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Unit I
GRAMMAR
CHAPTER 1
Parts of Speech
Words are the building materials of a language. When arranged in
proper order, words form into sentences and convey ideas.
For example :
Birds live in trees.
Smt. Pratibha Patel is the President of India.
Sometimes a single word or a phrase may also convey an idea.
For example :
Thief !
Snake!
Nonsense!
Order, order!
Out, out, brief candle!
Objection overruled!
Normally, different words in a sentence called parts of speech,
perform different functions. We can classify these words according
to their functions, as follows :
1.1
Nouns :
They are names of persons, places, things,
ideas, and feelings, such as,
Gandhi, Hyderabad, Everest, Salarjung Museum,
Buddhism, Theory of Relativity, and kindness.
1.2
Pronouns :
They are words used in place of nouns to avoid
their repetition, such as,
I, we, you, he, she, it, they, and one.
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1.3
Adjectives :
They are words used to describe nouns and
pronouns, such as,
good, great, kind, and lazy.
1.4
Prepositions :
They are words used to relate nouns and
pronouns with the other words of a sentence,
such as,
write with a pen, sit on the mat, see through
the window, interested in games, love for
music, and travel by bus.
1.5
Interjections :
They are words used to express sudden feelings,
such as,
Alas! The poor man has lost his house in
the fire!
Oh, my God! What a pity!
1.6
Conjunctions :
They are words used to join other words,
phrases and clauses, such as,
life and death, young but wise,
He wrote well, so he passed,
Although he is ill, he has gone to the office.
1.7
Auxiliary Verbs : They are helping verbs used in forming tenses
and voices, such as,
am, is, are, do, did, have, has, will, shall,
must, can and could
1.8
Verbs :
They are words used to express actions,
such as,
come, go, eat, weep, cry, and jump.
1.9
Adverbs :
They are words used to describe adjectives,
verbs and other adverbs, such as,
very kind, come quickly, and very well.
EXERCISE 1.1
Identify the parts of speech of the italicized words or phrases in
the following sentences:
1 . The boy ran across the road in great excitement.
across :
great :
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2 . The kite flew high into the sky.
kite :
high:
3 . Sitting on the branch of a tree, the nightingale sang sweetly.
on :
sweetly :
4 . He only is the true friend who helps us in need.
he :
true :
5 . They have played with me too long.
have played :
too long :
6 . The boy fell down from the tree
fell :
down :
from :
7 . He hit the ball very accurately
very :
accurately :
8 . The teacher is deep in debts
in :
9 . Lo! What a fall!
lo :
10. Away, away! You, scoundrel!
away :
1.1
NOUN
1.1.1
KINDS OF NOUN
The different kinds of noun are as follows :
1 . PROPER NOUN :
A proper noun is the name given to a particular person, place
or thing, so that the object can be identified.
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For example :
Gandhi, Alexander, Kabir, Sachin, Lata ....... Persons
Hyderabad, India, Kashmir, London ....... Places
Ganges, Geetanjali, Ramzan, Sunday ....... Things
2 . COMMON NOUN :
A common noun is the general name given to a person, place
or thing.
For example :
child, boy, girl, man, woman, teacher ....... Persons
city, town, village, stadium, beach ....... Places
language, pen, star, river, cloud ....... Things
3 . COLLECTIVE NOUN :
A collective noun is the name given to a collection or group of
persons, animals or things.
For example :
group, mob, team, crowd ....... Persons
flock, herd, pack, litter, brood ....... Animals
heap, pile, cluster, bunch ....... Things
4 . MATERIAL NOUN :
A material noun is the name given to a material substance.
For example :
iron, gold, silver, steel, wood, stone, glass
5 . ABSTRACT NOUN :
An abstract noun is the name given to a feeling, action, quality,
state, art or subject.
For example :
happiness, sorrow, shock, pity, fear ....... Feelings
action, prayer, treatment, punishment ....... Actions
love, kindness, justice, mercy, cruelty ....... Qualities
poverty, misery, hunger, thirst, danger ....... States
poetry, music, painting, architecture ....... Arts
politics, history, science, engineering ....... Subjects
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EXERCISE 1.2
Mention the kind of noun of the italicized words in each of the
following sentences :
1 . The lion is the king of the forest.
2 . Solomon was known for his wisdom and justice.
3 . The elephant is the heaviest animal.
4 . The Moon is a bright satellite.
5 . Her voice has sweetness in it.
6 . Ashok has much love for his sister.
7 . Honesty is the best virtue in a man.
8 . Health is wealth.
9 . The bunch of keys is missing.
10. Women wear flowers of sweet smell.
11. Gold and silver are precious metals.
12. The Red Fort in Delhi was built with red stones.
13. Cleopatra's beauty was the talk of the world.
14. Cyclops was a one-eyed giant.
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15. What is life without music and literature?
1.1.2
SINGULAR AND PLURAL NUMBERS
The nouns of English have two numbers, namely Singular Number,
indicating only one person or thing, and Plural Number, indicating
two or more persons or things.
The plurals in English can be formed by adding 's' in a number of
ways, as follows :
1 . adding, s :
trees, flowers, fruits, birds, clouds, boys, girls.
2 . adding, es to singular nouns ending in -s, -sh, -ch, -x and -z :
glass
:
glasses
mass
:
masses
kiss
:
kisses
bush
:
bushes
dish
:
dishes
batch
:
batches
match
:
matches
catch
:
catches
box
:
boxes
tax
:
taxes
blitz
:
blitzes
3 . changing the final -y into -ies when the -y is preceded by a
consonant :
city
:
cities
story
:
stories
beauty
:
beauties
body
:
bodies
university :
universities
4 . adding -s to the final -y if it is preceded by a vowel:
boy
:
boys
joy
:
joys
key
:
keys
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journey
:
journeys
toy
:
toys
monkey
:
monkeys
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5 . adding -es to the final -o if it is preceded by a consonant:
mango
:
mangoes
tomato
:
tomatoes
potato
:
potatoes
hero
:
heroes
negro
:
negroes
flemingo
:
flemingoes
6 . adding -s to singular nouns ending in -o.
dynamo
:
dynamos
studio
:
studios
radio
:
radios
photo
:
photos
Note :
Certain nouns end in -oe. Only -s should be added to them to
make them plurals.
For example :
foe
:
foes
toe
:
toes
woe
:
woes
shoe
:
shoes
7 . Changing the end -f or -fe into -ves.
wolf
:
wolves
half
:
halves
self
:
selves
shelf
:
shelves
wife
:
wives
leaf
:
leaves
thief
:
thieves
knife
:
knives
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Note :
Certain nouns ending in -f take only -s for the plural.
For example :
belief
grief
:
:
beliefs
griefs
kerchief
mischief
:
:
kerchiefs
mischiefs
Certain nouns ending in -fe take only -s for the plural.
For example :
safe
strife
:
:
safes
strifes
Certain nouns ending in -ff, and -rf, take only -s for the plural.
For example :
roof
proof
:
:
roofs
proofs
staff
dwarf
:
:
staffs (sticks)
dwarfs
Certain nouns ending in -f take on both -fs and -ves for the
plural.
For example :
scarf
: scarfs and scarves
wharf
:
wharfs and wharves
8 . Changing the vowels of certain singular nouns.
For example :
man
: men
woman :
foot
:
tooth
:
women
feet
teeth
9. adding -ren to certain singular nouns.
For example :
child
: children
brother : brothren
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adding -s to the principal word in certain compound words.
For example :
brother-in-law
governor-general
engineer-in-chief
lady doctor
: brothers-in-law
: governors-general
: engineers-in-chief
: lady doctors
Note :
Certain compound words take double plural.
For example :
man-servant
:
woman-student :
men-servants
women-students
FOREIGN PLURALS
The following foreign singular and plural nouns are used in English :
1. Singular nouns ending in -a have the plural form -ae.
For example
formula
nebula
vertebra
:
: formulae (formulas)
: nebulae (nebulas)
: vertebrae (vertebras)
2. Singular nouns ending in -us have the plural form -i.
For example
alumnus
focus
fungus
nucleus
radius
stimulus
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
alumni
foci (focuses)
fungi (funguses)
nuclei
radii
stimuli
3 . Singular nouns ending in -um have the plural form -a.
For example :
addendum
:
addenda
bacterium
:
bacteria
curriculum
:
curricula (curriculums)
datum
:
data
maximum
:
maxima (maximums)
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medium
memorandum
millemmium
4 . Singular nouns ending
For example :
index
appendix
axis
analysis
basis
crisis
hypothesis
oasis
synopsis
thesis
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
in
media
memoranda
millennia
-ex, -ix, -s have the plural form -es.
indexes (indices)
appendixes (appendices)
axes
analyses
bases
crises
hypotheses
oases
synopses
theses
5 . Singular nouns ending in -on have the plural form -a.
For example :
criterion
: criteria
phenomenon : phenomena
Note :
Certain singular and plural nouns have the same form.
For example :
innings
mathematics
physics
series
species
politics
economics
statistics
civics
annals
thanks
measles
wages
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Certain plural nouns are always in the singular form.
For example :
furniture
information
advice
machinery
scenery
stationery
These words are always in the singular verb form.
For example :
1. The furniture in the office is new.
2. The information you have given is very useful.
3. Your advice has helped me much.
4. The machinery acquired by you is costly.
5. This scenery is simply exciting.
6. There is no stationery in the office.
1.1.3
GENDER
There are four Genders in English :
1 . MASCULINE GENDER
2. FEMININE GENDER
3. COMMON GENDER
4. NEUTER GENDER
1 . MASCULINE GENDER
All the names of male persons and animals belong to Masculine
Gender.
For example :
boy, man, father, brother, uncle, son, nephew, grandson,
grandfather, brother-in-law, king, son-in-law, father-inlaw, hero, villain, actor, dog, fox, bull, tiger, lion, horse.
2 . FEMININE GENDER
All the names of female persons and animals belong to Feminine
Gender.
For example :
girl, woman, mother, sister, aunt, daughter, niece, granddaughter, grandmother, sister-in-law, daughter-in-law, motherin-law, queen, heroine, vampire, actress, cow, tigress,
lioness, seamstress, mare, governess.
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3 . COMMON GENDER
All the names that can be used for both male and female belong
to Common Gender.
For example :
baby, child, humans, student, pupil, friend, teacher, speaker,
painter, cook, servant, officer, magistrate, neighbour, animal,
bird, doctor, engineer, accountant, judge, lawyer, chairperson.
4 . NEUTER GENDER
All the names of inanimate things, that is, names of things other
than those of human beings and animals, belong to Neuter Gender.
For example :
playground, book, sun, moon, classroom, tree, fruit, flower,
river, ocean, desert, park, forest, town, village.
Note :
All abstract and collective nouns belong to Neuter Gender.
For example :
kindness, generosity, beauty, mob, group, herd, team, pack,
flock, crowd.
FORMING THE FEMININE GENDER :
The Feminine Gender can be formed by the following methods.
1 . Using independent antonyms :
father
:
mother
brother :
sister
king
:
queen
dog
:
bitch
sir
:
madam
cock
:
hen
husband :
wife
2 . Adding - ess to the masculine word :
host
:
hostess
heir
:
heiress
actor
:
actress
master :
mistress
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3 . Adding the word that indicates the sex before or after the keyword:
milkman
: milkmaid
land-lord
: land-lady
man-servant : maid-servant
he-goat
: she-goat
peacock
: peahen
Note :
There are a number of other forms of words indicating their
gender. These forms are as follows :
bridegroom
:
bride
widower
:
widow
hero
fox
man
:
:
:
heroine
vixen
woman
1.1.4 CASE
There are five Cases in English :
1 . NOMINATIVE CASE
2 . OBJECTIVE CASE
3 . POSSESSIVE CASE
4 . DATIVE CASE
5 . VOCATIVE CASE
1. NOMINATIVE CASE :
A noun which is the subject of a verb is in the Nominative
Case.
For example :
Sachin scored a century.
Children play games.
Lata sang a song.
The wolf killed a lamb.
If the verb gives an answer to the question 'who?' the answer
is said to be in the Nominative Case.
2. OBJECTIVE CASE :
This is also called Accusative Case. If the verb gives an answer
to the question 'what' or 'whom', the answer is said to be in
the Objective or Accusative Case. The answer is known as
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the Direct Object. Prepositional Object also is in the Objective
case.
For example :
They bought a house.
He painted a picture.
She concealed the letter under the pillow.
The scientist tested his theory in the laboratory.
He met the officer concerned.
3. POSSESSIVE CASE :
This is also known as Genetive Case. The nouns that indicate
possession are said to be in Possessive or Genetive Case. There
are many ways of forming the Possessive Case.
1. by adding -'s to singular nouns, as follows :
Vajpayee's poetry
Lion's roar
Nightingale's song
Bird's eye view
2. by adding -'s to plural nouns that do not end in -s, as
follows :
Working Women's Hostel
Men's Fashion Show
Children's Story Books
3. by adding only the apostrophe (') to singular nouns that
have two or more hissing sounds, as follows :
For justice' sake
Jesus' crucifixion
For righteousness' sake
4. by adding only the apostrophe (') to plural nouns ending
in -s, as follows :
Teachers' Day
Workers' Unions
Mothers' Day
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5. by adding -'s to singular nouns that end in s, as follows:
Keats's Odes
King James's version of the Bible
Horse's dignity
6. by adding -'s only to the last noun of a group of nouns
coming together, as follows :
The Queen of England's (long tenure)
The Government of India's (Foreign Policy)
The Commander-in-Chief's (orders)
7. by adding -'s to the second of two nouns used in apposition,
as follows :
Dr. Kalam, the President's concern for the nation.
Shakespeare, the dramatist's genius.
God, the Almighty's grace be on us.
8. by using an inanimate object in Possessive Case when
that object is personified, as follows :
Earth's surface
India's population
Nature's fury
Sun's eclipse
Note :
(i)
Unless personified, inanimate objects are in the Possessive
Case. The following examples are not correct.
The law and orders's situation. (incorrect)
The situation of law and order. (correct)
The law and order situation. (correct)
Science and technology's development. (incorrect)
The development of science and technology. (correct)
(ii)
The following phrases, however, are acceptable :
Life's ambitions, in a week's time, to heart's content,
a day's journey, at wit's end, stone's throw, arm's length,
out of harm's way.
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4. DATIVE CASE :
If the verb gives an answer to the question, 'to whom' or
'for whom', the answer is called the indirect object. This
indirect object is said to be in the Dative Case.
For example :
I gave him a warning.
She lent me her notebook.
He sent her New Year Greetings.
The grandmother told the child a story.
5. VOCATIVE CASE :
This case is also called Nominative of Address. A direct
address to a person or thing is said to be in the Vocative
Case as follows :
Oh Dad, can't I see you once again?
Children, please come here.
Bapuji, you should be living now.
Oh Mighty Tower, what a fall you had!
EXERCISE 1.3
Identify the case of each noun (italic) in the following passage :
I have great pleasure in welcoming you, the shareholders
of the company, to this annual general body meeting. During
this year your company's performance was satisfactory, though
it failed to rise to your expectations. A number of adverse
factors in combination worked to the detriment of the company.
The labourers created trouble. They stopped work. Fortune's
wheel turned the full circle. This company is everybody's
and so all must work for it.
EXERCISE 1.4
Correct the following sentences with reference to the cases of
the noun :
1. The Vice-Chancellor chambers are simply grand.
2. My father sent to me money.
3. Alexander, the great, visit to India was recorded in history.
4. The University office is at a stones throw.
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5. You are Japanese an industrious race.
6. She bought a frock the baby.
7. Vikas sister is our classmate.
8. She mangoes sells.
9. Friends, Romans and countrymen lend me your ears.
10. Poverty's extent has increased in India.
1.1.5
COLLECTIVE EXPRESSIONS
There is no dearth of collective expression in English to indicate
groups of people, animals, birds and inanimate objects as shown
below :
A herd of deer
A shoal of fish
A flock of geese
A stack of wood
A stack of arms
A pair of shoes
A herd of swine
A flock of sheep
A flight of steps
A bunch of keys
A bunch of grapes
A swarm of flies
A tribe of Arabs
A flight of birds
A shower of rain
A suit of clothes
A sheaf of wheat
A pack of wolves
A pack of hounds
A series of events
A litter of puppies
A regiment of soldiers
A bundle of hay
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A sheaf of grain
A bundle of sticks
A group of islands
A gang of labourers
A bunch of bananas
A covey of partridges
A chain of mountains
A nest or swarm of ants
A heap or mass of rums
A hive or swarms of bees
A heap of stones or sand
A fall of snow or rain
A clump or grove of trees
A cluster or galaxy of stars
A sheaf or quiver of arrows
A flight or swarm of locusts
A brood or flock of chickens
A gang of thieves or robbers
A bunch or bouquet of flowers
A range of hills or mountains
A group of figures in a painting
A collection of relics or curiosities
A herd of cattle,
A drove of cattle
A troop or squadron of horses
A crowd, or throng, or concourse, or
multitude of people.
1.2
PRONOUN
1.2.1 KINDS OF PRONOUN
A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun to avoid its repetition.
There are seven kinds of pronoun as follows :
1 . PERSONAL PRONOUN
2 . DEMOSTRATIVE PRONOUN
3 . INDEFINITE PRONOUN
4 . DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUN
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5 . INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN
6 . RELATIVE PRONOUN
7 . REFLEXIVE PRONOUN
1 . PERSONAL PRONOUN :
A personal pronoun is used for any of the three persons, namely
first person, second person and third person, in singular as
well as plural number as shown below :
1 . First Person
Singular Number
Subject form
I
Object form
me
Possessive form
mine
Plural Number
we
us
ours
2 . Second Person Singular Number Plural Number
Subject form
you
you
Object form
you
you
Possessive form
yours
yours
3 . Third Person Singular Number Plural Number
Subject form
he, she, it
they
Object form
him, her, it
them
Possessive form
his, hers, its
theirs
2 . DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN :
A demonstrative pronoun is a pronoun that points to a noun
going before it and is used instead of it. The main demonstrative
pronouns are : this, that, these, those, and such, as used in the
following examples :
1 . That apartment is costlier than this.
2 . This boy is cleverer than that.
3 . I hate smoking and drinking. These are harmful to health.
4 . The lions of Africa are fiercer than those of India.
5 . He is a fatherly figure, so we must respect him as such.
3 . INDEFINITE PRONOUN :
An indefinite pronoun is a pronoun that refers to a person or
thing in a general and indefinite way, but not in a specific or
particular way. The main indefinite pronouns are:
one, none, they, all, some, someone, somebody, nobody, so on
and others.
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For example :
One must respect one's parents.
None of the soldiers is wounded.
They say that war may come any time.
All is well that ends well.
Some are born great but some achieve greatness.
Someone threw a stone at the window.
Somebody knocked on the door.
Nobody has seen hell or heaven.
If we respect others, they too will respect us.
4 . DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUN :
A distributive pronoun is a pronoun that refers to nouns, one
at a time. Each, either, and neither are the main distributive
pronouns.
For example :
Each of them is an artist in his own right.
The villagers are given a gun each.
The greeting cards cost me Rs. 100 each.
Either of the sisters is a good singer.
Either of the officers is kind enough to the staff.
Either of the sisters is a competent tennis player.
Neither of them is a mechanic.
Neither of the two buses goes to the railway station.
5 . INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN :
An interrogative pronoun is used to ask a question. Some of
the interrogative pronouns are what, who, which, whose and
whom.
For example :
What is your plan now?
What is the matter with you?
Who comes there?
Who threw the stone?
Which is your favourite game?
Which is the best course of action now?
Whose is this book?
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Whose is that house?
Whom do you want to see?
Whom are you marrying?
6 . RELATIVE PRONOUN :
A relative pronoun is a pronoun that refers to a noun going
before it and also joins two sentences or clauses. Some of the
relative pronouns are: who, what, which, whom, whose, that,
but, and as.
For example :
She is the girl who complained against me.
I told you what I know.
This is the book which I wanted to read.
That was the girl whom he wished to marry.
How is the patient whose legs were amputated?
How is the computer that I have bought ?
There is no man but wishes to be wealthy.
Such men as are truthful are rare these days.
Note :
1 . The relative pronoun is sometimes omitted.
For example :
One must suffer for the sins (that) one commits.
This is the dictionary (which) I bought last month.
2 . The relative pronoun has the same number and person as
the noun or pronoun for which it stands.
For Example :
It is I who am your well-wisher.
It is they that are dishonest.
It is she who is a great dancer.
3 . The relative pronoun must be placed as near the noun or
pronoun as possible.
For example :
He lives in an apartment in Hyderabad which is
air-conditioned.
(Incorrect)
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In Hyderabad he lives in an apartment which is airconditioned.
(Correct)
He lives in Hyderabad in an apartment which is
air-conditioned.
(Correct)
The man is my brother's friend who took away my
scooter.
(Incorrect)
The man who took away my scooter is my brother's
friend.
(Correct)
The man who is my brother's friend took away my
scooter.
(Correct)
4 . Some compound relative pronouns are also used in English.
They are whoever, whatever, and whichever.
For example :
Whoever defeats this warrior, will be given half of
my kingdom.
Whatever the elders say, is full of wisdom.
Whosoever violates the rules, will be punished.
7 . REFLEXIVE PRONOUN :
A reflexive pronoun is used in two ways.
1. To reflect the subject of an action, and
2. To make a pronoun more emphatic, or intensive.
The reflexive pronoun is formed by adding 'self' to personal
pronouns.
For example :
Reflexive Use :
He wounded himself.
They boast of themselves.
The blind man dresses himself.
One must respect oneself.
I must help myself before I think of helping others.
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Emphatic Use :
He himself cleaned the room.
She herself stitched her clothes.
They themselves built their house.
I myself iron my clothes.
She herself cooks the food.
EXERCISE 1.5
Identify the kinds of the pronouns italicized in the following sentences:
1 . I have a friend; he is a gentleman.
I :
he :
2 . He told me a story. It is an interesting story.
He :
me :
It :
3 . Is that your College? This is ours.
that :
This :
ours :
4 . What a monument this is!
this :
5 . These are my friends; perhaps those are yours.
These :
those :
yours :
6 . They are her parents. They love her very much.
They :
They :
her :
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7 . She asked them for some money. They gave her some.
She :
them :
her :
some :
8 . This watch is mine. I love this.
mine :
I:
this :
9 . How can one forget one's friends?
one :
10. The police arrested none in this case.
none :
11. Respect all. Hate none.
all :
none :
12. The watchman saw someone moving outside the gate
someone :
13. It seems nobody knows the mystery of creation.
nobody :
14. The Buddha is a great sage, and should be worshipped as such.
such :
15. This book is either his or hers, but not yours.
his :
hers :
yours :
16. Others are always others. They have no sympathy for us.
others :
others :
us :
Unit I - GRAMMAR
27
EXERCISE 1.6
Identify the type of the italicized pronoun in the following sentences:
1 . Each of us is the author of our own destiny.
Each :
2 . Neither of the two friends believes the other.
Neither :
3 . Who are you?
Who :
4 . What is your name?
What :
5 . Which game do you like most to watch?
Which :
6 . Shakespeare is the playwright whom I like most.
whom :
7 . The police recovered the idols that were stolen.
that :
8 . It is the politicians who created the mess.
who :
9 . The lunatic killed himself.
himself :
10. Empty people boast of themselves.
themselves :
11. The hero himself sang the song.
himself :
12. The chief minister himself operated the computer.
himself :
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A Handbook of English for Professionals
EXERCISE 1.7
Name the type of each italicized pronoun in the following sentences:
1 . One who praises every body, in fact, praises nobody.
one :
who :
nobody :
2 . This signature that has created so much confusion, is after all
mine.
that :
mine :
3 . Some fruits are sweet, while some are bitter.
some :
4 . This property is ours, not yours.
ours :
yours :
5 . The number of sounds that an ape makes are more than those
that a human being makes.
that :
those :
6 . The examinees must bring at least one pen each.
each :
7 . Whose bag is this, Tom?
this :
8 . Whatever parents do is only for the good of their children
Whatever :
9 . Take care of yourself.
yourself :
10. In olden days kings themselves took part in battles.
themselves :
Unit I - GRAMMAR
29
EXERCISE 1.8
Rewrite as directed.
1 . Join the following sentences by means of a relative pronoun :
The flowers are fresh. They are in the garden.
2 . Fill in the blank in the following sentence with an interrogative
pronoun :
He always succeeds in
he does.
3 . Fill in the blank in the following sentences with appropriate
reflexive pronouns :
(i) The award was presented by the President
(ii) The Government
unemployment.
.
is responsible for
4 . Correct the pronouns in the following sentences :
(i) Who did you see?
(ii) The handbag is her's.
(iii) I can play chess as well as him.
(iv) My eyesight is better than you.
5 . Fill in the blanks in the following sentences with appropriate
indefinite pronouns :
(i)
(ii)
were present but
of them had no textbooks.
must keep the promises
makes.
6 . Fill in the blanks in the following sentences with one of the
personal pronouns given in the brackets.
(i) She is as tall as
(ii) Let
(iii) You and
.
go.
(he, him)
(she, her)
are true friends.
(me, I)
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A Handbook of English for Professionals
7 . Fill in the blanks in the following sentences with appropriate
demonstrative pronouns :
(i) This is my seat and
is yours.
(ii) The people of America are more materialistic than
of India.
(iii) The climate of Hyderabad is nearly as good as
of Bangalore.
1.3 ADJECTIVE
Adjectives are words that describe a noun or pronoun. Many adjectives
can be identified by typical endings, such -y, -ish, -al, -ous, -ious,
-ent, -ient, -ible, -able, -ar, -ary, -ed, -en, -ful, -er, -est, and -ant.
For example :
heavy, stylish, parental, sensuous, conscious, innocent, efficient,
edible, capable, particular, necessary, fixed, fallen, skillful, nearer,
dearest, reluctant.
Normally, adjectives appear near the nouns and pronouns they
modify, as shown below :
1 . Adjectives appear before the nouns and the pronoun 'one'
as in,
Little children are playing on the green grass.
I can eat a mango if I get a ripe one.
2 . Adjectives appear as subject complements after linking verbs,
as in,
The song is sweet.
The judgement sounds partial.
3 . Adjectives appear as object complements after objects, as
in,
Children must make their parents happy.
We consider him mad.
4 . Adjectives appear after indefinite pronouns, as in,
We welcome anything fresh and new.
There is none greater than the meek.
Unit I - GRAMMAR
31
The adjective has three degrees of comparison, namely.
Positive (Wise)
Comparative (Wiser)
Superlative (Wisest)
Normally, adjectives of one syllable take on -er, and -est to
form comparative and superlative degrees, respectively, as in,
deep, deeper, deepest
fine, finer, finest
strong, stronger, strongest
hard, harder, hardest
few, fewer, fewest
Adjectives having two or more syllables take on 'more' and
'most', as in,
intelligent, more intelligent, most intelligent
practical, more practical, most practical
industrious, more industrious, most industrious
However, two-syllable words ending in -y, -ly, -le, -er, and ow take on -er and -est, as in,
heavy, heavier, heaviest
early, earlier, earliest
little, littler, littlest
clever, cleverer, cleverest
shallow, shallower, shallowest
happy, happier, happiest
1.3.1 KINDS OF ADJECTIVES
There are many kinds of adjectives, as follows :
1 . DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVE
2 . PROPER ADJECTIVE
3 . DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVE
4 . INDEFINITE ADJECTIVE
5 . RELATIVE ADJECTIVE
6 . POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVE
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7 . INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVE
8 . NUMERICAL ADJECTIVE
1 . DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVE :
It gives the quality or state of the noun or pronoun, as in,
America is a strong nation.
Tagore is a great poet.
Hitler was a merciless dictator.
Tigers are wild animals.
2 . PROPER ADJECTIVE :
It is made by adding suffixes to proper nouns, as in,
Arabian scents are very famous.
Indian history is full of internal battles.
Shakespearean tragic heroes have a flaw in them.
3 . DEMOSTRATIVE ADJECTIVE :
It is formed by using this, that, these, and those, as in,
This monument is Charminar.
That man is our Dean.
These watches are Citizen watches.
Those buildings are our College buildings.
4 . INDEFINITE ADJECTIVE :
It is formed by using another, each, both, many, any, some,
and no, as in,
Another tiger died in the zoo.
Each politician has his ambitions.
Both men you see are engineers.
Many times I told you to mind your tongue.
The computer can be operated by any person nowadays.
Please lend me some money.
No man would stoop so low.
Unit I - GRAMMAR
33
5 . RELATIVE ADJECTIVE :
This is formed by using whatever, which, whichever, whose,
and whosever, as in,
She lost whatever money she carried.
I do not remember which dress he wore that day.
I will take whichever action is possible.
One never knows which way she thinks.
We do not know whose plan this is.
6 . POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVE :
This is formed by using my, our, your, his, her, its, their, and
one's, as in,
This is my chair.
Our ideas are the same as yours.
Is this your purse?
His knowledge is immense.
A snake kills its own younglings.
We must honour the soldiers for their sacrifices.
One must love one's parents.
7 . INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVE :
It is formed by using what, which and whose in a question, as
in,
What medicines has the doctor prescribed for him?
Which party has won the election?
Whose singing do you enjoy most?
8 . NUMERICAL ADJECTIVE :
It is formed by using cardinal and ordinal numbers, as in,
Three men boarded the bus.
Two prisoners escaped from the jail.
The President is the first citizen.
The last man to leave is the owner of the hall.
The final warning was given to him.
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1.3.2 ARTICLES
Articles are determiners that limit the scope of the noun they qualify.
There are two types of articles, namely,
1 . Indefinite Article : a or an
2 . Definite Article : the
The indefinite article, a or an, primarily means one, any, or some,
while the definite article, the, indicates, something or someone specifically
or particularly. Whereas 'a' comes before countable nouns starting
with a consonant sound, 'an' comes before countable nouns starting
with a vowel sound.
For example :
a rose, a star, a man, a house, a horse,
an honest man, an MP, an egg, an ant.
USES OF INDEFINITE ARTICLE, a / an
1 . It is used with the meaning of one, any or some, as in,
A bird is singing from somewhere.
Every student must carry a pen.
A tiger is a ferocious animal.
This is an interesting novel.
Abdul Kalam is an eminent scientist.
2 . It is used in the phrase, many a / many an, as in,
Many a man followed the example of the saint.
Many an orphan was adopted by foreigners.
3 . It is used in the phrases, a little, and a few, to indicate considerable
quantity or numbers, as in,
Even at the end of the month, he has a little money in his
pocket.
Though defeated in the elections, he still has a few followers.
USES OF DEFINITE ARTICLE 'the'
1 . It particularises or specifies a person or thing, as in,
The apple I ate was not sweet.
The bird that is singing is a cuckoo.
Can you recognise the man waiting outside?
Unit I - GRAMMAR
35
2 . It is used before unique things, such as,
the earth, the moon, the sun, the Taj Mahal.
3 . It is used before a noun which has already been referred to :
Once upon a time there was a king, and the king had no
sons.
4 . It is used before a noun to indicate the whole class :
The dog is a faithful animal. (all dogs)
The cow is a sacred animal. (all cows)
5 . It is used before superlative adjectives :
the greatest, the best, the most beautiful
6 . It is used before an adjective to indicate the people :
the rich, the poor, the innocent, the illiterate
7 . It is used before the names of seas, oceans, bays, gulfs, rivers,
mountain ranges, groups of islands, names of holy books, newspapers,
ships and trains, as follows :
the Arabian Sea
the Indian Ocean
the Bay of Bengal
the Persian Gulf
the Indus
the Himalayas
the Andamans
the Bible
the Times of India
the Vikrant
the East Coast Express
the Howrah Mail
the Rajdhani Express
8 . It is used before ordinal numbers :
the first, the last, the next, the tenth, the initial, the final,
the ultimate.
9. It is used before musical instruments.
the violin, the guitar, the flute.
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10. It is used before the names of bodily limbs.
the head, the hand, the eye, the neck.
11. It is used before geographical directions:
the east, the west, the north, the south
12. It is used before the names of certain languages to indicate
the people speaking those languages.
the Chinese, the Assamese, the Japanese, the French, the
English, the Spanish.
13. It is used in comparative expressions, such as,
The more you play games, the more active you become.
The more I think of her, the sadder I become.
The richer you become, the greedier you grow.
14. It is used before nouns like school, office, hospital, market,
post office, railway station, and bank to indicate the purpose
other than the primary purpose, as in,
Sphoorthy has gone to the school.
Aruna has gone to the hospital.
Sherief has gone to the bank.
invitation)
(to meet a friend)
(to see an exhibition)
(to distribute his wedding
Sobha has gone to the office. (to invite a friend to dinner)
Note :
If the primary purpose is indicated, 'the' should not be used,
as in,
He has gone to bank. (to draw some money)
She has gone to market. (to buy some vegetables)
He has gone to post office. (to buy some envelopes)
15. It is not used before material nouns. However when comparison
or particularisation is indicated, the definite article is used before
material nouns, as in
The steel produced in the Vizag Steel Plant is cheaper than
the steel produced in the Bokaro Steel Plant.
The gold produced in South Africa is costlier than the gold
produced in Kolar.
Unit I - GRAMMAR
37
16. It is used before abbreviations :
the UNO, the UNESCO, the USA, the UK.
17. It is used before proper nouns for comparison, as in,
Tagore is the Shakespeare of India.
Patel was the Bismarc of India.
18. It is used in place of a superlative adjective to indicate the
highest rank, as in,
She is the dancer.
Mango is the fruit.
Amitabh Bachan is the hero of the millennium.
Kapil Dev is the Indian Cricketer of the century.
(In these sentences 'the' is used with the meaning of best
or greatest )
19. It is used in the phrases :
the former
the latter
the following
the preceding
in the morning
in the evening
in the forenoon
in the afternoon
in the sky
in the world
in the universe
in the forest
in the air
in the forefront
in the absence of
in the presence of
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EXERCISE 1.9
Rewrite the following sentences by using appropriate articles :
1 . One can learn any language in an year.
2 . For every subject there should be an university.
3 . The President is a honourable man.
4 . I saw an one-handed beggar.
5 . The visitor has come for you.
6 . Mauritius is in an Arabian Sea.
7 . Observer is a newspaper.
8 . Ignorant do not know anything.
9 . Lion is the king of the forest.
10. A dictionary that I bought is very costly.
11. First man to enter the hall is the chief guest.
12. Flute is a cheap musical instrument.
13. The teacher hit the boy on head.
14. Indus is a great river.
Unit I - GRAMMAR
39
15. The Everest is tallest mountain.
16. UNO is an international body.
17. He is an officer in SBI (State Bank of India)
18. North and South never meet.
19. English and Irish were not on good terms.
20. The gold is more precious than silver.
EXERCISE 1.10
Mention the names of the italicized adjectives in the
sentences :
following
1 . Cold winds blow in December.
2 . May is hot.
3 . Some books are to be chewed and digested.
4 . Tibetan monks often visit India.
5 . The Himalayan mountain ranges are the largest in the world.
6 . The invisible bird singing in the tree is a Nightingale.
7 . Sometimes he forgets his own name.
8 . Do you make your parents happy?
A Handbook of English for Professionals
40
9 . Which pen do you use?
10. This is my last and final warning to you.
11. Indian music is the best music.
12. Silence is golden.
13. Did you see any boy go this way?
14. This gentleman extended to me timely help.
15. The flowers in the garden are fragrant.
16. A wooden chair is much better than a steel one.
17. He does little work, but eats much food.
18. All study and no play makes one a dull boy.
1.3.3
DEGREES OF COMPARISON
Adjectives are used to compare nouns and pronouns in respect of
their characteristics. The comparison can be made in three different
ways, as follows :
1. POSITIVE DEGREE
2. COMPARATIVE DEGREE
3. SUPERLATIVE DEGREE
1 . POSITIVE DEGREE :
The Positive Degree is used to express the quality of a noun/
pronoun in a simple way.
For example :
Siddhartha was a sensitive man.
Jesus was loving.
Gandhi was conscientious.
Unit I - GRAMMAR
41
The Positive Degree is also used to compare the quality or
inequality of two persons or things.
For example :
Simla is as cold as Srinagar.
Richards is not so illustrious as Sobers.
2 . COMPARATIVE DEGREE :
The Comparative Degree is used to compare two persons or
things in order to show the superiority of one to the other.
For example :
Milton is greater than Keats.
The rose is more charming than the lily.
Note :
The Latin adjectives, junior, senior, superior, inferior, interior,
anterior, and exterior, are followed by 'to' and not the usual
'than' as in the case of the other adjectives.
For example :
Hari is junior to Ravi.
I am senior to him.
The superintendent is superior to the clerk.
The Indian athletes are not inferior to those of Europe.
When one person or thing is to be highlighted the definite article
'the' comes before the adjective, and the preposition 'of' comes
after it, 'Than' is not used in this type of comparative.
For example :
Tom is the more active of the two brothers.
Lata is the sweeter of the two singers.
3 . SUPERLATIVE DEGREE
The Superlative Degree is used to show the superiority of one
person or thing to an entire group.
For example :
The rose is the most beautiful of all the flowers.
Ashoka is the greatest king.
Shakespeare is the greatest dramatist in English.
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Note :
The definite article 'the' and the possessive adjective do not
go together.
For example :
Sachin is our greatest batsman. (not, our the greatest)
This is his finest poem.
(not, his the finest poem)
The Taj Mahal is India's best monument.
(not, India's the best)
Sometimes the Superlative Degree is used without the Definite
Article 'the' when only a high level of quality is meant.
For example :
It is most unwise of him to resign.
This incident is most unfortunate.
It is most painful to lose the election.
The situation is most confusing.
In the above sentences no comparision is intended. Double comparatives
and double superlatives are incorrect.
For example :
Kalidas is more greater than Tagore.
The sun is more brighter than the moon.
He is the most richest man in India.
Mango is the most sweetest fruit.
One form of Superlative Degree shows that a certain number
of persons or things are superior to the others. In this form
'one of the' is used instead of 'the'.
For example :
Hyderabad is one of the best cities in India.
Viswanathan Anand is one of the finest chess players.
Kashmir is one of the most beautiful places.
EXERCISE 1.11
1 . Name the other Degrees of Comparision for the following
words :
(i)
bad
(ii)
much
(iii)
ugly
Unit I - GRAMMAR
(iv)
easy
(v)
careful
(vi)
polite
(vii)
precious
(viii)
holy
(ix)
excellent
(x)
industrious
43
2 . Correct the following sentences :
(i)
Who is more sincere of the two brothers?
(ii) This a saddest news.
(iii) My game is inferior than his.
(iv) The jackal is more cleverer than the fox.
(v) I have read less books than you.
(vi) You have come earlier than me.
(vii) Tom is more junior than Sam.
(viii) She is the eldest of the two sisters.
(ix) Gold is very costly than silver.
(x) Japanese and Chinese are more busy than Indians.
1.3.4 COMPARISONS WITH ADJECTIVES
English is rich in comparative expressions which may be effectively
and sparingly used for metaphorical purpose. These expressions are
listed below :
1 . as black as the Ace of Spades.
2 . as black as soot.
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A Handbook of English for Professionals
3 . as black as coal.
These three are used of something dirty, for example,
a child's face, hands and clothes after play
4 . as black as pitch.
5 . as black as midnight.
6 . as black as ink.
These three are used of something dark, for example,
a room, a cellar, a road or street without light.
7 . as black as jet.
Used purely descriptively of hair or an object.
8 . as blind as a bat.
Used jokingly about someone whose eye-sight is bad.
9 . as blind as beetle.
10. as blind as a mole.
These two do not occur often
11. as bold as a lion.
12. as bold as brass.
13. as bright as silver.
Used to describe shiny objects.
14. as bright as noonday.
15. as bright as day.
These two have the sense of 'light', 'not dark' for example, a
room, the weather.
16. as brittle as glass.
17. as brown as a berry.
Used of people who have a tanned skin after sunbathing.
18. as changeable as the weather.
19. as changeable as the moon.
These two are used of a person who changes his mood or
opinion about something often.
20. as cheerful as a lark.
21. as clear as a bell.
Used of a tone or someone's voice.
Unit I - GRAMMAR
45
22. as clear as the nose on your face.
This means 'obvious', easy to recognise or see through, for
example, a situation, someone's intention etc.
23. as cold as a frog.
24. as cold as a stone.
These two are used of a person who shows no emotions or
little feeling.
25. as cold as ice.
Used of things, substances, people's hands or fingers the temperature
of a room and so on.
26. as cool as a cucumber.
Used of a person who remains calm in difficulty or danger.
30. as cunning as a fox.
31. as dark as pitch.
Used of a dark room or, a dark night
31. as dead as a doornail.
32. as dead as mutton.
These two are slang expressions used of a person.
33. as deaf as a post.
34. as different as chalk from cheese.
These two are used of two persons who are very different in
appearance or character.
35. as dry as a bone.
36. as dry as dust.
37. as dry as a stick.
These are used of a substance, like soil and sand.
The second is used to describe a boring book or speech
The third is used of a thirsty person.
38. as dumb as a fish.
Used of a stupid person.
39. as dumb as a statue.
Used of a person who says nothing.
40. as easy as ABC.
41. as easy as pie.
42. as easy as anything.
These three are used of a task or problem which is easy to
accomplish or solve.
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43. as fair as a rose.
Used for a beautiful woman, in poetic style
44. as fat as butter.
45. as fat as a pig.
These two are used of a fat person. The first is more complimentary
than the second.
46. as fierce as a tiger.
47. as firm as a rock.
These two are used of a person or a thing. With persons, it
means 'resolute'
48. as fit as a fiddle.
Used of a person who enjoys excellent physical health.
49. as flat as a board.
50. as flat as a pancake.
These two may be used of very flat countryside, or any flat
surface. They are also used (informal, uncomplimentary) of
a woman's flat figure.
51. as fleet as (a) deer.
Used of a person or an animal, with fleet meaning 'swift'
52. as free as (the) air.
53. as free as a bird.
These two are used of a person or an animal, with free meaning
'not restricted'.
54. as fresh as a daisy.
Used to describe how someone looks or feels
55. as gay as a lark.
56. as gaudy as a peacock.
57. as gaudy as a butterfly.
These three are used of the extremely colourful way in which
someone dresses.
58. as gentle as a lamb.
59. as good as gold.
These two are used of a well-behaved child, or an orderly
person.
60. as good as a play.
Used of something unintentionally amusing.
Unit I - GRAMMAR
47
61. as graceful as a swan.
Used of someone's movements, often a ballet dancer.
62. as grasping as a miser.
Used of someone who is always trying to get more money
and who keeps it for himself.
63. as grave as a judge.
Used of a person, with grave meaning 'solemn'.
64. as greedy as a wolf.
as greedy as a pig.
as greedy as a dog.
These three are used of a person who eats more than he needs.
65. as green as grass.
66. as gruff as a bear.
Used of an ill-tempered person.
67. as happy as a lark.
68. as happy as the day is long.
69. as hard as a stone.
70. as hard as nails.
These two are used of hard substances, or of an unsympathetic
person.
71. as harmful as a dove.
72. as harmless as a kitten.
These two are used of persons.
73. as heavy as lead.
74. as hoarse as a crow.
75. as hot as fire.
These three are used of the heat or temperature of something
or of someone's face, cheeks and so on.
76. as hot as pepper.
Used of food which is seasoned with sharp spices.
77. as hungry as a hunter.
78. as innocent as a dove.
79. as keen as mustard.
These three are used of a person who is very critical and
exact in his expectations or demands on others. It also means
eager to do something.
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A Handbook of English for Professionals
80. as large as life.
Used of a person, meaning 'as he really is, without doubt'.
(We had just been talking about Jim's disappearance, when
quite suddenly, there he stood in front of us, as large as life!)
81. as light as a feather.
Used of a thing which has very little weight. It referes to
persons and means 'mentally deficient, stupid'.
82. as light as cork.
Used of a thing which has very little weight. It can also refer
to persons that is women of fragile build.
83. as light as a butterfly.
Light-hearted, not solemn.
84. as light as air.
85. as light as thistledown.
These two are used of things which have little weight.
86. as like as two peas in a pod.
87. as like as two beans.
These two are used of two persons or things which are very
much alike in appearance or character.
88. as loud as thunder.
Used of noises or someone's voice.
89. as merry as a cricket.
Used of a person's mood or personality.
90. as mute as a fish.
91. as obstinate as a mule.
These two are used of a person or animal.
92. as old as the hills.
Used to describe a story or tale which everybody already knows;
also used of a person or a thing.
93. as pale as a ghost.
94. as pale as death.
These two are used of the colour of a person's face.
usually because of shock or illness.
95. as patient as Job (the name of an uncomplaining man in
the Bible).
96. as patient as an ox.
97. as plain as a pikestaff.
Unit I - GRAMMAR
49
98. as plain as the nose on your face.
These four are used of obvious situations and people with
intentions which are easy to recognise or see through.
99. as playful as a kitten.
100. as plentiful as blackberries.
107. as plump as a patridge.
108. as poor as a church-mouse.
109. as poor as Lazarus (the name of a beggar in the Bible).
110. as pretty as a picture.
111. as proud as a peacock.
These four are used of the way a person dresses, acts, and
speaks.
112. as proud as Lucifer (a name of the Devil in the Bible).
113. as quick as lightning.
Used of a person. It can refer to a physical action, like running,
or to a mental process, like seeing through a problem or situation.
114. as quiet as a lamb.
115. as quiet as a mouse.
These two are used of a person, often of a baby or a small
child who is quiet when necessary.
116. as red as a beetroot.
117. as red as fire.
These two are used of a person who blushes or becomes flushed
with anger or embarrassment.
118. as red as blood.
119. as red as cherry.
120. as red as a rose.
These three are used to describe the special colour of things.
121. as regular as clockwork.
Used of actions and things which happen regularly, or to persons
who do things regularly.
122. as rich as Croesus (Croesus was a very rich king).
123. as ripe as cherry.
124. as round as a barrel.
informal, used of a fat person.
125. as round as a ball.
50
A Handbook of English for Professionals
126. as round as a globe.
127. as round as an apple.
Used of the shape of things.
128. as salty as a herring.
129. as sharp as a razor.
130. as sharp as a needle.
These two are used of a thing or of something hurtful, or
cruel that a person says.
131. as silent as the grave.
132. as silent as the dead.
These two are used of a person, or a thing or a place.
133. as silent as the stars.
Used of a thing or a place.
134. as silly as a sheep.
135. as silly as a goose.
These two are used of a person.
136. as slender as gossamer.
Used of a thing or a person.
137. as slippery as an eel.
Used of a thing or of a sly person.
138. as smooth as velvet.
Used of a thing which is soft to the touch.
139. as smooth as butter.
140. as smooth as oil.
These two are used to describe soft, creamy substances.
141. as sober as a judge.
Here, sober means 'solemn' informally. It also means that a
man is not drunk.
142. as soft as butter.
143. as soft as down.
144. as soft as wax.
These three are used of a thing. Whichever is used depends
on the likeness of the substance to butter, down or wax.
145. as sound as a bell.
Here sound means 'healthy' or 'in good condition'
Used of a person or a thing (or a machine)
Unit I - GRAMMAR
51
146. as sour as vinegar.
Used of the taste of something.
147. as steady as a rock.
Used of a person or a thing.
148. as timid as a rabbit.
149. as tough as leather.
Used of a thing, often food, like a piece of hard meat which
is difficult to cut or chew; also used of a physically strong
person.
150. as tough as nails.
Used of a person with a strong will.
151. as tricky as a monkey.
Here 'tricky' means 'clever' 'crafty' Used of a person or an
animal.
152. as true as steel.
Here true means 'loyal' 'reliable'. Used of a person.
153. as ugly as a scarecrow.
Used of a person.
154. as vain as a peacock; as warm as toast.
Used of the way someone is clothed warmly in winter, or of
a pleasantly warm room.
155. as watchful as a hawk.
156. as weak as a kitten.
157. as weak as a baby.
These three are used of a person.
158. as wet as a drowned rat.
Used of person whose clothes have got very wet.
159. as white as a sheet.
Used of the colour of the face of a person who has turned
pale after a shock or fright.
160. as wise as an owl.
161. as wise as Solomon (King Solomon in the Bible).
162. as yielding as wax.
These three are used of materials, substances and persons.
* * *
52
A Handbook of English for Professionals
1.4 PREPOSITIONS
A Preposition is a word that expresses the relationship between a
Noun, Pronoun or Noun Phrase and another element of the sentence
as illustrated below :
1 . Abide by
: All must abide by the court order.
2 . Abide with
: One must abide with one's parents in
all situations.
3 . Abound in
: The sea abounds in fish.
4 . Abscond from
: He never absconds from classes unless
he is ill.
5 . Absent from
: The clerk is absent from his section.
6 . Absorb in
: Lata is absorbed in singing.
7 . Abstain from
: He abstained from examinations.
8 . Abundance of
: There is abundance of oil and gas in West
Asia.
9 . Abundant in
: Rice is abundant in coastal Andhra Pradesh.
10. According to
: According to Darwin man has evolved
out of the ape.
11. Account for
: The cashier in the bank must account
for any shortage of money.
12. Accrue from
: Interest accrues from savings.
13. Accuse of
: The man was accused of smuggling.
14. Accustomed to
: He is accustomed to reading till midnight.
15. Acquit of
: The officer was acquitted of all charges
of corruption.
16. Acquaint with
: The people living in cities are not acquainted
with rural problems.
17. Adapt oneself to
: I cannot adapt myself to cold climate.
18. Adhere to
: Teachers must adhere to a code of conduct.
19. Adjacent to
: The office is adjacent to the Principal's
room.
20. Adjust to
: We must adjust ourselves to changing
circumstances.
21. Adjust with
: Sensitive people cannot adjust with others.
22. Afraid of
: Children are afraid of strangers.
23. Agitate for
: Employees often agitate for revision of
pay-scales.
24. Agree to
: The government agreed to the demands
of the employees.
Unit I - GRAMMAR
25. Agree with
:
26. Agree on
:
27. Aim at
:
28. Akin to
29. Eliminate from
:
:
30. Allot to
:
31. Amount to
:
32. Angry at
:
33. Angry with
:
34. Apologize to / for
:
35. Appetite for
:
36. Aptitude for
37. Appeal to / for
:
:
38. Apply to / for
:
39. Ashamed of
:
40. Assent to
:
41. Ask about
:
42. Ask after
43. Ask for
44. Associate with
:
:
:
45.
46.
47.
48.
:
:
:
:
Attend to
Attend on
Attentive to
Authority on
53
I agree with Darwin that man has evolved
out of the ape.
all the members of the association agreed
on the need to observe punctuality.
The policeman aimed the gun at the escaping
criminal.
Man is akin to other animals in all respects.
Terrorism must be eliminated from the
land.
The Government allotted house sites to
its employees.
Disrespect to the National Flag amounts
to a great crime.
The Principal is angry at the rude behaviour
of the student.
The Speaker was angry with the shouting
members.
The member apologized to the speaker
for using unparliamentary words.
A man suffering from fever has no appetite
for food.
The child has no aptitude for Mathematics.
The employees appealed to the Government
for sanction of Dearness Allowance.
The clerk applied to the superintendent
for leave.
Ashamed of her failure in the examination,
a girl left her home.
The President gave his assent to a Constitution
Amendment Bill.
A candidate asked the clerk about the
date of the interview.
I asked after his health.
He asked me for a piece of paper.
Nehru was associated with Gandhi for
long years.
I have urgent work to attend to.
Doctors and nurses attend on patients.
Animals are attentive to music.
Abdul Kalam is an authority on nuclear
science.
54
A Handbook of English for Professionals
49. Authority over
:
50. Avail of
:
51. Aware of
:
52. Bear with
:
53. Believe in
54. Bestow on
55. Binding on
:
:
:
56. Blessed with
57. Blind to
:
:
58. Boast of
59. Born of
60. Break into
:
:
:
61. Brim with
:
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
:
:
:
:
:
Bristle with
Brood over
Busy at
Busy in
Busy with
67. Capable of
:
68. Care for
69. Cause for
:
:
70. Caution against
:
71. Charge against
:
72.
73.
74.
75.
:
:
:
:
Clash with
Cling to
Close to
Collide with
The Government has no authority over
the Judiciary.
All employees avail themselves of public
holidays.
As responsible citizens we are
aware
of our duties.
No nation can bear with terrorism for a
long time.
We believe in superstitions.
God bestows his love and mercy on us.
The decisions taken by the Cabinet are
binding on the whole nation.
He was blessed with a son.
Parents are generally blind to the faults
of their children.
One should not boast of one's own virtues.
Michael Faraday was born of poor parents.
A thief broke into the house and escaped
with gold and cash.
On the eve of the examinations, the students
are brimming with confidence.
My path is bristled with difficulties.
There is no use brooding over past events.
He is busy at the post office.
He is busy in writing his notes.
The Collector is busy with flood relief
work.
Donkeys are capable of carrying much
weight.
Generally, I do not care for breakfast.
Although the economy is in a bad shape,
there is no cause for panic.
Parents should caution their children against
bad friends.
The opposition leaders levelled charges
of corruption against a minister.
The police clashed with terrorists.
We must cling to truth at all times.
Tom and Jim are close to each other.
A lorry collided with a bus.
Unit I - GRAMMAR
76. Collude with
:
77. Commensurate with :
78. Commit to
:
79. Compensate for
:
80. Compete with
:
81. Complain about
:
82. Complain against
:
83. Comply with
:
84. Complementary to :
85. Concentrate on
86. Condemn to / for
:
:
87. Condole with
:
88. Conducive to
89. Confer on
:
:
90. Confident of
:
91. Confess to
92. Congratulate on
:
:
93. Conscious of
:
94. Consequent on
:
95. Consist of
96. Consistent with
:
:
55
We should not collude with antisocial
elements to harm the nation.
Wages must be commensurate with the
volume and nature of work.
The Chief Minister is committed to the
welfare of the people.
The Management must comp-ensate in
cash for the loss of life or limb suffered
by the workers.
We have to compete with one another
for jobs.
The students complained to the Principal
about the lack of laboratory facilities in
the College.
The students complained to the Principal
against a dishonest clerk.
We must comply with the Government
orders.
All the creatures in nature are complementary
to one another.
Students must concentrate on their studies.
A man was condemned to life imprisonment
for killing his wife.
The association condoled with the death
of a member.
Cool climate is conducive to health.
Bharat Ratna Award was conferred on
Lata.
She is confident of winning the best singer
award.
The arrested man confessed to his guilt.
Every one congratulated Sachin on scoring
ten thousand runs.
Though weak, the patient is conscious
of what is happening around.
Consequent on attaining independence,
India became a Republic.
This class consists of thirty students.
Our deeds must be consistent with our
words.
56
A Handbook of English for Professionals
97. Contact with
:
98. Contiguous to
99. Contribute to
:
:
100. Conversant with
:
101. Convict of
102. Convert into
103. Convince of
:
:
:
104. Cooperate with
:
105. Cure of
106. Dawn on
107. Deal in
:
:
:
108. Deal with
:
109. Dear to
110. Debar from
:
:
111. Decorate with
:
112. Dedicate to
:
113. Deduct from
:
114. Deposit in
:
115. Deprive of
:
116.
117.
118.
119.
:
:
:
:
Derive from
Deviate from
Differ with
Different from
120. Difference between:
We must keep our contact with friends
through letters.
Our house is contiguous to the market.
The people generously contributed to the
flood relief fund.
Accountants must be conversant with
Mathematics.
He was convicted of murder.
Christ converted water into wine.
The judge was convinced of the man's
innocence and acquitted him.
The people must cooperate with one another
to bring about peace and prosperity.
The doctor cured him of typhoid.
At last wisdom dawned on him.
Southern Agencies deal in Godrej steel
furniture.
The Government must sternly deal with
terrorists.
Fragrant flowers are dear to my heart.
For indulging in copying he was debarred
from writing the examination.
On the Independence Day the statues of
Mahatma Gandhi are decorated with garlands
and flowers.
Authors dedicate their books to their
patrons.
Income tax is deducted from the salaries
of employees.
Students deposit the examination fee in
the Bank
Owing to an injury, he was deprived
of a chance to play cricket test matches.
Knowledge is derived from experience.
One should not deviate from one's principles.
I differ with you on this issue.
The Indian languages are different from
one another.
If there are differences between father
and mother, children will suffer.
Unit I - GRAMMAR
121. Differences with :
122. Diffident of
123. Dispense with
124. Disappoint at
:
:
:
125. Disappoint with
:
126. Dispose of
127. Dissuade from
:
:
128. Distinguish from :
129. Distinguish between :
130. Divert from/to
:
131. Dissociate from
:
132. Distant from
133. Distaste for
134. Divide into
:
:
:
135. Divide between
:
136. Divide among
:
137. Divide from
138. Doubt about/of
139. Drive against
:
:
:
140. Drown in
141. Due to
142. Dwell on / upon
:
:
:
143. Emerge from
:
144. Empty of
145. Endow with
146. Engross in
:
:
:
57
The President has no differences with
the Prime Minister.
He is diffident of passing the examination.
We must dispense with smoking and drinking.
We are disappointed at the poor performance
of our cricket team.
The workers are disappointed with the
union leaders.
Courts take time to dispose of cases.
It is difficult to dissuade youngsters
from going to movies.
We cannot distinguish the Chinese from
the Japanese.
We cannot distinguish between the
Chinese and the Japanese.
The TV is diverting the attention of students
from studies to entertainment.
He dissociated himself from his party's
stand on the issue of smaller states.
America is very distant from India.
She has a distaste for cosmetics
The country has been divided into many
states
The money was divided between the two
brothers.
The property was divided among the four
children.
Pakistan was divided from India.
I have no doubt about your honesty.
The Government launched a drive against
illiteracy.
He was drowned in the well.
The failure is due to lack of practice.
The Chief Minister dwelt at length on
the duties of the employees.
After a few minute of suspense, the thief
emerged from the house.
The man is empty of all virtues.
God endows his children with gifts.
Philosophers are engrossed in thinking.
58
A Handbook of English for Professionals
147. Eager for
148. Effect on
149. Eligible for
:
:
:
150. Engage in
151. Engage to
152. Envious of
:
:
:
153. Entitled to
:
154. Equip with
155. Equivalent to
156. Eradicate from
:
:
:
157. Erase from
:
158. Escape from
159. Exception to
160. Exchange for
:
:
:
161. Exchange with
:
162. Exempt from
:
163. Expel from
:
164. Exclude from
:
165. Expert in/at
166. Expose to
167. Expunge from
:
:
:
168. Fail in
169. Fair to
170. Fair in
:
:
:
171. Faith in
172. Fall to
173. Favourable to
:
:
:
The students are eagerly looking for results.
Smoking has a bad effect on health.
Government employees are eligible for
pension.
She is engaged in research work.
She is engaged to marry him.
Women are generally envious of their
neighbours.
A temporary employee is not entitled to
pension.
The Army is equipped with the latest weapons.
A.M.I.E. is equivalent to B.Tech. Degree.
Small pox has been eradicated from the
world.
Memories of unpleasant experiences must
be erased from the mind.
The convict escaped from the prison.
There are no exceptions to the rule.
I have exchanged my transistor for his
radio.
India exchanged some border posts with
Bangladesh.
The freedom fighters are exempted from
buying train or bus tickets.
A senior student was expelled from the
College for ragging a fresher.
Srinath was excluded from the cricket
team.
Kasparov is an expert in chess.
Mountaineers are exposed to great dangers.
The Speaker expunged the unparliamentary
words from the records.
The boy failed in English.
Businessmen must be fair to customers.
The Speaker must be fair in his attitude
towards all political parties.
Some countries have no faith in democracy.
The smuggler fell to a bullet.
The weather is not favourable to air travel.
Unit I - GRAMMAR
174.
175.
176.
177.
178.
179.
Familiar to
Familiar with
Famous for
Feed on
Feed with
Fight against/with
:
:
:
:
:
:
180. Fight for
:
181. Fire at
182. Fire into
:
:
183. Fire upon
:
184.
185.
186.
187.
188.
189.
:
:
:
:
:
:
Filter into
Filter through
Fish in
Flair for
Fond of
Food for
190. Furore over
:
191.
192.
193.
194.
195.
196.
197.
198.
199.
200.
201.
202.
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
Fuss of / over
Fit for
Flock to
Flourish in
Flow from
Foil to
Forgetful of
Fraught with
Freeze to
Fumble after/for
Fumble at/with
Get over
203. Give to
204. Glad of
:
:
59
This city is familiar to me.
I am familiar with this city.
China is famous for silk.
Children feed on milk.
The sick are fed with bread and milk.
He fought the election battle against a
senior politician.
Sometimes the people fight for their democratic
rights.
The hunter fired a shot at the tiger.
The police fired a warning shot into the
air.
The drunken man fired indiscri-minately
upon the mob.
Water is filtered into the tank.
Tea is filtered through a net.
Super powers try to fish in troubled waters.
Lata has a flair for music.
Children are fond of sweets.
The words of the teacher provided food
for thought.
There was a lot of furore in the Assembly
over corruption in hospitals.
Women make fuss of minor things.
This house is fit for a king.
The poor flocked to him for help.
He is flourishing in his business.
Wisdom flows from experience.
Communism is a foil to capitalism.
Old people become forgetful of everything.
Mountaineering is fraught with dangers.
In winter many cattle are frozen to death.
The blind man is fumbling for his stick.
The boy is fumbling at writing.
The speaker got over his initial nervousness
and made an impressive speech.
The young man is given to bad habits.
The students are glad of the examination
results.
60
A Handbook of English for Professionals
205. Glance at
:
206. Glide into
:
207. Gloat on/upon/over :
208. Grapple with
:
209. Groom for
:
210. Grope after/for
:
211. Grow into
212. Grudge against
213. Guarantee
:
:
:
214.
215.
216.
217.
218.
219.
220.
221.
222.
Guard against/from:
Guilty of
:
Good at
:
Good of
:
Good for
:
Grateful to and for :
Hail from
:
Hanker after
:
Harp on
:
223. Head for
224.
225.
226.
227.
228.
229.
230.
231.
232.
:
Heap with
:
Hit upon
:
Hunger for/after :
Hunt for/after
:
Ignorant of
:
Immerse in
:
Immune against/from :
Immunize against :
Impact on
:
233. Impatient for
:
She glanced at him and remembered his
name.
The snake glided into a hole.
The cricketer is gloating over his achievements.
The Government is grappling with the
problem of terrorism.
They are grooming their son for the medical
profession.
The world is groping in the dark for a
solution to the Palestinian problem.
Small plants grow into mighty trees.
She holds a grudge against her neighbour.
The Railways offer no guarantee against/
from damage to goods.
We must guard ourselves against terrorists.
The man is guilty of injuring his wife.
She is good at painting.
It is good of you to remember me.
The old pen is good for nothing.
I am grateful to you for helping me.
Gandhi hailed from Gujarat.
Some people hanker after money.
Our teacher always harps on the importance
of social service.
The world seems to be heading for a
nuclear war.
The lorry was heaped with grain bags.
The police hit upon a plan to arrest him.
They are hungering for money.
The police are hunting for a criminal.
The boy is ignorant of the alphabet.
He is immersed in studies.
Snake charmers are immune from poison.
Children must be immunized against infections.
Christ's concept of love had an impact
on Gandhi.
The baby is impatient for milk.
Unit I - GRAMMAR
234. Impatient of
235. Implicate in
:
:
236. Impose on
:
237. Impress on
:
238. Impress with
239. Impute to
240. Incapable of
:
:
:
241. Incite to
:
242. Indebeted to and for:
243. Independent of
:
244. Indict on
:
245. Indifferent to
:
246. Indispensable to/for:
247. Indulge in
248. Infect with
249. Infer from
:
:
:
250. Inferior to
251. Inflict on
:
:
252. Inject into
:
253.
254.
255.
256.
257.
258.
259.
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
Innocent of
Insensible to
Insist on
Instigate to
Integral to
Intelligible to
Intent on
61
The man was impatient of his wife's silence.
The police implicated him in a murder
case.
Some teachers impose strict discipline
on students.
The lecture made a deep impression on
the audience.
He impressed her with his manners.
We should not impute motives to judges.
The child is incapable of understanding
grammar.
Politicians incite the people to strikes.
The girl is indebted to the woman for
adopting her.
Some women can manage their household
affairs independent of their husbands.
The police indicted him on charges of
murder.
Some class of philosophers are indifferent
to pain and pleasure.
His leadership is indispensable for the
country.
Students should not indulge in politics.
The old man is infected with tuberculosis.
We infer from his speech that he is going
to start a new party.
Silver is inferior to gold.
The army inflicted a heavy defeat on the
enemy.
Parents should not inject fear into their
children.
She is innocent of the crime.
He is insensible to criticism.
The College insists on discipline and neatness.
Politicians instigate students to strikes.
Kitchen is integral to a house.
Philosophy is unintelligible to the illiterate.
Tom is intent on marrying Lucy.
62
A Handbook of English for Professionals
260. Interest in
261. Interfere in
:
:
262.
263.
264.
265.
266.
Interfere with
Intolerant of
Involve in
Irrelevant to
Infest with
:
:
:
:
:
267.
268.
269.
270.
Issue from
Issue in
Issue of
Itch for
:
:
:
:
271. Invest in
272. Invest with
:
:
273.
274.
275.
276.
Joke at
Judge by
Jump at
Jump for
:
:
:
:
277.
278.
279.
280.
281.
Jump
Jump
Jump
Jump
Jump
from
into
off
upon
over
:
:
:
:
:
282.
283.
284.
285.
286.
287.
288.
289.
290.
Junior to
Keen on
Keep to
Key to
Knock at
Know by
Known for
Lack in
Lack of
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
She has no interest in fine arts.
We should not interfere in the affairs of
others.
We should not interfere with others.
The Principal is intolerant of indiscipline.
She is not involved in ragging.
His speech is irrelevant to the occasion.
Slums are infested with mosquitoes and
fleas.
Unnecessary violence issues from strikes.
Wars issue in death and destruction.
The assembly discussed the issue of terrorism.
The terrorists are itching for a show down
with the Gover-nment.
Many people invest money in shares.
Lata was invested with the nation's highest
award.
It is bad manners to joke at others' poverty.
We are judged by our acts.
The boy jumped at the happy news.
She jumped for joy when she learned of
her success.
The monkey jumped down from the tree.
She jumped into the well.
The soldier jumped off the horse.
The police jumped upon the theif.
The tiger jumped over the fence and disappeared
into bushes.
I am junior to him in service.
She is keen on becoming an artist.
We must keep to the left.
Education is the key to knowledge.
Somebody is knocking at the door.
A man is known by his habits.
Gandhi is known for his concept of satyagraha.
The girl lacks in courage to travel alone.
Lack of money forced him to discontinue
his studies.
Unit I - GRAMMAR
291. Lag behind
:
292.
293.
294.
295.
296.
297.
:
:
:
:
:
:
Lap up
Lapse of
Lash at
Laugh at
Lay on
Lay to
298. Lay under
:
299. Lay with
300. Lead to
301. Lean against
:
:
:
302. Lean on
:
303.
304.
305.
306.
307.
308.
309.
310.
311.
312.
313.
314.
315.
316.
317.
318.
319.
320.
321.
322.
323.
Leap at
:
Leap into
:
Learn from
:
Learn of
:
Leave for
:
Leave to
:
Level against/at :
Liberate from :
Lie to
:
Liking for
:
Liable to
:
Link with
:
Live by
:
Live on
:
Long for
:
Loss of
:
Loyal to
:
Loyalty to
:
Mad of
:
Make of
:
Make with
:
63
The boy lagged behind others in the running
race.
The cat lapped up the milk.
Lapse of time makes us forget friends.
The opposition leader lashed at the Government.
He laughed at my ignorance.
Parents lay hopes on their children.
The mortal remains of the man were laid
to rest.
The field lay under flood water for many
days.
The entire floor was laid with carpets.
All faiths lead to God.
Waiting for a bus he leaned against the trunk
of a tree.
The patient walked a few steps leaning on
an attendant.
He leapt at the invitation for a dinner.
The house leapt into flames.
We learn many things from experience.
He learned of her marriage only yesterday.
The cricket team left for England.
The decision was left to the Prime Minister.
She levelled wild charges against him.
The country was liberated from the British.
Some children lie to their parents.
Children have a liking for toys.
A murderer is liable to death penalty.
Terrorists have links with antisocial elements.
Poor people live by the sweat of their brow.
Cranes live on small fish.
We long for those who are away.
The accident resulted in loss of life.
We must be loyal to our friends.
We must show loyalty to the country.
She is mad of Hindi film music.
Soap is made of many ingredients.
The table is made with wood.
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324. Marry to
:
He was married to his cousin.
325. Meet with
:
I met with my friend in the train.
326. Merge with
:
All the employee unions must merge with
one another and become a great force.
327. Mingle with
:
All communities must mingle with one
another and become united.
328. Mix with
:
Honey can be mixed with water.
329. Move at
:
I was moved at the sight of a man killed
in an accident.
330. Move by
:
We were moved by the appeals of a blind
beggar.
331. Move to
:
She is moved to tears whenever she goes
by the orphanage.
332. Move with
:
The old woman was moved with pity
for an orphan boy.
333. Obedient to
:
Children must be obedient to parents.
334. Occupy by
:
The house is occupied by me.
335. Occupy in
:
Every Sunday she is occupied in rearranging
the furniture.
336. Occupied with
:
The case is occupied with interesting
issues.
337. Offend at
:
The Principal is offended at the boy's
behaviour.
338. Offend with
:
The principal is offended with the boy.
339. Opposed to
:
India and Pakistan are opposed to each
other.
340. Partial to
:
The father should not be partial to any
one child.
341. Parallel to
:
Railway lines are parallel to each other.
342. Part from
:
It is painful to part from friends.
343. Partake in
:
Students must partake in games and sports.
344. Participate in
:
We must participate in social service activities.
345. Particular about
:
The teacher is very particular about punctuality.
346. Please with
:
We are pleased with our friends.
347. Please at
:
I am pleased at his manners.
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348. Prey on
:
Wild animals prey on mild animals.
349. Preside over
:
The Principal presided over the Annual
Day celebrations.
350. Proficient in
:
The Chinese are proficient in athletics.
351. Punctual to
:
She is always punctual to the class
352. Ready for
:
We are ready for the test.
353. Remind of
:
She reminded her husband of his promise
to take her to a movie.
354. Repent of
:
We must repent of our sins.
355. Restore to
:
The missing child was restored to its
parents.
356. Result in
:
Floods result in loss of life and property.
357. Rich in
:
The Godavari basin is rich in oil and gas.
358. Short of
:
India is short of gold reserves.
359. Side with
:
We must always side with our friend.
360. Succeed in
:
He succeeded in climbing Everest.
361. Suffer from
:
He is suffering from fever.
362. Superior to
:
The soldiers are superior to the rebels
in fire power.
363. Surrender to
:
Some terrorists surrendered to the police.
364. Take to
:
The thief took to his heels when he saw
the police
365. Tamper with
:
The postal staff tampered with some parcels.
366. Victory over
:
The Indian cricket team at last registered
a victory over the English team.
367. Vote for
:
We must vote for the best candidate.
368. Zeal for
:
He has a lot of zeal for social work.
1.4.1 PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES
Prepositional Phrases begin and end with prepositions. The following
are some of the examples.
1 . at home in : be an expert in
She is at home in classical dance.
2 . at sea in : be weak in.
He is at sea in English grammar.
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3 . at the top of : at the highest degree of.
At the sight of a dog she yelled at the top of her voice.
4 . on top of : at the highest point of.
It was a great moment when Hillary and Tenzing stood on top
of Everest.
5 . at the risk of : facing the danger.
He jumped into the flames to save an old woman at the risk of
his own life.
6 . by dint of : on the basis of
He progressed in life by dint of sincerity, honesty and industry.
7 . by means of : with the help of
He crossed the river by means of a boat.
8 . by virtue of : on the basis of
By virtue of his position, he has been given a car.
9 . by reason of : because of
No one likes him by reason of his ill manners.
10. by way of : in the manner of
Our teacher explains everything by way of jokes.
11. in case of : in the event of
In case of any need, please contact me.
12. in favour of : siding with
The government is in favour of privatizing everything.
13. in the guise of : disguised as
A robber entered the compound in the guise of a postman
14. in the hope of : hoping that
He entered the contest in the hope of winning the gold medal.
15. in front of : before
There is much garbage in front of the house.
16. On behalf of : for
Spokesmen brief newsmen on behalf of the Government
17. in addition to : besides
Railway employees are given bonus in addition to salary.
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18. in order to : to
One must go through newspapers in order to know what is
happening around.
19. In honour of : as a mark of
October 2 is declared a holiday in honour of Gandhi's birthday.
20. in spite of : notwithstanding.
In spite of her old age, she is busy in serving her children.
21. in search of : searching for
He left his home and family in search of peace.
22. in regard to : in respect of
We do not know anything in regard to heaven and hell.
23. for the sake of : for
Jesus died for the sake of sinners.
24. for want of : due to lack of
His business collapsed for want of funds.
25. in accordance with : according to
The notorious criminal was hanged to death in accordance with
the orders of the court.
26. in the course of : during
In the course of our educational tour, we visited a number of
industrial establishments.
27. on account of : because of
On account of his talents, he is liked by all people
28. On the point of : just near, on the verge of
The victim of the accident is on the point of death.
29. in lieu of : in place of
Government employes are paid salary in lieu of earned leave.
30. with an eye to : aiming at
He is trying to get very close to the officers with an eye to
getting a promotion.
31. with a view to : with the aim of
I am attending a course in spoken English with a view to becoming a
fluent speaker.
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1.5 INTERJECTIONS
Interjections are words that express sudden emotions, such as, happiness,
surprise, shock, pity, fear and wonder. Some of the examples are as
follows:
Hi! How are you?
Hurrah! We have won the match!
Ugh! How it stinks!
Alas! He failed again!
Hush! Be quiet!
Good God! What a crowd!
Great God! What a fall!
My goodness! Who broke this?
My foot! who did it?
Oh, My God!
Fie! Be gone!
The interjections are not a part of the sentence. Therefore they
are also called Isolates. Usually on exclamation mark comes after an
interjection. Sometimes a comma may also be used.
1.6 CONJUNCTIONS
Conjunctions are words that connect different words, phrases and
clauses.
For example :
Mango and apple are sweet fruits.
You can write the examinations in black or blue ink.
She is young but very talented.
He could not go as the train had already left.
When I greeted him, he looked at me angrily.
In the above sentences, the words and, or, but, as and when are
conjunctions.
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In English there are two types of conjuctions, namely, Coordinating
Conjuctions and Subordinating Conjunctions.
The common coordinating conjunctions are :
and, and so, and therefore, so, or, or else, otherwise, but, yet, still,
either....or, neither....nor, not only....but also, both.....and, The examples
are as follows :
She got into the city bus and left.
He copied in the test, and so, he was sent out.
She is an artist, and therefore, she has become popular.
He is ill, so he has applied for leave.
Come by bus, or buy a car
Behave properly, or else, you will be punished.
Please hurry up, otherwise you will miss the chance
His parents love him much, but he is cheating them.
The Principal warned him many times, yet he continued to smoke.
He was repeatedly arrested for stealing, still he did not change
his habit.
Either you must be here, or , I must be here.
I can neither play cricket, nor paint pictures.
She cannot sing, nor can she dance.
Not only he liked her, but she also liked him.
They both bought lands and sold them.
In all the above sentences there are two clauses. They can stand
alone. But they are joined by conjunctions that are known as coordinating
conjunctions. These two clauses are called coordinate clauses.
The common subordinating conjunctions are as follows :
that, what, who, when, which, where, if, unless, until, till, before,
after, since, as, because, how, why, though, although, even though,
lest, as soon as, the moment, the day.
For example :
She knows that he is not honest.
He told the police what he knew.
He is the boy who broke the window.
I do not know when the train leaves.
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Tell me which colour you prefer.
He saw where she went.
If we help others, they too will help us.
Unless you run, you cannot catch the train.
He won't leave you until you help him.
He will not come till it is midnight.
She got married even before she completed her degree
course.
We have not seen each other after we left College.
He did not come today since he is not well.
We missed the bus as we were late.
He failed because he did not write well.
I don't know how the accident occurred.
He knows why she hates him.
Though they are rich, they are miserly.
Although they offered him a post, he did not accept it.
Even though we meet, we never speak to each other.
Keep the money safe lest you should lose it.
In all the above sentences there are two clauses joined by conjunctions
that are known as subordinating conjunctions. The clauses that come
after these conjunctions are called subordinate clauses because they
depend on the other clauses which are independent clauses. While
subordinate clauses cannot stand on their own, independent or main
clauses as they are also called, can stand on their own.
EXERCISE 1.12
1 . Combine the following with appropriate coordinating conjunctions.
(i)
It is very late. Please go to bed.
(ii) He worked tirelessly. He got his due.
(iii) She is beautiful. She is arrogant.
(iv) He bats well. He bowls well.
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(v) They have no manners. They have no sense of respect.
2 . Combine the following with appropriate subordinating conjunctions.
(i)
I came out. It was raining.
(ii) He has a coat. He does not use it.
(iii) The minister visited the village. He was born there.
(iv) The programme started. The audience became silent.
(v) He could not swim. He jumped into the well.
1.7 AUXILIARY VERBS
Auxiliary Verbs are helping verbs. They help the main verbs in forming
tenses and voices. The following are the auxiliary verbs in English :
be, do, have, will, would, shall, should, can, could, may, might,
must, ought to, need, dare and used to.
Be, do and have are called primary auxiliaries while the other
auxiliaries are called modal auxiliaries.
The primary auxiliaries have the following forms.
be
:
be, am, is, are, was, were, being, been
do
:
do, does, did, doing, done
have
:
have, has, had, having
The auxiliaries are usually contracted in conversation :
I'm going home.
I'll meet you tomorrow.
I'd go to Delhi soon.
I've seen him.
He's coming.
He's gone to Delhi
I'd like to see him once.
He'd painted the picture beautifully.
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In the interrogative, the auxiliary comes first :
Is he coming today?
Have they gone home?
Must we go now?
Shall we go home?
Should we stay here?
Question tags are formed with auxiliaries :
We are learning grammar. Aren't we?
He is a good boy. Isn't he?
She is not dull. Is she?
I can play games. Can't I?
Let's go. Shall we?
I am your well-wisher. Aren't I?
We must work hard. Mustn't we?
Note :
When the subject is anyone, everyone, everybody, somebody,
someone, no one, nobody, anybody, none, neither, the question
tag takes on 'they' as the subject instead of he/she :
Somebody knocked on the door. Didn't they?
None came to help her. Did they?
Everybody praised him. Didn't they?
Only the auxiliary is used in the answers to yes/no type of
questions. The main verb is not used:
Can you play cricket? Yes, I can.
Does she go to movies? Yes, she does.
Will you come tomorrow? No, I won't.
Should we go and meet them? Yes, we should.
Auxiliaries are used to provide additions to statements :
You can speak Hindi, but I can't.
I helped him, but he didn't.
He has come, but his wife hasn't.
I will agree, but he won't.
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EXERCISE 1.13
Rewrite as directed :
1 . Use 'be' as a primary auxiliary in a sentence.
2 . Use 'having' as a primary auxiliary in a sentence.
3 . Identify the auxiliary in the following sentence :
He's passed the test.
4 . Convert the following statement into an interrogative sentence:
We should exercise maximum restraint.
5 . Add question tag to the following statement :
The sky is always blue.
6 . Add a question tag to the following statement :
None can stop me from going.
7 . Provide a suitable question tag to the following :
Something smells foul.
8 . Complete the following statement :
I know where she is, but her father.........
9 . Provide a statement for the following question tag :
Aren't I?
10. Use 'been' as a primary auxiliary in a sentence.
1.7.1 FUNCTIONS OF AUXILIARY VERBS
1 . 'Be'
(i) It helps in forming tenses :
She is cooking food.
I was reading a book
We are trying to convince them.
He has been practising cricket.
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(ii) It conveys instructions :
No one is to come into my room.
I am to see the Principal this evening.
You are to attend the interview tomorrow.
(iii) It conveys a plan :
We are to be here at 9 every morning
The Chief Minister is to inaugurate the Exhibition today.
The Prime Minister is to address the nation from the Red
Fort.
(iv) It conveys an action planned for the future :
We are about to board the bus.
He is going to visit the site tomorrow :
2 . 'Have'
(i) It helps in forming tenses:
I have finished the homework
She had married before she completed her course.
You will have left the College by AD 2008
(ii) It conveys obligation :
She has to educate her sister
I have to receive him at the Air Port
(iii) It is used to convey an action that is managed to be done :
I had a shirt stitched.
We had our house white washed
We must have our kitchen repaired.
(iv) It can be used as an auxiliary verb as well as a finite verb
together in a sentence :
We have had our lunch.
She has had her tea.
I had had my meal much before you came.
3 .'DO'
(i) It is used to form negative sentences :
I don't believe your words.
They don't know my address
She doesn't care for anybody.
I didn't see anything strange.
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(ii) It is used to form interrogatives :
Do you have a Dictionary?
Does she dance well?
Did the police arrest him?
(iii) It is used to form question tags :
You played cricket at school. Didn't you?
He speaks eloquently. Doesn't he?
She belongs to this state. Doesn't she?
(iv) It is used to give emphasis to a statement :
I did see the theif run away.
We do believe in God and Heaven.
He does speak Hindi fluently.
(v) It is used to convey short agreements, disagreements
and additions :
He passed the test. Yes, he did.
The police caught him. Yes, they did.
The train didn't come. No, it didn't.
Rain fell heavily. No, it didn't.
He plays tennis, and so do I.
You smoke, but I don't.
They always help others, and so do we.
We always help others, but they don't.
4 . 'Will'
(i) It conveys future tense when the subject is other than
I/We:
You will get a letter next week.
He will surely pass.
She will accept our invitation.
They will reach this place tomorrow.
(ii) It conveys determination or willingness when the subject
is
I or we :
I will see how he can pass the test.
We will learn to play on the guitar.
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(iii) It is used to convey invitations :
Will you have a cup of tea with me?
Will you have some more tea?
(iv) It is
Will
Will
Will
used to make a request :
you lend me your pen?
you give me a piece of paper?
you post this letter?
(v) It is used to form question tags:
She will come presently. Won't she?
He will not accept the proposal. Will he?
They will come by bus. Won't they?
5 . 'Would'
(i) It is used to convey invitations :
Would you like to come with me for a movie?
Would you like to have a cup of tea?
(ii) It is used to make requests:
Would you please explain this?
Would you mind my sitting here?
(iii) It is used after the verb 'wish' :
I wish you would help me in this matter.
We wish they would solve our problems.
(iv) It is used to show preference :
I would rather resign than serve people like you.
She would rather commit suicide than marry him.
We would rather discontinue than do this type of work.
6 . 'Shall'
(i) It is used with the second and the third persons to indicate
an order/obligation/promise.
You shall keep this matter confidential.
Drivers shall keep to the left.
You shall have a copy of my book tomorrow.
Note :
In place of 'shall' 'have to' and 'must' may also be used to
indicate obligation :
Examinations have to be written in ink.
Accountants must use calculators.
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(ii) It indicates offers or suggestions :
What shall we have, tea or coffee?
Shall I show you my digital camera?
Shall we go for a walk?
7 . 'Should'
(i) It expresses duty
We should look after our old parents.
We should love our neighbours as we love ourselves.
One should serve one's country.
Students should not indulge in ragging.
(ii) It is used to indicate an action which was the right thing
to do, but was not done :
You should have reported the matter to the Principal.
You should have informed me before coming here.
We should have come by bus, not in a car
(iii) It is used with 'lest' to show fear or worry.
He closed the window lest dust should come in.
I told him my name again lest he should forget me.
He apologised to her lest she should scold him.
(iv) 'That.....should' construction is used with the verbs like
agree, decide, suggest, propose, advise, recommend and
arrange :
It was agreed that they should work on all Saturdays.
My father suggested that I should study abroad.
The Committee recommended that the increased dearness
allowance should be paid to all employees.
The workers demanded that they should be paid bonus.
My mother advised that I should be married soon.
(v) It is used to express a condition :Should you see him, please
ask him to meet me
(If you happen to see him.......)
8 .'May'
(i) It is used to indicate permission. 'May' is more formal
than 'Can'.
May I come in?
May we write the examination?
You may go now.
You may submit your application tomorrow.
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(ii) It is used to express possibility.
War may come.
The UGC Committee may visit the College any time.
He may be our next Mayor.
(These examples show half possibility and half doubt)
(iii) It indicates speculation about the possibility of a past action.
He may have undergone the operation.
She may have passed.
The missing parcel may have been found.
(iv) It is used to express a hope or a wish :
May you have peace!
May God bless you!
May he succeed in his endeavours!
9 . 'Might'
(i) It is used to express a possibility, but the element of doubt
is stronger than what 'may' expresses :
He might come back one day.
Even with a second class Degree, he might get a job.
If he tried, he might get a job.
(ii) It indicates speculation about a past action :
The train might have reached Mumbai.
He might have passed in a first class
She might have married him.
He might have gone abroad.
10. 'Can'
(i) It is used to express ability.
Kapil Dev can play golf.
He can drive a car.
She can sing classical songs.
(ii) It is used to express permission :
You can go now.
He can use my vehicle, if necessary.
('May' is formal)
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(iii) It is used to express possibility :
I can finish this work in an hour.
He can walk thirty miles.
Watching TV for long hours can damage the eyes.
(iv) It is used to make a request.
Can you lend me your book?
Can you come with me to the market?
Can you spare your pen for a minute?
('Could' is more polite)
11. 'Could'
(i) It is used for taking permission :
Could I use your phone?
Could we sit here for some time?
Could I have a glass of water?
(ii) It is used to make a request :
Could you spare your notes for an hour?
Could you give me a cup of tea?
Could you tell me your telephone number ?
(iii) It is used to express possibility:
She could be in the kitchen.
He could be in the library.
The boy could have gone to school.
(iv) It is used to show that an action did not occur :
I could have gone yesterday (But I did not go though
there was the possibility to go).
You could have passed if you had written the examination.
(You had the ability to pass, but you did not write the examination).
She could have bagged the first prize if only she had danced.
(She had the ability to bag the first prize, but she did not
dance).
(v) It is used to express a doubtful action :
My pen is not writing well. The baby could have spoiled
it.
He is not at home. He could have gone to the office.
Her chain is missing. Her husband could have taken it away.
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(vi) It is used to express an impossibility :
He couldn't have gone to the library.
She couldn't have gone to the market.
The boy couldn't be in the class now.
(May or might shows a doubt)
12. 'Must'
(i) It is used to show obligation :
We must obey the orders.
You must complete your days' work and go.
I must see him atonce.
You must attend the classes regularly.
(ii) It is used in interrogatives or obligations.
Must I wait here so long?
Must we go to the station to receive them?
Must she sing before strangers?
(iii) It expresses strong advice :
You must not speak to her.
You must be punctual.
You must take medicine regularly.
(iv) It is used to make deductions :
He has a cellphone. He must be a busy man.
The child is still asleep. He must be very tired.
She is crying. She must be in troubles.
13. 'Need' : (This has no other forms)
(i) It is normally used in the negative sense :
You need not go to the station to receive them.
You need not speak to them about my request.
You won't need to tell me all these things.
(ii) It expresses obligation :
You need not have taken this trouble for my sake.
Need I see you tomorrow?
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14. 'Ought to'
(i) It is used to show obligation :
We ought to respect elders.
You ought to marry her.
You ought not to disrespect your teachers.
You ought not to call her names.
(ii) It is used to indicate an action that should take place but
did not take place :
I ought to have attended the meeting.
You ought to have undergone operation.
We ought to have invited them.
15. 'Dare'
(i) It is used to express courage :
I dare not go before the Principal.
Dare you call me names?
He dared not come to my house.
(ii) It is used to express anger:
How dare she complained against me?
How dare you take my book without my permission?
How dare he beat my brother?
(iii) It is used to express possibility :
I dare say he is not at fault.
Dare you say he is dishonest?
We dare say they are not our well-wishers.
16. 'Used to'
(i) It is used in Past Tense to express past habits :
When I was a student I used to play games every evening
I used to smoke regularly till last year.
I used to go for a walk every morning last year.
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EXERCISE 1.14
Rewrite as directed :
1 . Fill up the blanks in the following with suitable 'be' forms
to realize different tenses :
(i)
All of you
playing tricks on me
(ii) They
come tomorrow.
(iii) I
after all a simple teacher.
(iv) He may
your brother.
(v) They
(vi)
here last year.
a gentleman as I would like you to
(vii) He
(viii) You
(ix) Yesterday he
(x) We
.
to play for India in the olympics.
to participate in the group discussion.
about to go but he didn't.
to attend classes regularly.
2 . Fill up the blanks in the following with suitable forms of
'have'.
(i)
He
(ii) She
done the given work in time.
eaten before I came.
(iii) The train will
(iv) He
(v) She would
gone by now.
to feed a large family.
written her examinations.
(vi) The boy has just
(vii) We
(viii) She had
brought.
his food.
had our dinner.
her snacks much before tea was
(ix)
a biscuit.
(x) I
to attend to this work.
3 . Fill up the blanks in the following sentences with suitable
forms of 'do'.
(i)
you have the textbook with you now?
(ii)
she dance well?
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(iii)
he know the truth?
(iv)
he get a job at last?
(v) The customs officials detained him.
(vi) He used to act well.
83
they?
he?
(vii) The father scolds, but the mother
.
(viii) Boys play cricket, but the girls
.
(ix) She loves music, and so
I.
(x) An accident occurred. Yes it
.
4 . Fill up the blanks in the following sentences with suitable
forms of will/would.
(i)
We
spectators.
(ii)
rather leave the Committee than be silent
you please give me a piece of advice?
(iii) They will certainly arrive today.
(iv)
you listen to my words?
(v) I
take a look into this matter.
(vi) He
not mind going with you
(vii) She will do the job neatly.
(viii)
they?
she?
you like to see the album?
(ix) I wish the Principal
(x)
understand my problem.
you kindly suggest an alternative to this?
5 . Fill up the blanks in the following sentences with shall, should,
may or might.
(i)
Watchmen
stay awake at nights.
(ii) One
be loyal to one's friends.
(iii) You
have a party from me.
(iv)
we practise phonetics?
(v) What
we do now, stay here or go away?
(vi) Teachers
be a model to their students.
(vii) Rain
fall any moment.
(viii) The plane
have flown over our territory.
(ix) The doctor clarified that I
regularly.
(x) The train
use the medicines
have left the station.
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6 . Fill up the blanks in the following sentences with dare/ought
to/used to :
(i)
I
smoke a lot at College
(ii) We
respect our elders.
(iii) He is very clever. He
(iv)
get a first class
he drink in my presence?
(v) The early men
make fire by striking two stones.
(vi) He
not oppose me.
(vii) you
have told me all your problems.
(viii)
you go into that old house alone?
(ix) How
she held his collar in public?
(x) I
see a number of movies before marriage.
7 . Choose the correct auxiliary from those given in brackets.
(i)
(Shall/will) he help you?
(ii) Hereafter we (must/should/ought to) be punctual to the
office.
(iii) One (must/should/ought to) not be harsh to one's friends.
(iv) (Could/Might) I use your pen please?
(v) (Could/Might) you help me please?
(vi) If you are really clever, you (ought to/must) succeed.
(vii) (Should/shall/would) You have another cup of tea?
(viii) I (am/have) to be in the office by 10 in the morning.
(ix) He (may/will) have reached his native place by now.
(x) He walked slowly, so he (could/would) not catch the train.
1.8 VERB
There are two kinds of verbs, namely,
INTRANSITIVE VERB
TRANSITIVE VERB
A verb that does not have an object is called an Intransitive Verb.
For example :
The baby is sleeping.
Dogs are barking.
The train has left.
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85
If the verb gives answers to the questions, What? and Whom?
these answers are called objects.
For example :
The cat drank milk.
The teacher has beaten the boy.
She received a letter.
In these sentences the verbs, drank, has beaten, and received,
are Transitive Verbs because they have objects.
Sometimes a transitive verb has only a direct object, but it may
also have an indirect object. The answer to 'what' or 'whom' is the
direct object, while the answer to 'to whom' or 'for whom' is the
indirect object. The direct object or the indirect object may come
first in a sentence if it is shorter than the other.
For example :
The Government gave him an award.
(indirect object comes first)
The father sent her a new dress.
(indirect object comes first)
The teacher distributed sweets to all the children
(direct object comes first)
The chief guest gave away certificates to all the winners
(direct object comes first)
1.8.1 MOOD
Verbs can be used for different functions, such as,
stating facts
giving commands
asking questions, and
supposing things.
The manner in which a verb is used in a sentence is called the
Mood of the Verb. There are three Moods in English, namely,
1. INDICATIVE MOOD
2. IMPERATIVE MOOD, and
3. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
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1 . INDICATIVE MOOD :
When a verb is used to state a fact or ask a question, it is said
to be in the Indicative Mood. For example :
The sky is blue.
Terrorists attacked the Indian Parliament.
Pete Sampras won the match against Agassi.
America feels insecure.
If it is necessary, I shall be back here.
Who wrote the novel '1984'?
How old are you?
What is your mother tongue?
2 . IMPERATIVE MOOD :
When a verb is used to express a command, serious advice,
request or appeal, it is said to be in the Imperative Mood.
For example :
Keep off the grass.
Write legibly.
Speak louder.
Waste not, want not.
Be punctual to the classes.
Respect elders
Give us our daily bread.
Lead kindly light amid the encircling gloom.
In the Imperative Sentence the subject which is Second Person
'You' is omitted, but understood.
An Imperative Sentence can also start with 'Let'
For example :
Let's go for lunch
Let children come to me..
Let there be light.
Let's pray.
An Imperative Sentence can express a Supposition, as follows:
Help the widow and the orphan, and God will bless you
Labour like an ant and you will become prosperous.
Put him in jail and he will become a minister.
Take care of the minutes and hours will take care of themselves
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3 . SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD :
1 . This mood of the verb expresses a wish or desire, as follows:
God bless you, my child.
Long live our friendship!
God save the land!
Thy kingdom come.
God be with you and give you his light!
I wish I were a bird.
We wish America would help us.
Oh! that I were on the Moon!
2 . It also expresses a purpose, as follows :
Waste not that you may want not.
Let him run lest he miss the bus.
See to it that our honour not be sacrificed
Be determined so that you might succeed.
3 . The Subjunctive Mood expresses doubt or possibility, as
follows :
If you could help us, we would be grateful to you.
We hope that peace might prevail in Kashmir.
Should you see him, send him here.
If I could become the Moon, I would be the Full Moon
always.
4 . The Subjunctive Mood expresses a condition or supposition
which is contrary to facts. For example :
If I were you, I would not behave like this.
If I were the Prime Minister, I could solve the Kashmir
problem
If she were alive now, she should be able to care for the
children.
She would not marry you even if you were Dev Anand.
Note :
The above sentences can also be written as follows :
Were I you, I would not have behaved like this.
Were I the Prime Minister, I could solve the Kashmir problem.
Were she alive now, she should be able to care for the children.
Were you even Dev Anand, She would not marry you.
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5 . The Subjunctive Mood comes in certain Noun Clauses in which
verbs expressing asking, ordering, urging, insisting, ruling and
so on, are used. For example :
The court ruled that the murderer be hanged.
She insisted that her son be admitted into the course.
The union leaders demanded that they be paid bonus.
The clerk requested the Principal that he be granted casual
leave.
Note :
Now-a-days the Subjunctive Mood is observed more in breach
than in practice. The trend now is to use 'should' in place of
the simple Subjunctive, as follows :
The court ruled that the murderer should be hanged.
She insisted that her son should be admitted into the course.
The union leaders demanded that they should be paid bonus.
The clerk requested the Principal that he should be granted
casual leave.
1.8.2 TENSE
The tense of a verb shows the time of the action and the degree of
its completion. The following are the tenses in English :
PRESENT TENSE
PAST TENSE
FUTURE TENSE
These tenses have four parts each :
INDEFINITE OR SIMPLE
CONTINUOUS
PERFECT
PERFECT CONTINUOUS
Thus there are twelve parts of tenses, as follows :
PRESENT INDEFINITE TENSE
PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE
PRESENT PERFECT TENSE
PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE
PAST INDEFINITE TENSE
PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE
PAST PERFECT TENSE
PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE
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FUTURE
FUTURE
FUTURE
FUTURE
89
INDEFINITE TENSE
CONTINUOUS TENSE
PERFECT TENSE
PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE
The examples are as follows :
PRESENT INDEFINITE
She sings a song.
PRESENT CONTINUOUS
She is singing a song.
PRESENT PERFECT
She has sung a song.
PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS
She has been singing a song.
PAST INDEFINITE
She sang a song.
PAST CONTINUOUS
She was singing a song.
PAST PERFECT
She had sung a song.
PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS
She had been singing a song.
FUTURE INDEFINITE
She will sing a song.
FUTURE CONTINUOUS
She will be singing a song.
FUTURE PERFECT
She will have sung a song
FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS
She will have been singing a song.
These examples show that the same verb can be used in as many
as twelve different tense forms.
The uses of these tenses are as follows :
PRESENT INDEFINITE TENSE :
1 . It is used to express a regular or habitual action :
I get up at 6 every morning.
She carries her umbrella wherever she goes.
We take our lunch at noon.
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2 . It is used to express universal truths :
Th e earth goes round the sun.
Birds live in trees.
Fish swim in water.
3 . It is used to express an action that is sure to happen in the
near future:
The bus comes at 4 in the evening.
The movie starts at 6 in the evening.
The train arrives in ten minutes.
4 . It is used to express a future action in the subordinate clause :
If you come, we will welcome you.
Unless you apologize, we will not accept you.
The train won't wait until you come.
He will forget everything as soon as he reads it.
PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE :
1 . It is used to show an action taking place at the moment of
speaking:
The child is drinking milk.
She is cooking food.
The cat is sleeping on the staircase.
The dog is barking.
2 . It is used to express an action still continuing :She is reading
her lesson.
He is playing cricket.
They are teaching in a college.
We are searching for the pen.
3 . It is used to express an action planned for a near future :
I am meeting him on Sunday next.
My brother is coming soon from the States
She is marrying next month.
We are buying a car in a few days.
4 . 'Going to' is used to express an intention for a future action :
I am going to buy a new fridge tomorrow.
We are going to move into a new house.
She is going to learn dancing.
He is going to investigate the matter.
('He is going to go' is not acceptable).
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PRESENT PERFECT TENSE :
1 . It is used to express an action that took place in the recent or
immediate past :
They have bought a car.
I have seen this movie.
She has sung a sweet song.
The sun has gone behind the clouds.
Note :
When a past time is mentioned the Present Perfect Tense should
not be used. Only the Past Indefinite Tense should be used.
2 . It is used to express an action that took place in the past, but
is related to the present.
Shakespeare has written thirty seven plays.
Einstein has postulated the Theory of Relativity.
Faraday has invented the dynamo.
Valmiki has written the Ramayana.
3 . It is used to express an action that began in the past and is
continuing until the present moment :
We have been in Hyderabad since 1989.
I have worked in this University for decades.
They have been friends since school days.
Lata has so far sung over fifty thousand songs
4 . It is used with 'just' to express an action that occurred immediately
before speaking :
I have just taken my tea.
The train has just arrived.
The final bell has just been rung.
She has just been married.
5 . It is used with 'ever' and 'never' to express a habit or a past
action.
Have you ever seen the Taj Mahal?
I have never seen the Taj Mahal.
Have you ever observed him?
I have observed him ever since he was a child.
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PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE :
It is used to express an action that began in the past, is continuing
in the present and may go into the future :
She has been learning classical music for a year.
The child has been crying for an hour.
He has been studying the course for double the period.
They have been doing research for many years.
EXERCISE 1.15
Name the verbs in the following sentences as Transitive or Intransitive
1 . The kite is flying in the air.
2 . Children fly kites.
3 . The people elected him Mayor.
4 . He was elected Mayor.
5 . He always drinks.
6 . He drinks tea.
7 . Lata sings songs melodiously.
8 . Lata sings melodiously.
9 . I never smoke.
10. I never smoke cigarettes.
11. A sharp knife cuts smoothly.
12. A sharp knife cuts anything.
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PAST INDEFINITE TENSE :
1 . It is used to express past actions without reference to any particular
time :
(i)
Floods paralysed rail and road traffic.
(ii) Curfew was imposed in many parts of Gujarat.
(iii) The police arrested a corrupt official.
2 . It is used to express a past action that occurred at a definite
point of the past.
(i)
He left for Delhi on Monday.
(ii) I had my tea just now.
(iii) Srilanka won a one-day cricket match against South
Africa yesterday.
PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE :
It is used to express an action that was happening some time in the
past :
(i)
It was raining heavily last week.
(ii) The train derailed while it was running very fast.
(iii) The child was crying though the mother was feeding it.
PAST PERFECT TENSE :
It is used to express the earlier of two past actions :
(i)
I could not go to Mumbai yesterday as the Chennai-Mumbai
Express had left just before I arrived at the station.
(ii) The police reached the place much after the street fight had
subsided.
PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE :
It is used to express a past action still continuing when another past
action that started later gets completed :
(i)
The invigilator took the attendance of the students while they
had been writing the examination.
(ii) As the students had been planting saplings the Cheif Minister
arrived and encouraged them.
(The uses of shall and will have been dealt with under Auxiliary
Verbs.)
The twelve parts of the tenses which give complete meaning
are called Finite Verbs. However, the Non-Finite Verbs, being
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incomplete in form do not give complete meanings. The Verb
Forms are shown in the table. They are as follows :
INFINITIVE
PRESENT INFINITIVE : (WITH 'TO')
It is not limited by the tense of the verb, person and number
of the subject :
(i) To err is human, to forgive divine.
(ii) Grammar is too complicated to master.
(iii) He is too young to understand these things
(iv) I wish to see my native place.
BARE INFINITIVE : (WITHOUT 'TO')
(i) Let the child educate himself.
(ii) He helped me solve my problems.
(iii) She made him resign.
PERFECT INFINITIVE :
It expresses an action that was likely to have happened :
(i) He seems to have suffered much.
(ii) I would like to have gone abroad.
(iii) You ought to have married her.
(iv) He pretended to have done the work.
(v) She is believed to have resigned.
CONTINUOUS INFINITIVE :
(i) She seems to be weeping.
(ii) The child is supposed to be sleeping.
(iii) They appear to be preparing for the test.
PERFECT INFINITIVE CONTINUOUS :
(i) She seems to have been stitching clothes.
(ii) He appears to have been reading well.
(iii) They are believed to have been quarreling.
PARTICIPLE
PRESENT PARTICIPLE :
(i)
The barking dog never bites.
(ii) The nightingale is a singing bird.
Unit I - GRAMMAR
(iii) He is writing the test.
(iv) The baby is sleeping.
(v) The Principal saw him ragging freshers.
(vi) I saw him sleeping.
(vii) Being late, she missed the bus.
(viii) Walking on the lawn, he felt refreshed.
(ix) I found him copying.
(x) The police caught him stealing.
(xi) I saw her crossing the road.
PAST PARTICIPLE :
(i)
The broken hand was removed.
(ii) He lodged a written complaint with the police.
(iii) She has sung a song.
(iv) The attender has rung the bell.
(v) He is wearing torn clothes.
PERFECT PARTICIPLE :
(i)
Having seen the dog, the child cried.
(ii) Having eaten much, he felt heavy.
(iii) Having copied in the test, he was suspended.
(iv) Having been dismissed, he felt despaired.
GERUND
SIMPLE GERUND : (USED AS A NOUN) :
(i)
Smoking is dangerous to health.
(ii) I hate drinking.
(iii) He was fined for ragging freshers.
(iv) Walking is good for legs.
(v) She insisted on seeing the movie.
(vi) Would you mind my smoking here?
(vii) I am sorry for insulting you.
PERFECT GERUND :
(i)
She regretted having insulted him.
(ii) He was accused of having stolen money.
(iii) She denied having cheated him.
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PASSIVE GERUND :
(i)
He denied having been beaten by her brother.
(ii) She remembered having been praised by the Principal.
The following table illustrates the verb form in both the active
and passive voices.
Present
Tense
Past
Tense
Future
Tense
Indefinite
AV : He breaks the glass
PV : The glass is broken
by him
He broke the glass
The glass was broken
by him
He will break the glass
The glass will be
broken by him
Continuous :
AV : He is breaking
the glass
PV : The glass is being
broken by him
He was breaking
the glass
The glass was being
broken by him
He will be breaking
the glass
(No passive form)
Perfect :
AV : He has broken
the glass
PV : The glass has been
broken by him
He had broken
the glass
The glass had been
broken by him
He will have broken
the glass
The glass will have
been broken by him
Perfect Continuous :
AV : He has been breaking
the glass
PV : (No passive form)
He had been breaking
the glass
(No passive form)
He will have been
breaking the glass
(No passive form)
RULES OF CHANGE OF VOICE :
1 . The object in the active voice becomes the subject in the passive
voice.
2 . The subject in the active voice comes at the end of the sentence
in the passive voice.
It comes after the preposition 'by'.
3 . The verb in the active voice changes into the past participle
form. It also takes on a 'be' form as helping verb.
This 'be' form depends on the number of the subject and the
tense of the verb in the active voice.
4 . Only transitive verbs that have an object can be changed into
passive voice.
Intransitive verbs cannot be changed into passive voice because
they do not have an object.
5 . Passive voice is used when the doer of an action is well known,
or unimportant, or when the sufferer of the action is more
important than the doer. Sometimes the doer need not be mentioned,
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For example:
My umbrella has been stolen.
Gandhi was assassinated.
6 . When there are direct and indirect objects in the active voice,
there can be two passive forms.
For example :
He teaches us English. (AV)
We are taught English by him. (PV)
English is taught to us by him. (PV)
She gave him her autograph. (AV)
Her autograph was given him by her. (PV)
He was given her autograph by her. (PV)
He told me her truth. (AV)
I was told her truth by him. (PV)
Her truth was told me by him. (PV)
7 . In the case of requests and commands the subject is not mentioned.
For example :
Open the door. (AV)
Let the door be opened. (PV)
Follow my instructions. (AV)
Let my instructions be followed. (PV)
Please bring the bag. (AV)
The bag may please be brought. (PV)
Kindly spare your pen for a minute. (AV)
Your pen may kindly be spared for a minute. (PV)
8 . Sometimes the subject in the passive voice is not necessarily
the doer of the action. In such cases the prepositions come.
For example :
Smoke filled the theatre. (AV)
The theatre was filled with smoke. (PV)
I know her. (AV)
She is known to me. (PV)
(See Fig. 1.1 for the classification of verb)
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EXERCISE 1.16
1 . Rewrite the following in Passive Voice :
(i)
Please put your signature here.
(ii) Start reading.
(iii) They have repaid the loan.
(iv)
The child is eating a chocolate.
(v)
Children play all sorts of games.
(vi)
A foul smell filled the room.
(vii) We know some bigwigs.
(viii) Someone snatched away his books.
(ix)
We must honour good people.
(x)
God blesses his devotees.
2 . Rewrite the following sentences as directed :
(i)
We praise champions. (Past Continuous Tense)
(ii)
I shall buy the tickets (Present Perfect Tense)
(iii)
He wastes his money (Past Perfect Continuous Tense)
(iv)
She sings songs (Future Perfect Continuous Tenses)
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(v)
Soldiers defend the nation (Future Continuous Tense)
(vi)
Money makes many things (Past Perfect Tense)
99
(vii) Tailors have been stitching clothes (Future Indefinite Tense)
(viii) He tore his clothes (Present Perfect Tense)
(ix)
The cow has been grazing grass (Present Indefinite Tense)
(x)
The cat will be drinking milk (Present Perfect Tense)
EXERCISE 1.17
Rewrite as directed :
1 . Fill up the blanks in the following sentences with appropriate
prepositions :
(i)
Two lorries collided
(ii) He was put
each other.
bars for committing a theft.
(iii) She is playing classical notes
(iv) The two brothers are not
(v) All men are different
the violin.
good terms.
one another.
2 . Fill up the blanks in the following sentences with appropriate
auxiliary verbs.
(i)
He has many cars. He
be a millionaire.
(ii) You
have come in time. You were unnecessarily
given a memo.
(iii) If I were born again, I
tiger.
(iv) By this time next year he
(v)
be a non-violent lion or
have gone to the States.
you kindly allow me to use your scooter for
an hour?
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3 . Identify the italized verbs in the following sentences as transitive
or intransitive verbs :
(i)
She has been reading all the day long.
(ii) He gave me a ring in the morning.
(iii) The police are investigating the case.
(iv) The president unfurled the National Flag.
(v) The stream is flowing very fast.
4 . Use the following phrases in sentences of your own :
(i)
in accordance with :
(ii) inspite of :
(iii) with a view to :
(iv) on the verge of :
(v) by means of :
5 . Identify the tense of the underlined verb in each of the following
sentences :
(i)
She has had very bad dreams.
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(ii) He awoke early in the morning.
(iii) The dog's tail is never straight.
(iv) He has been learning grammar sincerely
(v) She had had her lunch before she came to the office.
1.8.3 SENTENCE STRUCTURES
There are four structures of sentences, as follows :
1 . SIMPLE SENTENCE
2 . COMPLEX SENTENCE
3 . COMPOUND SENTENCE
4 . COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCE
1 . SIMPLE SENTENCE
A Simple Sentence is one that has only one subject and one
predicate.
For example :
1. The bus has come.
2. Cows eat grass.
3. Sachin has scored most centuries.
2 . COMPLEX SENTENCE
A Complex Sentence is one that has only one independent or
main or principal clause, and one or more dependent or subordinate
clauses.
For example :
1. He won the election as he was a popular leader.
2. Though it is raining, the boy is going to school.
3. He is running so that he may catch the bus.
The following are the conjunctions used in a Complex Sentence.
These conjunctions are called subordinating conjunctions :
that, so that, who, whose, what, when, why, where, whom,
as, because, since, though, although, even though, if, unless,
till, until, before, after, as soon as, the moment, lest, whether......or,
so...as, such...that, such....as, as though, as if, while, whereas,
on condition that, now that, as long as, so long as, the day.
Present
Infinitive
Infinitive
Participle
Non-Finite Verb
Fig. 1.1
Perfect Continuous Perfect
Past
P e r f e c t Simple
Present
Bare
i n f i n i t i v e I n f i n i t v e I n f i n i t i v e C o n t i n u o u s P a r t i c i p l e P a r t i c i p l e P a r t i c i p l e Gerund
Infinitive
Finite Verb
(All the transitive and
Intransitive Verbs)
VERB
Perfect
Gerund
Gerund
Passive
Gerund
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Because of the presence of the subordinating conjunctions, the
subordinate clause does not give a complete meaning. It becomes
a dependent clause since it cannot stand on its own.
3 . COMPOUND SENTENCE
A Compound Sentence is one that has two or more independent
or coordinate clauses joined together by certain conjunctions
known as coordinating conjunctions.
For example :
1 . He took his dinner and went to bed.
2 . She went to Delhi, did her postgraduation and returned
to Hyderabad.
3 . He read voraciously but failed in the examination.
The following are the coordinating conjunctions used to join
together independent or coordinate clauses :
and, and so, and therefore, so,
but, yet, still,
or, either......or, otherwise, or else,
nor, neither......nor,
not only......but also.
4 . COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCE
A Compound-Complex Sentence is one that has two or more
Main Clauses and one or more Subordinate Clauses.
For example :
1 . While the mother stays at home, the father works in
the office and the children go to school.
2 . He is young, but he has a head that should belong to
elders.
3 . While the stronger animals kill the weaker ones, and
the weaker ones try to protect themselves, man kills
all the animals.
CONJUNCTION EQUIVALENCE :
While changing these sentences one into another, the following conjunction
equivalence may be borne in mind :
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SIMPLE
SENTENCE
COMPLEX
SENTENCE
COMPOUND
SENTENCE
because of,
owing to,
due to,
on account of
because, as,
since
and, and so, so
and therefore
though, although,
even though
but, yet, still
in case of not
if...not, unless
or, or else, otherwise
too......to
so that......not
so, and so,
and therefore
as a result of,
as a consequence of,
in spite of
For example :
1 . He is prospering because he is hardworking.
He is hardworking, so he is prospering.
(Complex)
(Compound)
Because of hard work, he is prospering.
(Simple)
Owing to hard work, he is prospering.
(Simple)
His prosperity is due to his hard work.
(Simple)
On account of hard work, he is prospering.
(Simple)
2 . Though he failed, he did not become desperate.
He failed but he did not become desperate.
(Complex)
(Compound)
In spite of (failure) having failed, he did not become desperate.
(Simple)
3 . Unless you improve the results, you cannot stay in this post
for long.
(Complex)
You must improve the results, otherwise you cannot stay in
this post for long. (Compound)
In case of (your) not improving the results, you cannot stay in
this post for long . (Simple)
4 . She is so weak that she cannot do the household work.
(Complex)
She is very weak, so she cannot do the household work.
(Compound)
She is too weak to do the household work.
(Simple)
Being very weak, she cannot do the household work.
(Simple)
Unit I - GRAMMAR
105
Note :
A clause, whether main or subordinate must have a finite verb.
A simple sentence is only a main clause with one finite verb.
The other finite verb must be converted to a phrase.
EXERCISE 1.18
1 . Change the following sentences as directed :
(i) I know your name (into a complex sentence).
(ii) He lives in that house (into a complex sentence).
(iii) They are trying to learn communication skills even while
they are doing their regular course.
(into a compound sentence).
(iv) He holds a book in his hand and sleeps at the same time
(into a simple sentence).
(v) I request you to paint this picture. (into a complex sentence).
2. Combine the following sentences as directed :
(i) He bought new shoes.
They are costly.
(into simple, complex and compound sentences)
(ii) She is writing a letter
She is writing very fast
(into simple and complex sentences)
(iii) These are roses.
They are very fragrant
(into simple, complex and compound sentences)
(iv) You are viewing the TV continuously.
You are wasting your precious time.
(into simple and compound sentences)
(v) The world is a stage.
We are all actors on it.
(into simple and compound sentences)
1.8.4 KINDS OF SENTENCES :
A sentence is a group of words which makes a complete sense. There
are five kinds of sentences, namely :
1 . Assertive/Declarative/Affirmative
2. Negative Sentence
3. Imperative Sentence
sentence
106 A Handbook of English for Professionals
4. Interrogative Sentence
5. Exclamatory Sentence.
The Assertive/Declarative/Affirmative makes a simple statement
of facts. For example :
Kapil Dev is India's cricketer of the century.
India is a sub-continent.
A manager is the master of men, money and material.
The Negative Sentence is the contradiction of the Assertive or
Declarative Sentence.
For example :
Assertive/Declarative/Affirmative
Negative
Only fools question the
None but fools question the
existence of God.
existence of God.
This much money I can
I cannot contribute more
contribute now.
money than this now.
Only you can help me
None but you can help me.
She sometimes cooks food
She does not always cook food
Song and dance go together.
There is no song without dance.
He is always humble
He is never proud.
The Imperative Sentence expresses a command, or request.
For example :
Love thy neighbour as thyself.
Waste not, want not.
Please give me something to eat.
The Interrogative Sentence asks a question.
For example :
Who is your favourite cricketer?
Have you ever seen a Solar Eclipse?
When did India become a republic?
The Exclamatory Sentence expresses a strong and sudden feeling
of amusement, anger, appreciation, wish, gratitude, sorrow, sympathy,
surprise, shock, fear, wonder and astonishment.
Unit I - GRAMMAR
107
For example :
What a villain he is!
How horrible the scene of accident is!
What a nuisance he has created!
How hot the sun is today!
How wonderful the climate is!
Whereas in the Exclamatory Sentence the subject is followed by
the verb, in the Interrogative Sentence the subject is preceded by
the auxiliary verb and followed by the main verb.
EXERCISE 1.19
I . Convert the following negative sentences into assertive/declarative/
affirmative sentences :
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
No other Indian poet is so great as Tagore.
We will never forget your generous help.
Honesty is not always the best policy.
Indians are not so industrious as the Chinese.
No sooner did the bus arrive than the waiting passengers
ran towards it.
I I . Convert the following assertive sentences into negative sentences:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Delhi is cooler than Hyderabad.
All must abide by the Court orders.
Schools were closed on the Teachers' Day.
As soon as rains fell, the farmers sowed the seeds.
Lata is the best of all Indian singers.
I I I . Convert the following interrogative sentences into assertive/
declarative/ affirmative sentences :
1 . Who doesn't respect his parents?
2 . How can I ever forget the insult?
3 . Aren't the ups and downs of life indispensable?
4 . Don't mothers love their children?
5 . Isn't America trying to rule the world?
I V. Convert the following assertive/declarative/affirmative into
interrogative sentences :
1 . We are all actors on this stage.
2 . Most flowers are fragrant.
3 . Experience is the greatest teacher.
108 A Handbook of English for Professionals
4 . America wages wars to establish peace.
5 . All major cities are faced with the menace of goondas.
V. Convert the following exclamatory sentences into assertive/
declarative/affirmative sentences :
1 . What a match the Indian team played!
2 . How I wish I were a bird!
3 . What a fall it was!
4 . How unwise of him to reject the post!
5 . What a pleasant surprise it is!
V I . Convert the following assertive/declarative/affirmative sentences
into exclamatory sentences :
1 . The Indian team's victory was simply fantastic.
2 . She felt very nervous before the examinations.
3 . I wish I were a child again.
4 . The condition of orphans is very pitiable.
5 . The blood-curdling attacks of the terrorists are extremely
shocking.
1.8.5 REPORTED SPEECH
Direct Speech is called reporting speech while Indirect Speech is
called reported speech. In converting direct speech into indirect speech
the following guidelines must be observed :
1 . The meaning of the speaker's words must be conveyed, but
the same words need not be used.
For example :
Direct speech :
He said, 'I saw this movie last night".
Indirect speech :
He said that he had seen the movie the previous night.
Direct speech :
The said "Our house is under construction".
Indirect Speech :
He said that their house was under construction.
2 . If the reporting verb is in the present tense, present perfect
tense or future tense, there is no change in the indirect speech.
For example :
She says, "They are very kind people".
She says that they are very kind people.
Unit I - GRAMMAR
109
He has said, "I know them."
He has said that he knows them.
She will probably say "I can certainly get a distinction."
She will probably say that she can certainly get a distinction.
3 . If the reporting verb is in the past tense, the verbs in the reported
speech change as follows :
(i) The present indefinite tense becomes the past indefinite
tense.
For example :
He said, "I work for this company"
He said that he worked for that company
(ii) The present continuous tense becomes the past continuous
tense.
For example :
He said, 'I am learning grammar"
He said that he was learning grammar.
(iii) The present perfect tense becomes the past perfect tense.
For example :
She said, "I have finished my course"
She said that she had finished her course.
(iv) The present perfect continuous tense becomes the past
perfect continuous tense.
For example :
"I have been reading this book for a long time," he
said.
He said that he had been reading that book for a
long time.
(v) The past indefinite tense becomes past perfect tense.
For example :
He said, "I saw her yesterday."
He said that he had seen her the day before.
(vi) The past continuous tense becomes the past perfect continuous
tense.
For example :
He said, "She was playing on the piano."
He said that she had been playing on the piano.
110 A Handbook of English for Professionals
(vii) 'Will' and 'shall' become 'would' and 'should'.
For example :
Lata said, "I shall sing forever."
Lata declared that she would sing forever.
Note :
1 . First person 'shall' becomes third person 'would'.
For example :
She said, "I shall come tomorrow."
She said that she would come the next day.
2 . would, should, ought to, might, could and had better,
do not change.
For example :
He said, "The train might have gone."
He said that the train might have gone.
(viii) Universal truths do not change.
For example :
He said, "The stars are in the sky."
He said that the stars are in the sky.
(ix) 'This' becomes it, the or that, and 'these' becomes those,
they or the.
For example :
He said, "I found this purse on the road."
He said that he had found that purse on the road.
She said, "These ornaments belong to my mother."
She said that those ornaments belonged to her mother.
(x) Adverbs of time change as follows :
now
:
today
:
tonight
:
yesterday
:
tomorrow
:
day before last week :
yesterday
:
next week
:
then
that day
that night
the day before
the day after.
the previous week.
two days before
the following week.
Unit I - GRAMMAR
111
Note :
The adverb of place, 'here', becomes 'there'
(xi) Question words, what, why, when, where, how, who, do
not change
For example :
He said, "How are you?"
He asked me how I was.
She said, "Where did you go?"
She asked him where he had gone.
(xii) If auxiliaries come in the direct speech, if or whether
comes before them in the indirect speech.
For example :
He said, "Is she married?"
He asked if she was married.
(xiii) Commands, requests, advice and suggestions start with
present infinitives.
For example :
"Stand upon the bench," the teacher said to the boy.
The teacher asked the boy to stand upon the bench.
"Please help me," the clerk said to the officer.
The clerk requested the officer to help him.
(xiv) When 'let' is used, the reporting verb becomes "suggest"
For example :
He said, "Let's solve this problem".
He suggested that they should solve the problem.
He said, "Let her select her own course."
He suggested that she should select her own course.
(xv) In exclamatory sentences suitable descriptive words are
used in place of expressions of emotions.
For example :
Hussain said, "Alas! we have lost another match!"
Hussain regretted that they had lost another match.
She said, "Oh, what a beautiful doll!"
She wondered at the beauty of the doll.
112 A Handbook of English for Professionals
EXERCISE 1.20
Convert the following into indirect speech :
1 . He said to her, "I am very sorry for being rude to you."
2 . The officer said to me, "When did you join service?"
3 . She said to the boy, "What games do you play?"
4 . The mother says to the child, "Drink a little milk.'
5 . She has said, "Has any one taken my pen?"
6 . The teacher says, "All of you, boys, get out of my class."
7 . "How dark the night is!" said she.
8 . The doctor said to him. "Do you go for a walk every morning?
9 . "The sky is blue, "said the man to his son.
EXERCISE 1.21
1 . Identify the tenses of the finite verbs in the following :
(i) You shall have a diary tomorrow.
(ii) I could have been working as a journalist.
(iii) He would have joined hands with terrorists.
(iv) They will be playing chess.
Unit I - GRAMMAR
113
(v) Men should toil.
(vi) Bush intends to drive terrorists out of the bush.
(vii) Old temples are being renovated.
(viii) India beat England in cricket.
(ix) She has the talent of singing.
(x) My proposals were turned down.
2 . Change the following as directed :
(i) He is too modest to ask this question.
(into a Compound Sentence)
(ii) We are so friendly that none can separate us.
(into a Simple Sentence)
(iii) Though they are relatives, they are not on good terms.
(into a Compound Sentence)
(iv) Stop wasting money, otherwise you will suffer later.
(into a Complex Sentence)
(v) He can write Hindi script but he cannot speak the language.
(into a Simple Sentence)
3. Change the voice of the following as directed :
(i) The girl is learning dancing.
(into Passive Voice)
(ii) Send a note immediately.
(into Passive Voice)
114 A Handbook of English for Professionals
(iii) Who painted this picture?
(into Passive Voice)
(iv) The police have arrested him at last.
(into Passive Voice)
(v) Radio was invented by none other than Marconi.
(into Active Voice)
4. Combine the following sentences as directed :
(i) It is a Chinese doll. It is costly.
(into a Simple Sentence)
(ii) A car is a luxury. I cannot buy one.
(into a Complex Sentence)
(iii) The sky is cloudy. Rain may come.
(into a Compound Sentence)
(iv) The elephant is a strong animal. It can do any hard work.
(into a Simple Sentence)
(v) English is difficult. Hindi is easy.
(into a Compound Sentence)
5. Change the following as directed :
(i) December is the coldest month of the year.
(into an Interrogative Sentence)
(ii)
Isn't India the most populous country in the world?
(into an Assertive Sentence)
(iii) What an opportunity the Indian team lost!
(into an Assertive Sentences)
(iv) As soon as he passed the course, he married.
(into a Negative Sentence)
(v) Not all politicians are selfish.
(into an Assertive Sentences)
115
Unit I - GRAMMAR
EXERCISE 1.22
1 . Choose the correct form of the verb :
(i)
The hero, as well as the other actors,
felicitated. (has / have)
(ii) Pen or pencil
been
necessary to write anything. (are / is)
(iii) Neither zebra nor giraffe
wild. (is / are)
(iv) The foreign dignitary with his wife
(have / has)
come to India.
(v) A dog, a horse, a cat, a rat or a snake
have ecological balance. (are / is)
(vi) The Maldives
necessary to
a SAARC member. (are / is)
(vii) The Parliament
(has / have)
passed the bill by a huge majority.
(viii) Every ant, every elephant, every tiger, every lamb
water and air. (needs / need)
(ix) Each player
a new dress on. (have / has)
(x) Chinese Checkers
a delightful game. (is / are)
(xi) She is one of those dancers who
/ has)
(xii) All that
rare talents. (have
is not gold. (glittes / glitter)
1.9 ADVERB
An Adverb is a word that qualifies a Verb, an Adjective or another
Adverb,
For example :
She sings sweetly.
The sunrise is very beautiful.
He speaks Hindi extremely fluently.
1.9.1
KINDS OF ADVERBS
There are many kinds of adverbs, as follows :
ADVERBS OF MANNER :
These adverbs express how an action takes place :
For example :
The horse is galloping fast.
Old people walk slowly.
116 A Handbook of English for Professionals
Politicians speak loudly.
The nightingale sings melodiously.
ADVERBS OF TIME :
These adverbs express the time of action.
For example :
The train will start shortly.
I came today.
The children have just gone to school.
He arrived this morning.
ADVERBS OF PLACE :
These adverbs indicate the place of action
For example :
We are sitting here.
He is standing there.
The child fell down.
ADVERBS OF FREQUENCY :
These adverbs indicate how often an action takes place.
For example :
I see movies often.
He met me frequently.
We go out occasionally.
She practises dancing regularly.
ADVERBS OF CERTAINTY :
These adverbs express a sense of certainty.
For example :
He is surely gentle.
She is certainly going abroad.
I am definitely interested in social service.
He is obviously intelligent.
ADVERBS OF DEGREE :
These adverbs express a level or degree of being.
For example :
She is very clever.
This book is quite delightful.
Unit I - GRAMMAR
117
The results are fairly satisfactory.
He is extremely worried.
She is seriously ill.
INTERROGATIVE ADVERBS :
These adverbs express enquiries.
For example :
When are you leaving for the States?
Where is he working?
How do you do?
Why is she so serious?
RELATIVE ADVERBS :
These adverbs are related to their antecedents.
For example :
Do you know the time when the train arrives?
This is the College where I am studying.
I know the reason why prices are rising.
Please remember the time when the bus starts.
Do you know how animals keep clean?
ADVERB PHRASES :
Some adverbs can be changed into adverb phrases
For example :
(i)
She listens carefully :
She listens with care.
(ii)
He is sitting alone :
He is sitting by himself.
(iii)
The policeman looked at him suspiciously :
The policeman looked at him with suspicion.
(iv)
We accepted their offer unconditionally :
We accepted their offer without laying down any condition.
(v)
The children were hurrying home :
The children were hurrying towards their home.
118 A Handbook of English for Professionals
EXERCISE 1.23
Pick out adjectives and adverbs in the following sentences and identify
the words they qualify :
1 . The early morning train is convenient to us.
2 . Start early.
3 . He spoke kindly.
4 . His kindly words were encouraging.
5 . Hard words spoil relations.
6 . One must work hard to progress in life.
7 . You seem to be very generous.
8 . You shouldn't walk very fast.
9 . Do you have any money in your purse?
10. These fruits are available everywhere.
11. He is in a very tight corner.
12. He is sitting tight.
13. Yesterday I saw him going to the office.
14. The child is still crying.
15. She speaks English fluently.
Unit I - GRAMMAR
119
CHAPTER 2
Punctuation
Punctuation marks help the reader understand the meaning a
message of a sentence.
n
d
The following are the important marks of punctuation in English.
1 . Full stop (.)
7. Exclamation Mark (!)
2 . Colon (:)
8. Quotation Marks or
3 . Semicolon (;)
Inverted Commas (" ") or (' ')
4 . Comma (,)
9. Brackets ()
5 . Apostrophe (')
10. Hyphen (-)
6 . Interrogation or
11. Dash (––)
Question Mark (?)
1 . FULL STOP (.) :
(i)
The full stop indicates the end of a sentence.
For example :
The rose is the queen of flowers.
All that is white is not silver.
(ii) It is used after abbreviations:
For example :
U.N.O.
B.Tech.
Lt.Gen.
U.N.I.C.E.F.
M.Tech.
etc.
119
N.C.C.
Ph.D.
Prof.
120 A Handbook of English for Professionals
2 . COLON (:) :
(i) It is used to introduce a quotation.
For example :
Lenin said : "Liberty is so precious, it must be served
in little quantities".
(ii) It is used to introduce a list.
For example :
In Hyderabad there are a number of tourist spots : the
State Assembly, Charminar, Golconda Fort, Public Gardens
and Kutub Shahi Tombs.
3 . SEMICOLON (;) :
(i) It is used to separate two or more related sentences.
For example :
1 . The earth is round; the moon is round; the Venus is
round; the Jupiter is round; so, every planet is round.
2 . There was an outbreak of fire; fire engines came; the
police came; the people brought pots of water; but,
none could save the house from turning into ash.
4 . COMMA (,) :
It is used,
(i) to separate more than two words of the same part of speech
coming in a sequence in a sentence.
For example :
The earth, the moon, the Venus, the Jupiter and the
Uranus are all planets.
He likes the mango, the apple, and the orange.
(ii) to separate phrases and clauses.
For example :
It was raining, but he left for school.
This building, which was once an office, is his house
n o w.
Of course, China is a super power.
This man, to tell you the truth, is a great artist.
If you eat an apple a day, your health will improve.
Having seen the police, the thief ran away.
Being innocent, he was acquitted by the court.
The day, as you see, is very hot.
Unit I - GRAMMAR
121
(iii) to separate words of address.
For example :
Tom, please come.
Friends, I shall tell you a story.
(iv) after the initial yes, no, well.
For example :
Yes, he is a great singer.
No, I have never seen him.
Well, we are human beings.
(v) to separate appositives from the rest of the sentence.
For example :
Nehru, the architect of modern India, died in 1964.
(vi) to separate the stem from a quotation.
For example :
Dr. S. Radha Krishnan said, "Statesmanship lies in
anticipating things."
5 . APOSTROPHE (') :
It is used,
(i)
in the possessive form of nouns.
For example :
Lata's voice, India's population, Japan's expertise,
America's wealth and mother's love.
(ii) in place of missing letters in words,
For exmaple :
I can't go.
He doesn't like movies.
I'll see you later.
You'd better go now.
(iii) in plurals of letters and numbers.
For example :
He was born in 80's.
India became independent in 40's.
You must take care of your T's and I's.
122 A Handbook of English for Professionals
6 . INTERROGATION (?) :
(i)
It is used at the end of a question.
For example :
What is India's population now?
How do you do?
7 . EXCLAMATION (!) :
It is used after words, phrases or sentences that express sudden
emotion.
For example :
How sweet the mango is!
Alas!
what a pity!
Lo!
My God!
My good God!
8 . QUOTATION MARKS (" ") (' ') :
Quotation Marks are used for direct or reporting speech.
For example :
Darwin said :" Man has descended from the ape."
"Uneasy lies the head that wears the kingly crown," said
Shakespeare.
9 . BRACKETS ( ) :
The brackets are used to put a word, phrase, clause or sentence
in parenthesis.
For example :
Mumbai (Bombay) is the financial capital of India.
My father (May his soul rest in peace!) loved me very
much.
10. HYPHEN (-) :
It is used,
(i)
in compound words.
For example :
multi-faceted genius
one-sided judgment
one-man committee
Unit I - GRAMMAR
123
(ii)
To combine a few words to form an adjective.
For example :
a touch-me-not plant
I-know-everything attitude
a cat-on-the-wall mentality
(iii) To break a word at the end of a line.
For example :
Once upon a time there was a king. He was suffering
from a curious psychological disease. Physicians all
over the world were consulted for a remedy, but none
could prescribe a suitable remedy.
Note :
The break is not abrupt, it is a break of syllables.
11. DASH (–) :
It is used,
(i)
to introduce a list or service of names.
For example :
the government has introduced many welfare schemes–
clean and green, abolition of child labour, literacy and
water harvesting.
(ii) Girls go in the rain–and get a cold!
While digging a well, he found–a pot of gold.
(iii) to separate any additional information from the main sentence.
For example :
He came only today–yesterday he was in Chennai– and
is planning to leave tomorrow.
CAPITALISATION :
Capital letters are used as follows :
(i) At the beginning of sentences.
For example :
Games and sports make us healthy. They provide a
good exercise. So everyone should play games and sports.
(ii) At the beginning of direct or reporting speech.
For example :
John Keats said, "Heard melodies are sweet, but those
unheard are sweeter."
124 A Handbook of English for Professionals
(iii) At the beginning of proper nouns and proper adjectives.
For example :
India, Indian
America, American
Milton, Miltonic
(iv) At the beginning of the names of days and months.
For example :
Monday, Tuesday, January, February.
(v) At the beginning of the names of Gods and related pronouns.
For example :
God, He, Him, His, Buddha, Buddhistic, Hindu
(vi) At the beginning of each line of a poem.
For example :
The woods are lovely, dark and deep
But I have promises to keep
And miles to go before I sleep
And miles to go before I sleep
(vii) At the beginning of the names of religions, religious groups
or denominations and political parties.
For example :
Islam, Hinduism, Christianity, Shias, Sunnis, Congress
Party, Telugu Desam Party and Akali Dal.
(viii) The First Person Singular Pronoun 'I' is always a capital letter.
(ix) Titles start with capital letters.
For example :
Bharat Ratna, Padma Vibhushan, Padma Sri
(x) The first letters of titles of books, articles, poems and chapters.
For example :
Freedom at Midnight, Paradise Lost, The Roots.
(xi) Salutation and complementary close in letters begin with capital
letters.
For example :
Dear Sir, Dear Mother, My Dear Father
Yours lovingly, Sincerely yours.
(xi) Names of languages start with capital letters.
For example :
English, Hindi, and Sanskrit.
Unit I - GRAMMAR
125
EXERCISE 2.1
Punctuate the following :
1 . Mahatma Gandhi was killed by godse
2 . Our final examinations will be conducted in may.
3 . Einstein formulated the theory of relativity.
4 . Shakespeare is the greatest dramatist in english.
5 . The world is a stage and we are all actors on it.
6 . india egypt greece and china are ancient countries.
7 . Snake snake he cried.
8 . He grows plants he grows vegetables he eats fruits and roots
so he is a naturalist.
9 . She speaks many languages hindi telugu tamil oriya bengali malayalam
manipuri urdu english and kannada.
10. Get out dont show your face again.
11. Jesus was loving kind gentle truthful honest and altruistic.
12. The buddha was thoughtful pensive humanistic truthful honest
philosophical and inquisitive.
13. Science is a good servant but a bad master
14. Machines havent made man lazy on the other hand they have
made him the most restless creature in nature.