct seq.
is traditionally ascribed to Xenophon.
Schaefer, Demosthenes und seine Zeit (Leipzig, 1885),
v. vi.
cf.
67
of
This
treatise
scheme, backed up
the length
All
Greeks
ing
the fourth
to
receive
lenes,2
of
trophies
of
Neither the
with
no
from
arguments of
Part
response.
among the Hellenes dur
had failed in
enough
Occasional
avail.
any
support of
won
strong
thought,
Athens.1
as arbitration
the endeavors of the statesmen
were
fail, he
Though the Olympic
religion was not
such wars.
to the
failed,
century
gifts
could not
secure peace
century.
as
Hellas,
flocking
these efforts to
the preceding
the sending of embassies throughout
by
breadth
and
bring the
to
[532
HELLENIC CONCEPTIONS OF PEACE
I38
at
to
between Hel
compass
the
the
priests refused
war
peace
general
appeals
to
the end
leaders
nor
conferences
met
arbitration
the answer to the
of
of
question
why may be found in the changed conditions of warfare.
Though the development of trade and industry, the growth
individual
of
desire for
bonds
by
appreciation of
which
seem more
the
and
changed
to
desirable
less to be
meet
and
the
body
the
service
mercenary
formation
nished at one
the
of
duties
of
The
Arcadia
increasing
of men who were
dividual
of
great and
from
armies
time
war.3
The
Greece
military
party
in
furnished
burden
The
price.
specialization
a constant war
itself had
and northwestern
the citizens for a
led to
the
surplus of population
to remove the
of a professional
and of
of war more
of war
number of exiles
ready
life
state made peace
burdens
the nature
these conditions.
in the country districts
to the
the
and
borne,
of
general relaxation of
held
man was
than ever
irksome
finer things
the
comfort, the
ease and
of
in
growth
warfare
class.
a
They
and an outlet
and
fur
for
easily be stirred up to
vote for a war in which
took
little
part.
Since the
they
mercenaries usually lived on the
country in which they
were fighting, the expense was less for the
city which em1
2
3
Xen.,
Poroi
people could
v.
Cf. Xen., Hell. iii. 2,
21.
Pickard-Cambridge, Demosthenes,
pp.
101
ct seq.
THE FOURTH CENTURY
533]
the
Athenians to
the
ease with which
The many
and
states
the
of
failed,
same
to
ments
the
conditions
old
pulsion,
lowed
on
general
with assurances of
ity.
was
did
tempting
line
face
No
relations.
settle
real
divisions.
hence
establish
the basic
establish
to
give
lasting
a
of
com
Any
central
problems
peace
impun
organism
and
democracy
was
power
Athens
compromise.
they
interstate
of
to bridge the gap of
made
pride
fol
state
the Greeks failed because
effort was
diminution
left to
break the
comparative
a
lost.
was
and wars
Athenian*
the
of
an
self-aggrandize
distrust and misunderstanding between
None of the states
and Spartan oligarchy.
accept
with
the states without
enough might
and
support,
and
to
paths
of previous
all of their agreements
not
position
enforcement was
fears intervened
and
The only suggestion to
disregarded as foolish.
In
freedom
of
to the agree
regard
with
When the
covetous
enough and
strong
principles
arms of one or another of
several or all
jealousies
the
the
their independence
prevailed
opened
left to
when
ment;
for
and
protection.
forced into the
it
Philip
war.
established
enforce peace.
great states
get
avail, because the
no
more powerful states and
The
war with
Philip won that
he tried to
permanently
The very guarantor of
their most dangerous enemy.
Accord
was
were
in the
not
was
position
ingly they
part
for their
organization
their
encountered when
conferences
autonomy
weaker
take
were
for the diffi
circumstances account
Demosthenes
which
culty
These
them.
ployed
i$g
willing to
necessary to
was never
to power; Sparta felt that
willing
she could
up her
her military system; Thebes would not sur
her hopes for the hegemony of Greece. Whenever a
claims
not part with
render
settlement
some
fear
ingness to
jured,
was
near,
of undue
yield
came
some element of
influence
the least
up to
or
jot, lest
wreck all
jealousy
interference,
hopes
or of
hatred,
some unwill
pride and prestige
of
lasting
peace.
be in
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE
In the
preparation of
books have been
the
used.
author was able
this
work
the standard texts
Through the kindness
to use the
manuscript of
of
Mrs.
the
and
hand
Botsford,
late Professor
Botsford's Hellenic History, which has served as a guide
throughout the historical part of the study.
The author is
indebted to Professors
the Department
of
Young, Van Hook
Classical
Philology
and
Sturtevant
for many helpful
cisms and suggestions.
140
[534
of
criti
VITA
The author of this study was born in Brooklyn, N. Y.,
April 26, 1890.
He prepared for college at the
High School of Brooklyn.
During his undergraduate
Boys'
work
Cornell
at
Burr,
Bristol,
Kemmerer.
and
he
University
Professors
Phi Beta Kappa.
attended
He
In his
in
of
A.B. in
History
and
1910.
Latin
the
Bethlehem, Pa.; 1912-14,
Stevenson School, New
sity
191
Fellow
5-16,
in
Ancient
instructor
in
Bloomington, Indiana;
given
by
He
he
was
society
of
assistant
to
received the de
was
assistant
master
Bethlehem
York
City;
History,
History
6-1 7,
Preparatory School,
History at the Allen-
in
master
191
he
year
1910-12
at
to the
was elected
senior
Professor Sill in Ancient History.
gree
courses
Hull, Sill, Catterall, Jenks, Bennett,
191
4-
Univer
15,
Columbia
University;
Indiana
University,
at
assistant
teacher of
His
tory in the High School of Commerce, Xew York City;
'1917-18, lecturer in History, and 1918-19 instructor in His
tory in Columbia University. During his graduate work at
Columbia he attended seminars under Professors Botsford
and
Dunning,
courses
in
History
ford, Robinson and Shotwell,
ology, Life and Epigraphy
Young
and
Perry.
After Cresar's
under
Publications
Death,"
under
and courses
:
Professors Bots
in Greek Archae
Professors
"The Sequence
in Classical
JVeekly
Events
for December
in Botsford
12, 1914, Hypereides, Epitaphios,
Hellenic Civilization, pp. 611 ct seq.
Wheeler,
of
and
Sihler,
141
II
3
9005
01 15
II
25 0 6
jraSf9iH*ffi;
"IT