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The image of Arab Muslims' Culture in American school Textbooks Prof. Dr. Muhammad M. Abu Laylah & Prof. Dr. Mostafa Elhalougi Faculty of Languages & Translation, Al-Azhar University Introduction This paper attempts to deal with a sensitive and complicated matter, i.e., the image of the other, the other's culture, religion, beliefs and how they should be explained to those who are not very familiar with it. This study aims at exchanging of opinions and information. It does not underestimate the authors' capabilities in the USA or in Europe. This applies also to American and European schools in general. Hopefully, such a dialogue enriches cultures mutuality and builds bridges of understanding, reciprocal and co-operation. The image of Islamic civilization seems bright in some school textbooks in the USA and in some other countries. For example, the textbook "The World and its Peoples" deals with Islamic Civilization and describes it as the rich culture. It states that the Islamic golden age is best marked by education, scientific research, arts and literature. It also deals with the Islamic scientists’ accomplishments in Algebra, Astronomy, Chemistry, Physics, and Optics.1 In his studies, Al-Banyan notes that the American authors of The World History – Connections to Date, 1999 say “Islam: an international civilization… Golden age of Muslim civilization… European physicians began to attend the Muslim universities in Spain and translate the Arabic medical texts. For 500 years, the works of Avicenna and Razi became the standard medical textbooks at European schools”.2 The Muslims established in the Middle Age [The House of Wisdom]. Many commercial terminologies used in English today, such as “check” and “risk” are of Arabic origin.3 Specialists of intercultural dialogues and human rights believe that there should be a peaceful co-existence between the peoples of the world. Our goal is to secure an atmosphere in which humans can interact and 1 pp. 228-233 pp.219, 266, 270 3 see Ahmed A. Al-Banyan. Arab and Muslim Image in Public Education Textbooks of the United States of America .2004, unpublished studies. 2 cooperate with one another instead of fighting, hating and distrusting each other. More than ever before, all nations should strive to advocate mutual understanding and trust in the world—a world in which religious values and human principles are respected, cherished and not violated or completely disregarded. The advancement of science and technology in our time should be utilized in unifying humanity—regardless of color, origin or faith. This conviction is sufficient to minimize world conflicts—if not to eliminate them altogether. With its noble values and universal teachings, Islam provides a striking example in closing the gaps between nations—irrespective of their ethnic or religious diversity—by eliminating bigotry and racism. Speaking about the wisdom behind the diverse and pluralistic nature of humanity, the Qur'an states clearly; "O mankind! We have created you from a male and a female, and made you into nations and tribes, that you may know one another. Verily, the most honorable of you in the sight of God is he who is more righteous. Verily, God is All-Knowing, All-Aware." (Surah (chapter) 49:13). God created people different and required of them to know each other; exchanging ideas, views and experiences– to be cooperative and undivided. The Qur'an also makes it clear that God has created humans as equal and that they are all honored by Him. The Qur'an states that this diversity and pluralism we see in the world is a divine design: “If your Lord had so willed, He could surely have made mankind one nation or community . . .” (Surah 11:118). This means that it is the will of God for people to be different, not to be the same or identical. But it is us who should not misuse differences between people and aggravate and oppress each other on the basis of ethnicity, color, class or power. So it is against God’s plan to try to force globalization on the people of the world, ignoring their identities, religion, culture and distinctive trades. Religion according to the Qur’an cannot be forced on people by the sword or any similar means. “Let there be no compulsion in religion . . .” (Surah 2:256). This Qur’an honors human beings: 2 “Indeed, We have honored the Children of Adam, and We have carried them on land and sea, and have provided them with lawful things. (Surah 17:70). The Qur’an emphasizes that no one is forced to accept Islam as a religion. Agitated by the opposition to his message (which is intended for the salvation and well-being of humanity), the Prophet Muhammad is told in the Qur'an that he cannot force anyone to embrace the Muslim faith. “Had your Lord willed, those on earth would have believed, all of them together. So, will you (O Muhammad) then compel mankind, until they become believers?” (Surah 10:99). The problem is that, when some Islamic conceptions are mistakenly presented to the children in USA. The textbooks sometimes take them over of their proper conveyer to leave a wrong impression. Sometimes the wording is dreary and misinformative. We should take that individual as examples to put the information in its contexts. Though these textbooks present the Islamic civilization as vivid, somehow, they present Islam as a religion of terrorism. It is so odd to glorify the Islamic culture and at the same time to demean its foundation. The image of Islam is negatively taught in some school textbooks in USA. For example, it is presented in these textbooks as a terrorist religion, as shall be demonstrated in this paper. This image is contrary to the spirit of Islam and its civilization. The negative image of Islam may be traced back to the Crusades, or to the fact that authors mix Islam, as a religion with the local practices and common and regional customs in some Muslim countries. They identify wrongly Islam is, as a religion, with the behavior of some radical Muslims, or rely on unauthentic references and inaccurate translations. Some of these authors may prefer to focus on military dimension of the religious text, neglecting the textual, historical, cultural, or political context of the Arabic text or the Qur'anic verses. The dreadful September 11 attack, the war on Iraq and the rapid growth of the Muslim community in the United States contribute to the growing attention given to Islam in the West. Over the years, a great number of misconceptions about Islam and Muslims has been created in the USA. Although a negative portrayal of Islam and Muslims is equally shared by both the media and misconceptions in school textbooks. Our focus here is on the image of Arab Muslim culture in USA school 3 textbooks. Education shapes our views and attitudes especially in the formative age. The information that students in the USA receive from school about Islam has a great impact on the way they perceive and imagine Islam and Muslims. Sure enough, this misinformation will also affect future policies and attitudes towards whatever is perceived or imagined. The negative portrayal of Islam includes generalizations, distortions of historical facts, mainly are due to the actions which are practiced in the name of Arab customs or in the name of Islam. The challenge, we are facing, urges us all to teach our children to be peace-lovers and peacemakers, to love truth and search for it in an objective and integral manner, and indeed to love others as they love themselves. The authors of “The Miseducation of the West: How Schools and the Media Distort Our Understanding of the Islamic World” insist that if we fail to present Islam objectively and without bias to American school students, then the classroom would become; “a central site for the legitimization of myths and silence about non-Western and often non-Christian peoples. If educators who value the power of difference were to teach about the history of Islam, they would have to rethink the canonical history of the West. Indeed, when school texts distort the history of Islam, they concurrently distort all history”.4 Why should the USA students study Islamic cultural objectively? Statistically, there are around 1.5 billion Muslims in the world which means that Muslims make up one fifth of the world population, making Islam the second largest religion on earth (see chart below). Islam is the fastest growing religion in the world. The Muslim faith is not confined to a single ethnicity, color, or region. Rather, Muslims are found in all continents and almost all countries in the world. 4 Shirley R. Steinberg and Joe L. Kincheloe (ed.), The Miseducation of the West: How Schools and the Media Distort Our Understanding of the Islamic World (Praeger Publishers, 2004), p. 2. 4 World Faiths Pie Chart (2002)5 The mission of school should include teaching, respect of the other's culture, religion, history especially in multicultural society. A century ago, America was a white Christian nation, then it became Judeo-Christian, but now the face of America is changing and Islam is becoming the second largest religion in the U.SA. Moreover, removing all misleading and derogatory information about Muslims will help in terms of the building bridges of mutual understanding, tolerance, and trust between Islamic and Western cultures. For that, we will review some of the U.S. school textbooks that contains wrong or biased information against Islam and Muslims. Following are a list of the textbooks reviewed: - Breaking away from the textbook. Creative way to teach World History . Volume 1 prehistory to 1600. The Scarecrow press, Inc. 2002 - Created equal. A social and political history of the United State. Volume 1 to 1877. Pearson/ Longman, 2003 - Exploring world History, ed. Globe Book Company, 1987 - Global History and Geography, 2001 - History of the World: People, Places and Concepts, ed. A hard-court company and Steck Vaugn - Literature – The Reader’s Choice,ed. Glencoe Me-Graw-Hill 2002 − Our World (New York: Macmillan/McGraw-Hill, 2003). − The World and its Peoples − The World History – Connections to Date, 1999 − World cultures, ed. Prentice Hall, 2001 − World Cultures and Geography (Illinois: McDougal Littell, 2005) 5 NewInternationalist, “Muslims—The Facts,” access: July 1, 2007: (http://newint.org/features/2002/05/01/muslims-facts/). 5 − World Explorer, People, Places and Cultures (New Jersey (NJ): Prentice Hall, 2004). − World Geography and Culture, ed. Globe Fearon Educational publisher Paramus 1994. - World History: Continuity and change, 1999 − World Studies, Africa: Geography. History. Culture (NJ: Prentice Hall, 2005). − World Studies, Eastern Hemisphere: Geography, History and Culture (NJ: Prentice Hall, 2004). − World Studies, Foundations of Geography (NJ: Prentice Hall, 2005). − World Studies, Medieval Times to Today (NJ: Prentice Hall, 2004). − World Studies, the Ancient World (NJ: Prentice Hall, 2005). It is heartening that there are some practical efforts now to edit U.S. textbooks that contain correct information to reflect a fair and true image of Islam and Muslims. We really appreciate the efforts of the institutions involved to advocate truth, objectivity and oppose groundless biases and misconceptions. Muslim scholars and institutions have the duty to point out the misconceptions and misinformation about Islam and Muslims. Ahmed AlBunyan's “Arab and Muslim Image in Public Education Textbooks of the United States of America” is one of these endeavors. This present work is a considerable contribution in this regard. Arabs and Muslims, in turn, have also been working diligently to review their school textbooks to make sure that the West and the U.S. are portrayed in a fair and objective way. It is only through fairness, objectivity, and understanding that we can coexist peacefully and cooperate for the prosperity and well-being of humanity. And protect civilizations from destruction. Islamic culture in school textbooks In World Studies, Medieval Times to Today (p. 29). Under the heading “Mathematics and Science,” the authors state that Arab scholars studied both Greek and Indian mathematics. They learned about the idea of zero from Indian scholars. And they borrowed the use of the so-called Arabic numerals that we use today from India, too. 6 It is historically factual that the zero is an Arab invention. Before that breakthrough in the field of math, the defected Roman numerals (I, II, III, IV, etc.) were in use. An average computer user knows exactly the difference between Arabic numerals and Roman numerals In World Studies, Medieval Times to Today (p. 29), under the heading “Harun ar-Rashid: A Powerful Caliph,” we read: Harun ar-Rashid (hah ROON ar rah SHEED) became caliph of Baghdad in 786. His rule was a time of prosperity. For 23 years, Harun ruled the world’s most glamorous court. He and his favorite subjects ate of gold plates and drank from goblets studded with jewels... Harun paid many skilled writers, musicians, dancers, and artists to live in Baghdad. And he lavishly rewarded those whose works pleased him. One musician is said to have received a gift of 100,000 sil ver pieces for a single song. This passage portrays Muslim rulers as the slaves of their lusts and desires. As the fifth Abbasid caliph, Harun ar-Rashid ruled from 786 to 809, and his time was marked by scientific, astronomic, architecture, cultural, and arts prosperity. This prosperity of civilization is against violence and aggression. Jihad in school textbooks The textbook The World and its Peoples (pp. 222-3) portrays Jihad as a way of occupying lands in order to spread the religion of Islam. It also speaks about how Muslims forced others to adopt their religion, which was then adopted by the majority of those nations occupied. On page 222, the authors state in clear terms that The Arab warriors swept everything before them. They believed that they had been chosen to spread God’s word. Muslims went to battles with the belief that death would carry them to paradise. 7 The textbook: “The World and its Peoples” deals with Muslims’ Jihad in occupying land in order to spread the religion of Islam and how Muslims forced others to adopt their religion, which was then adopted by the majority of those nations occupied (pp. 222, 223). The book mentions only one battle in which the Muslims were defeated in the year 732 in France (pp. 223, 224). World Cultures, 2001 textbook describes Jihad as the “Holy War” to purify Islam (p. 92). The book states: “Islam taught that Muslim warriors who died in the service of Islam would win a place in paradise” (p. 572). In the History of the World: People, Places and Concepts, the author mentions that Muhammad “forced the people of Madinah to acknowledge Allah as their only God”, (p. 144). Global History and Geography, 2001, p. 144 says that Muhammad "attacked Mecca and forced the people there to acknowledge Allah as their God". Jihad is often mistakenly described as "holy war." Linguistically, the word Jihad stems from the Arabic root word Ja-Ha-Da, which means "strive." Essentially, Jihad is classified either as al-jih d al-akbar (the greater Jihad), the struggle against one’s own lusts and desires, or working hard to maintain and support one’s own family and dependants. Al-jih d al-asghar (the lesser Jihad), is a defensive tactic (it may imply fighting) to protest against oppression, persecution and aggression. Forcing someone at the point of a sword to choose death or Islam is a strange idea about Islam in spirit and in historical practice. There is absolutely no question of waging a Jihad to "spread the faith" and compel people to embrace Islam. The Qur'an also declares, "There is no compulsion in religion" (2:256). In Islamic culture God created people different, and ask them to know each other; exchanging ideas, views and experiences – to be cooperative and undivided. The Qur'an also makes it clear that God has created humans as equal and that they are all honored by Him. The Qur'an states that this diversity and pluralism we see in the world is a divine design: 8 “If your Lord had so willed, He could surely have made mankind one nation or community . . .” (Surah 11:118). This means that it is the will of God for people to be different, not to be the same or identical. But it is us who should not misuse our differences and aggravate and oppress each other on the basis of ethnicity, color, class or power. So it is against God’s plan to try to force globalization on the people of the world, ignoring their identities, religion, culture and distinctive trades. Religion according to the Qur’an cannot be forced on people by the sword or any similar means. “There is no compulsion in religion . . .” (Surah 2:256). The Qur’an emphasizes that no one is forced to accept Islam as a religion. Agitated by the opposition to his message, the Prophet Muhammad is told in the Qur'an that he cannot force anyone to embrace the Muslim faith. “Had your Lord willed, those on earth would have believed, all of them together. So, will you (O Muhammad) then compel mankind, until they become believers?” (Surah 10:99). In this verse God tells the Prophet to convey the message to people and not to be troubled by their rejection. The Qur’an forbids aggression against others, and only approves the defense, as it says:” And fight in the cause of God those who fight you, and do not transgress, as God loves not transgressors” 2/190. The imperative form of the verb ‘fight’ is directed to Muslims, and is restricted only to the case of being under attack. That is, the Qur’an prohibited aggression. The Qur’an emphasizes the human right to live and speaks about illegal killing one human being, whether a Muslim or a non-Muslim, as killing all people on earth. Whoever saves the life of a human being, whether a Muslim or a non-Muslim, is as good as saving the life of all human beings 5/ 32. This verse shows how much Islam sanctifies the lives of the other. It also indicates that Islam protects the human life. Most battles at the time of the Prophet Muhammad, such as the battles of Badr, Uhud and Al-Ahzab, took place near the city of Medina because of the non-believing Meccans’ aggressions against Muslims. The Meccans have previously expelled Muslims form Mecca. Muslim scholars agreed in the past and present on that the relationship between Muslims and non-Muslims is built in principle on peace not war. Hence, Muslims at the time of the Messenger did not fight but for self defense, deterring an offensive act, or launching a preventive battle against an enemy preparing to attack them. Muslims did never 9 breach an agreement holding between them and their neighbors at the time of the Messenger Muhammad. Muslims only fought those who concluded agreements with Muslims then breached them, as happened with the people pf Mecca when they breached their treaty with the Messenger Muhammad, and with some Jews of Medina who breached their treaty with the Muslims and helped the Meccan enemies who launched an attack against Muslims during the battle of Al-Ahzab . Muslims were always keen on spreading Islam by reasoning, persuasion, and respecting other’s freedom, and worked hard towards living in peace. It is, therefore a myth that Islam was spread by the sword. Islam forbids killing, torturing and even threatening. It should be clear that Jihad is limited to absolute necessity. Thomas Carlyle when writing about Muhammad's heroism said: how could a single person force the entire world to follow him and accept his beliefs. Muhammad suffered extremism and persecution in Maccah and never raised or ordered a sword to be raised in his enemies face. He came to spread mercy, justice and peace. Peace In Islam In Islam, peace is the basis of relationship between Muslims and nonMuslims. Other verses which urge Muslims to fight the non-Muslims are linked to historical, geographical, religious, social, and political contexts. These contexts show clearly that Muslims only fought for self-defense or to prevent a war against them. Peace can be felt in the word Islam, whose root consists of three letters S L M, which means in all Semitic Languages peace, safety, and security. Islam highly sanctified peace, as it is a one of God’s names which is mentioned in the Qur’an accompanied by the holy name “The All-Holy, the Peace”59/23. The night in which the Qur’an was revealed was named the night of peace, 97/5 and Islam, in order to stress spreading peace in the world, made the word peace in, and at the end of, every prayer, and made the greetings of Muslims: Peace be upon you. Positive attitudes in the school textbooks about Jihad: It deserves our appreciation that the definition of Jihad in some school texts is presented in its proper context. For example, The World History – Connections to Date, 1999, in p 258 states that “Jihad has often been mistakenly translated simply as holy war. In fact it may include acts 10 of charity or an inner struggle to achieve spiritual peace, as well as any battle in defense of Islam”, in p.188, “Within 200 years, Muslims had built a great empire and a major new civilization”. The same book adds that, for Christians and Europeans, Islam was a source of threat and worry. Even after Islam had become no longer a source of threat, the Christians continued with their aggressive attitude towards the Islamic World . See Al-Banyan ibid. World History: Continuity and change, 1999 states that “The term jihad also means the constant inner struggle of the people experienced in their effort to obey God’s will or any effort in the cause of faith”. In this context, it is worth mentioning here that the study related to the introduction of the concept of Jihad in the French history textbooks, according to its faults and rights, indicates correction, for example, Before correction : The picture displays that Muslims attack non Muslims to force them to adopt Islam in the name of jihad which is described as holy war 11 Belin 5e 2001 p.27 12 After correction: This text defines jihad as : to exert an effort, to combat one’s whims and desires and self defense. Belin 5e 2005 p.30 Islam in school textbooks In World Studies, Medieval Times to Today (p. 31), the authors state regarding the beginning of Islam, The Muslim prophet Muhammad preached in Mecca and Medina. His teaching became the religion of Islam. From an Islamic perspective, this is a confusing piece of information which gives the reader the impression that Muhammad is the founder and maker of Islam. Muslims believe that God is the source of Islamic teachings and guidance. The role of Prophet Muhammad, like all the prophets and messengers before him, was to convey the message of Islam embedded in the revelation he received from God. The Prophet’s own words, actions, etc. - still based on the teachings of the Qur'an - constitute what Muslims call the Sunnah. In World Explorer, People, Places and Cultures (p.495), we read, Christianity, Judaism, and Islam all developed in Southwest Asia. Judaism is believed to have started with Abraham 3,000 years ago. 13 The Muslims believe that Islam as a religion was not developed but was received from God intact. “Development” involves human intervention, but Islam was not subject to any such. People can develop understanding of religion, develop speculative religious knowledge, but not develop the religion itself. In World Studies, Medieval Times to Today (p. 23), we read, The larger group, called Sunnis (SOO nee) . . . They believed that no one man, not even the leader of Islam, should tell Muslims what God’s messages meant. Islam encourages its followers to reflect and reason. The Muslim teachings were expounded by the Prophet Muhammad himself during his life time, then by his companions, and subsequent generations of Muslim scholars. The Islamic heritage of classical and contemporary works on different branches of Islamic knowledge is an indisputable proof of that fact. There are many verses of the Qur’an to support this. To think and to use ones reasoning is a divine command. Muslims should think and reflect about the universe around them to understand its mysteries and rules that point clearly to God. To say that no one can tell them about God’s messages is a mistaken statement. The textbook, The World and its Peoples, in more than one place (pages 221, 222, and 223 for example), correlates Islam to the Arabs in an attempt to infuse the concept that Islam is an integral part of the lives of the Arabs. It is a common misconception that all Arabs are perceived in the West as Muslim and all Muslims are perceived as Arab. But the truth is: Arabs make up only 15% of the Muslim population in the world. Most westerners do not realize that there are more Muslims, for example, in Indonesia than the entire Arab world (stretching from the Arabian Gulf to the Atlantic Ocean). Other countries with the biggest Muslim population include Bangladesh, India, Pakistan, Turkey, Malaysia, and Nigeria - none of them is an Arab country. The population of the Arabic world not all of them are Muslims, for example the Copts of Egypt. God in Islam in school textbooks: 14 In Our World (p. 289), the author argues that Islam as well as Christianity and Judaism are monotheistic religions. In relation to this he states, The most important teaching in the Quran is: there is only one God in the universe—Allah. This belief in only one God makes Islam a monotheistic religion, like Judaism and Christianity. For Muslims, it is a mistake to locate God in the universe. God is above time, space and matter. He is neither inside nor outside this universe, not in person but with His infinite knowledge, wisdom and authority. Is some faith influenced Islam? In World Studies, the Ancient World (p. 64) under the title “Effects on Later Religions,” the writers state, Judaism had an important influence on two later religions, Christianity and Islam. Both religions have their beginnings in Judaism. Both faiths originated from the same geographical area. Both were monotheistic. Jews, Christians, and followers of Islam all honor Abraham, Moses, and the prophets. They also share the same moral point of view that the Israelites first developed. Global History and Geography, 2001 p.144 states that when Muhammad was young, he traveled in the Middle East and, “he had been influenced by the beliefs of the Jews and Christians he met”. In the History of the World: People, Places and Concepts, the author assigned a section titled “The Life of Muhammad”, where he states: “Muhammad became caravan manager. Meeting people along the trade route, Muhammad probably heard the teachings of Judaism and Christianity”, (p. 157). In Breaking away from the textbook. Creative way to teach World History . Volume 1 prehistory to 1600. The Scarecrow press, Inc. 2002, p. 99 we read “Mohammad was more influenced by the monotheists around him”. 15 Some school textbooks in USA mention the difference between Islam and Christianity. The textbook The World History – Connections to Date On page 262, states: “Islam had no religious hierarchy or class of priests. In principle, it emphasized the equality of all believers, regardless of race, sex, class, or wealth”. In general, the image of Islam, Muslims and Arabs has been dealt with in an objective manner in some school textbooks in USA. Similarities and dissimilarities should not be explained as borrowing from other religions but as having one origin in God. It is not accurate to say that a certain faith influenced another faith. From an Islamic perspective, the similarities between Islam, Christianity, and Judaism are due to the fact that they originally came from the same source, i.e., God. Muslims also believe that the message of Islam (which, in essence, entails the belief in One God) was conveyed by a great number of prophets and messengers ; starting from Adam all the way to Muhammad. It is to be noted that revealed religions do not influence each other but complement each other being all of these religions come from the same source. Qur’an in school textbooks In Our World (p.286), the writer claims that the words of the Qur'an are Muhammad’s own. A caption of a Muslim holding a copy of the Qur'an reads, A MUSLIM IN YEMEN STUDIES THE WORDS OF MUHAMMAD The Muslims in Yemen, like all other Muslims all over the world, study the Qur’an and Muhammad’s words in the Hadiths, they are not distinguished in this. The textbook The World and its Peoples (p. 226) states that When Muhammad preached in Medina, some of his followers wrote down his messages. They were gathered in a book known as the Quran, which is the holy book of Islam. 16 The authors must differentiate between the Qur’an and the Hadith. The Hadiths of the Prophet Muhammad were separate from the Qur’an. When he preached in Medina some of his companions wrote down what he said. To Muslims, it is not accurate to say that the Prophet Muhammad’s followers wrote down his sayings to be the holy book of Islam. The Muslims were absolutely certain that the Qur’an was sent to Muhammad over a period of time in different places, in Maccah and Medina and the surroundings. In World Cultures and Geography (p. 438), the author’s state, For the next 22 years, Gabriel continued to send revelations to Muhammad. Muslims believe that the Qur'an is God’s Word revealed in Arabic to Prophet Muhammad over a period of 23 years through arch-Angel Gabriel. The Qur'an is distinct from Hadith, which are the sayings of Muhammad. It would be proper to say that Gabriel conveyed (not sent) the Qur'an to the Prophet, because for Muslims God is the actual sender. Prophet Muhammad in school textbooks The U.S. textbook authors are not less biased when they write about Prophet Muhammad. We read, for example, in World Studies, Africa: Geography, History and Culture (p.80), The founder of Islam was a man named Muhammad. Muslims believe that Muhammad was a Prophet or a religious teacher who speaks for God or a god. In Created equal. A social and political history of the United State, p.18, we read “The religion founded by Muhammad, born at Mecca in 570, had spread rapidly across North Africa from Arabia”. In World Cultures and Geography, p. 437-38, we read “Muhammad, was born in Mecca about A.D. 570. He is the founder of Islam”. The authors of textbooks in USA can say: according to Islamic tradition, Mohammad is the prophet of Islam. The authors of textbooks have the right to write about Islam from their point of view but they ought to respect Islam and Muslims. 17 If there is a possibility here that the author is referring to Muhammad himself as a “a god” we must say; Muslims unanimously believe that Muhammad was only a prophet of God—and not a god. The claim that Muhammad was a “god” has not even been upheld by what mainstream Muslims call heretical or deviant Muslim sects. The Prophet Mohammad himself never laid any claim to divinity or godhood. On the contrary, he was acclaimed for his unmatched humility and self-effacement. He even ordered his companions not stand up for him as a sign of respect to him whenever they saw him walking through the door. In Our World, under the title “The Birth of Islam” and specifically under the sub-heading “Muhammad’s Vision,” (p. 287) the authors write, Muhammad had time to devote himself to thinking about religion. He was about 40 years old, according to Islamic traditions, when he went to a mountain cave to pray. There he had a vision. In the vision, the angel Gabriel appeared to him and said, “O Muhammad, you are the prophet of Allah.” As you learned in Chapter 2, a prophet is believed to speak for God. Muhammad’s vision would lead to the creation of a new religion called Islam (iz To respect the other and his religion, the author can say Muslims believe the prophet Mohammad saw Gabriel in the cave of Hiraa. The writers envisage what the Prophet saw in the Cave of Hiraa as a “vision,” while some Muslims believe that it was in real life. Calling the Prophet’s encounter with arch-Angel Gabriel (Jibreel in Arabic) a vision makes it sound like illusion and fanciful—thus rendering the whole message of Islam a piece of Muhammad’s imagination. For Muslims, Muhammad was able to recall everything he heard from the angel and conveyed it to others and he translated God’s words into practices. The Qur’an was revealed to him over a long period of time, twenty-three years. Was Muhammad’s life based on “vision” illusion, Muslim civilization was imaginary? The proper pronunciation of the word Islam is “islam” not “izlam.” The word “Muslim”—derived from the same root s.l.m as Islam—should be pronounced with a <s> sound not a <z> sound. The Word Muzlim in Arabic means dark, not the follower of Islam. Islam means “peaceful submission” to God in full conviction and being in peace with him, with 18 ones own self and with everyone and everything around. Submission to God in the positive sense means a Muslim is responsible for his deeds. In Our World (p. 288) under the sub-heading “Opposition in Mecca,” we read: They (the leaders of Mecca) also looked down on Muhammad because of his humble birth . This statement intends to denigrate the Prophet Mohammad who was in fact acclaimed, among other things, for his noble birth. He was a member of the Tribe of Koreish, the most powerful and influential tribe in Arabia at that time. Koreish controlled trade routes, hosted pilgrims during Hajj, maintained the Sacred House (the Ka’bah), etc. In World Studies, Medieval Times to Today (p. 22), the authors say, Muhammad saw himself as the last prophet in a long line of prophets that included all these men. Muhammad felt respect for Jews and Christians, whom he called “People of the Book.” In these words, the writers suggest the wrong idea that Muhammad’s being the last prophet was of Muhammad’s own imagination. Throughout Islamic history, Muslims have always believed that Muhammad is the seal of God’s prophets and messengers. This firm belief is supported by the verses of the Qur'an (Surah 33:40) and prophetic sayings. Moreover, the Prophet’s relationship with the Jews and Christians of his time was based on peaceful co-existence and honoring of mutual treaties rather than mere respect. Another misconception in the above passage is that it was the Prophet who gave the Jews and Christians the title “People of the Book.” According to the Muslim teachings, it was the Qur'an that gave them that name (see for example: 3:64, 3:98-99, 5:19, and 5:15-16). The Prophet Muhammad designated them as protected by God and him. Shar'iah (The Islamic Law) in school textbooks 19 Generally speaking, the definition of the Islamic Shari’ah in the U.S. textbooks is usually insufficient. For example, in World Studies, Africa: Geography, History and Culture (p.110) as well as World Studies, Eastern Hemisphere: Geography, History and Culture (p.458), the Shari’ah is defined as Islamic law based on the words and deeds of Muhammad and on comments written by Muslim scholars and lawmakers. This definition completely ignores the role of the Qur'an as the first and primary source of Muslim legislation. The second source is the Sunnah (i.e. the way, sayings, deeds and approvals of Prophet Muhammad). Other sources of legislation, based on the Qur'an and the Sunnah, include Ijma’ (consensus of Muslim scholars), Qias (analogical deduction), Ijtihad (juristic reasoning), Maslalih Mursalah (public interest), etc. The Shari’ah is so comprehensive that it governs: The ‘ibadat (acts of worship) which include ritual purification (wudu), prayers (salah), fasting (sawm), Charity (zakah), and pilgrimage to Mecca (Hajj). The mu'amalat (human dealings) which include financial transactions; endowments; laws of inheritance; marriage, divorce, and child care; foods and drinks (including slaughtering and hunting); penal punishments; warfare and peace; judicial matters (including witnesses and forms of evidence); etc. The Black stone in school textbooks: The Black stone is considered a sacred stone to Muslims as it was to the Arabs before Islam, however, some school textbooks introduced it to the readers in the context of myths and exaggerated of its holiness. In World cultures, ed. Prentice Hall, 2001, p. 570 says “Also in the Ka'bah was the sacred Black stone, a meteorite that Arabs believe that it was sent from heaven”. In Our World (p. 287), we read about the Ka’bah, The Kaaba housed a sacred black stone and honored the gods and goddesses worshipped by the people of Mecca. 20 The pupils must know that • For Muslims, the Ka’bah was not built to honor the gods and goddesses of Mecca before Islam. It is believed that the Ka’bah was first built by Prophet Abraham upon receiving orders from God. The aim of building the Ka’bah is to worship and exalt God as well as perform the Hajj (pilgrimage)—not to honor the idols of the disbelievers. • the Black Stone is not inside the Ka’bah. Rather, it is fixed on a niche made on one of the Ka’bah’s outer walls. Idols were later placed in the Kaaba but it was not originally built to house them. This was a deviation from its purpose. When Islam came they were declared out. Caliphate in school textbooks: In World Cultures and Geography, the authors insist that the Muslim Caliphate was an “empire.” On page 440, for example, a section is titled “Muslim Empires.” We read on page 441, The caliph’s duty was to spread God’s rule. In carrying out this task, the caliphs founded a new empire, the caliphate. The caliphate was a theocracy, a government ruled by a religious leader. It was outside the intentions of the Caliphs to build an empire nor were they commanded to do so. The rules of the Caliph were to maintain the order among people to help the oppressed. The same concept is repeated on page 442. The authors also state (p. 442) that under the Muslim rule, Christians and Jews could pay a tax that allowed them to worship as they pleased. 21 It is not a proper to compare the Muslim caliphate to the Roman, Byzantine, and Persian empires. Non-Muslims were required to pay an affordable tax (jiziah) so they can be protected by the Muslim army from the aggression of outsiders and to live together in peace. The Copts of Egypt, for example, paid the jiziah to the Muslims to protect Egypt from the Roman invaders. So, it is not accurate to say that Muslims collected taxes from the Jews and Christians just to let them practice their religion freely. Under Islam, non-Muslims enjoyed all the privileges and had the same responsibility that Muslims had. Those who were unable to pay the jiziah were exempted and even supported financially by the Muslim treasury! The clergy especially were aided by the state to fulfill the expectation of their congregation. This is in one hand, and on the other we should remember that Muslims pay Zakah charity in money or in kind. Status of woman in Islam in school textbooks: In World Cultures and Geography (p. 458), the authors state: In some [Muslim] countries . . . religious beliefs limit the roles women can play. For example, Saudi Arabian women are not allowed to attend gatherings with men, and they are forbidden to drive cars. A Saudi woman may have only one husband but a Saudi man is allowed by Islamic law to have up to four wives. Very few Saudi women work outside the home. The same concept is repeated on page 459, Exploring World History, ed. Globe Book Company, 1987 in chapter(3), the authors state that man is allowed by Islam to have four wives but the woman may have only one husband. In some Islamic countries, women wear chadors, floor-length cloaks that cover everything but the woman’s eyes. In Iran and Saudi Arabia, such clothing is not a choice; it’s the law. 22 World Geography and Culture, 1994 describes women in the Arab countries as being restricted, and that they must cover their faces. Page 225 of the book reads, “some Islamic countries are stricter than others. Saudi Arabia, for example, is a very strict Islamic country. In Saudi Arabia, women cannot show their full faces in public; cannot drive the car or travel alone; and cannot take jobs outside the home”. Global History and Geography, 2001, p 187 mentions “The Quran does not give a woman equal rights of inheritance with a man” Al-Banyan notes some negative remarks about the Arab and Islamic countries: -Certain incidents were presented on a selective basis with pictures supporting them. The textbook Literature – The Reader’s Choice addresses modern African literature. Under one of the pictures used, a footnote reads: “An Egyptian School” (p. 104). The picture reflects an old building with a water collection point, little children, and a veiled teacher in front of them. The question here is: does this picture represent all of the Egyptian schools? The book also shows the picture of a woman in a poor condition walking on a dirty road along a mud wall on a sunny day. It was placed as an introduction to the translation of a poem by the poet Nazek Al-Mala’ika titled, “The Elegy of a Worthless Woman”! The writers portray Muslim men as being suppressive of their women—in terms of marriage, work, and participation in public life. As far as Muslim women are concerned, misconceptions are resulted when the western authors confuse the teachings of Islam (which are based on granting equal rights and responsibilities to Muslim men and women) with some aspects of the Arab culture (which is sometimes restrictive when it comes to women). In Islam, women have complete control over their own property and are allowed to participate in public life. Women also have the right to inheritance, education, work, etc. Surah 4, 34 summarizes the responsibilities of the man as follows: "Men are the protectors and maintainers of women, because God has given the one more (strength) than the other, and because they support them from their means." .Men are responsible for all the necessities of life (an appropriate standard of clothing, housing, etc.). The Quran added "And women have as many rights as they have of obligation in equity" Surah 2: 228 23 They are also allowed to uncover their faces and hands in public. The Quran refers that veil is to protect women from harm 33:59. Both men and women are required to be modest and decent when they speak, dress, work, etc. Moreover, many Saudi women work (outside the home) as doctors, engineers, businesswomen, etc. During the 1990s, for example, over 500 Saudi women were working at Aramco as engineers. The practice of polygamy (with unlimited number of wives) had been practiced in almost all faiths before the coming of Prophet Muhammad. The Hebrew Scriptures document approximately 40 polygamists, including prominent figures such as Abraham, Moses, Isaac, Jacob, Solomon, and David. We read in the Bible (1 Kings 11:3) that Prophet Solomon, for example, had 700 wives as well as 300 concubines. It was Islam that limited polygamy—allowing a man to have as many as four wives, but all were to be treated as equals and with kindness. The Qur'an stipulates that if a man is afraid of being unable to treat his wives equally, then he should marry only one (Surah 4:3). The complete verse of polygamy (Surah 4:3) should be mentioned, because it is a conditional sentence with specific meanings. So, if we mention half of the conditional statement, incomplete meaning will come out. The complete verse is “And if you fear that you shall not be able to deal justly with the orphans, then marry women of your choice, two or three, or four but if you fear that you shall not be able to deal justly with them , then only one or your slaves. That is nearer to prevent you from doing injustice” (Q:4/3). Reading the complete verse gives the correct meaning which allows polygamy on conditions which are not easy to apply. The polygamy verse which everyone in the East and the West repeatedly talks about it goes as follow: “And if you fear that you will not be able to deal justly …..”4/3. We should note that this verse gives a conditional meaning and giving only one part of the verse will be nonacademic and unfair, none of its parts should be ignored. Whoever gives himself the right to split the conditional sentence is doing wrong to the verse. The first part of the verse shows the context of its revelation and it may also indicate that polygamy is related to the female orphans. The verse emphasizes the concept of justice which has been repeated three times in the verse. The Qur’an emphasizes justice. 24 One of the verses of the same chapter indicates that it is almost impossible to be fair among women. So the verse clearly recommends marrying only one woman. It is noticed here the Qur’an honors women when it names one of its long chapters “Women”. None of the chapters in the Qur’an is named “Men”. As for polyandry (a woman having more than one husband), it is not allowed in any religious or moral system. It occurs rarely in history. It is more like prostitution than marriage. It is against the rights of the woman and her status in society. Error / mistake /fault In World cultures and geography (p. 437), the authors state that: Less than 600 years after Christ’s death, a third monotheistic religion arose in Southeast (correction Southwest) Asia. Conclusion As we have seen in the above samples from the U.S.A textbooks collected and analyzed here, the negative portrayal of Islam and Muslims includes generalizations, distortions of historical facts, degradation of Muslim culture and civilization (for example, by constantly showing Arabs and Muslims as uncivilized people living in the desert, riding camels, and grazing sheep) and blaming Islam for actions which are done in the name of Arab customs and social traditions. This reveals to us that some textbooks in the USA hold Islam and other non-western civilizations to different standards than those applied to non-Muslim western cultures. According to Fred M. Donner, an academician who is wellacquainted with Islamic studies, “Nothing is guaranteed to open students’ eyes like dismantling misconceptions, discrediting stereotypes and exchanging honest differences of opinions.” Unless social study Educators and textbook editors open their eyes and minds, Donner’s vision will 25 remain unfulfilled and the distortions of the image of Islam and Muslims will continue, and perhaps, grow even worse.6 We would like to urge our American colleagues to look at and consider the Islamic evidence presented in this paper and correct the misunderstanding and misconceptions about Islam and Muslims. We should keep our children’s minds free of denigration of others or thinking that only they are right and everyone else is inferior and misguided and an enemy presenting a threat to their way of life. Other dimensions, like the social, the economic, the national, the political and the military perspective in addition to the two axes of civilization and religion need also to be discussed. Some books provide only limited information about the Arab and Islamic countries. It does not exceed a small number of lines in some books and is neglected in others. On the opposite side, justification is noticed in dealing with other countries, such as Israel. This kind of study should also deal with other subjects as Geography, Social Studies and Literature, as well. Some of the texts in the books assigned for the study of Arabic as a second language also need to be revised. In France, for example, the books which study Arabic Grammar give model reading with emphasis on specific verbs like “ to kill”, “to beat”, “to break” etc. Such words carry negative meanings and connotations. On the other hand, the French books of French grammar and the English books of grammar emphasize positive verbs like “to love”. The American authors and scholars can distinguish between the teachings and principles of Islam on the one hand, and the behavior of some Muslims on the other, as they seemed to have forgotten that Islam is a religion of peace. Islam enjoins justice which is a principle and base in international law, as well as reading, seeking knowledge, working, and bearing responsibility. Correcting the errors in textbooks worldwide, and the dialogue between cultures leads to enrich these cultures, rid the world of these conflicts, fight terrorism, exist cooperation, and living in peace and security. 6 The Free Press Journal, “Reviewing textbooks: the American experience” by M. V. Kamath (http://www.hvk.org/articles/0303/23.html), access: July 7, 2007. 26 These textbooks should instead have presented the verses which are considered Islamic principles, i.e., the verses that forbade aggression and permit self-defense, or the verses that allow combats within their context. Islam is clear of violence, aggression, and terrorism. Presenting Jihad in schools textbooks from a radical perspective may lead to linking it to terrorism and may lead terrorists to recruit Muslim students especially those who fail in their study in American or in European countries. Shall school worldwide bear its full responsibility in educating the citizen and teaching him the culture of tolerance and peace? And correct the erroneous image of the other, of his History, his religion and of his culture in school textbooks in order to get out of the state of war to the state of peace and cooperation and collective work against ignorance, illness, and poverty for the sake of the happiness and progress of mankind? The world is leading a war against terrorism that costs the lives of thousands of innocent people. Not war, but education of peace must begin at schools by presenting the right concepts about the other and his culture for the sake of building the tolerant, peaceful, and helpful citizen. Recommendations • A strong coordination should exist between the Muslim communities in the U.S.A. and the American Textbook Council (ATC). • Muslim scholars should be consulted with regard to anything that involves the Muslim law (Shari’ah), Islam, the Qur'an, the life of Prophet Muhammad, etc. in the U.S. school textbooks. • Controversial issues such as Jihad, treatment of women, the status of non-Muslims in Islamic society, slavery, and the relationship of religious and political authority should neither be ignored nor portrayed subjectively. • Maximum efforts should be exerted to revise and change the contents of those school books which reflect bias against Islam and Muslims, with emphasis on developing mutual respect mechanisms with others to achieve this goal. 27 Bibliography The Noble Qur'an, translated by M. Muhsin Khan & M. Taqi-ud-Din alHilali (KSA, King Fahd Complex for the Printing of the Holy Qur'an, 2000). 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The Straight Way: Answers to Questions Put Forward by non-Muslims (Singapore: The Muslim Converts' Association of Singapore, 1993). Lin, Phylis Lan (ed.). Islam in America: Images and Challenges (University of Indianapolis Press, 1998). Nu'man, Fareed H. The Muslim Population in the United States "A Brief Statement" (The American Muslim Council, 1992) 1st edition. 28 Sewall,Gilbert T. Islam and the Textbooks (© 2003 American Textbook Council) (www.historytextbooks.org/islamreport.pdf). Strum, Philippa and Danielle Tarantolo (ed.), Muslims in the United States: Demography, Beliefs, Institutions (Washington, D.C.: Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, 2003). 29