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Name: __________________________________________________
Date: ____________________________
The death of Muhammad plunged his followers into grief. The Prophet had been a pious man
and a powerful leader. No one else had ever been able to unify the Bedouin tribes. Could his
legacy survive without him?
Abu Bakr, an early convert to Islam, was determined to continue the Prophet’s work. He
sternly told the faithful, “If you worship Muhammad, Muhammad is dead. If you worship God,
God is alive.”
Despite some bitter struggles, Arab unity did not collapse. Inspired by the teachings of
the Prophet, Arab armies surged across the Byzantine and Persian empires. In a stunningly short
time, an Arabic empire reached from the Atlantic to the bordered of India.
An Age of Conquest
Geography & History
Desert Warfare
“Fight the enemy in the desert,”
said one wounded Muslim leader.
“There you will be victorious…you
will have the friendly and familiar
desert at your backs. The enemy
cannot follow you there.”
In response to the geographic
conditions of the Arabian
Peninsula, Arab soldiers became
skilled in the special tactics of
desert warfare. They knew how to
use horses and camels to cross
broad areas quickly and then sweep
down to catch their enemies by
surprise. The sudden charge of an
Arab cavalry overwhelmed
unprepared defenders. The
elements of surprise and speed, as
well as maneuverability, helped the
Arabs conquer much of the
Byzantine and Persian empires.
As the first caliph, or successor to Muhammad, Abu Bakr
faced an immediate crisis. The loyalty of some Arab tribal
leaders had been dependent on Muhammad’s personal
command. They now refused to follow Abu Bakr and
withdrew their loyalty to Islam. Abu Bakr succeeded in
reuniting the Arabs, based first and foremost on their
allegiance to Islam. Once reunited, the Arabs, based first and
foremost on their allegiance to Islam. Once reunited, the Arabs
set out on a remarkable series of military conquests.
FROM VICTORY TO VICTORY
Under the first four
caliphs, Arab armies marched from victory to victory. They
conquered great chunks of the Byzantine Empire, including the
provinces of Syria and Palestine, with the cities Damascus and
Jerusalem. Next, they rapidly demolished the Persian Empire.
The Arabs then swept into Egypt.
Later Muslim armies conquered even more lands. From
Egypt, Muslims dashed west, defeating Byzantine forces across
North Africa. In 711, they crossed the Strait of Gibraltar into
Spain and pushed north into France. There, in 732, they were
defeated at the battle of Tours. The Muslim advance into
Western Europe was halted. Even so, Muslims would rule parts
of Spain for centuries. Elsewhere, Muslims besieged the
Byzantine capital of Constantinople, but failed to take the welldefended city. Later waves of conquests would expand Muslim
rule farther into the continents of Asia and Africa.
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Name: __________________________________________________
Date: ____________________________
REASONS FOR SUCCESS Why did the Arabs have such an astonishing series of victories?
One reason was the weakness of the Byzantine and Persian Empires. These longtime rivals had
fought each other to exhaustion. Many people in the Fertile Crescent welcomed the Arabs as
liberators from harsh Byzantine or Persian rule. Bold, efficient fighting methods also contributed
to the Arab success. The Bedouin camel and horse cavalry mounted aggressive and mobile
offensives that overwhelmed more traditional armies.
Perhaps the key reason for Arab success, however, was the common faith Muhammad
had given his people. Islam knitted a patchwork of tribes into a determined, unified state. Belief
in Islam and the certainty of paradise for those who fell in battle spurred the Arab armies to
victory.
TREATMENT
OF
CONQUERED
PEOPLE The advancing Arabs brought
many people under their rule. Muslim
leaders imposed a special tax on nonMuslims, but allowed Christians, Jews, and
Zoroastrians to practice their own faiths and
follow their own laws. As Muslim
civilization developed many Jews and
Christians played key roles as officials,
doctors, and translators. In time, many nonMuslims converted to Islam.
Many nomadic peoples in North
Africa and Central Asia chose Islam
immediately. Its message was simple and
direct, and they saw its triumph as a sign of God’s favor.
Moreover, Islam had no religious hierarchy or class of
priests. In principle, it emphasized the equality of all
believers, regardless of race, sex, class, or wealth. In later
centuries, Turkish and Mongol converts helped spread Islam
far across Asia.
Great Mosque of Cordoba
Cordoba was the cultural center of
Muslim Spain. The columns and
arches of this mosque in Cordoba
show the elaborate nature of Muslim
architecture.
Theme: Continuity and Change
What earlier civilizations pioneered
the use of columns and arches?
MUSLIMS IN EUROPE For centuries after the battle of
Tours, Christian forces fought to reconquer Spain. Only in 1492 did they seize the last Muslim
stronghold. In the meantime, Spain flourished as a center of Muslim civilization.
Muslim rulers in Spain presided over brilliant courts, where the arts and learning thrived.
In general, they were more tolerant of other religions than Christian rulers of the time. At centers
of learning such as the city of Cordoba, rulers employed Jewish officials and welcomed Christian
scholars to study science and philosophy. Architects built grand buildings such as the Alhambra,
a fortified palace in Granada. Its lovely gardens, reflecting pools, and finely decorated marble
columns mark a high point of Muslim civilization in Spain.
Muslim civilization also thrived in Sicily and other Mediterranean islands seized by Arab
forces in the late 800s. Muslim rule lasted briefly, but even after the knights from Normandy
gained control of Sicily, it remained strongly Arabic in culture. Muslim officials governed the
island well, and merchants and farmers helped the economy prosper. Muslim poets,
philosophers, and scientists enriched the courts of Norman kings.
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Name: __________________________________________________
Date: ____________________________
Movements Within Islam
Not long after Muhammad’s death, divisions arose within Islam over his successor. The split
between Sunni (SOO NEE) and Shiite (SHEE ITE) Muslims had a great impact on later Islamic
history.
SUNNI AND SHIITES The Sunni felt that the caliph should be chosen by leaders of the
Muslim community. Although the Sunni agreed that the caliph should be a pious Muslim, they
viewed him simply as a leader, not s a religious authority.
The Shiites, on the other hand, argued that the only true successor to the Prophet were the
descendants of Muhammad’s daughter and son-in-law, Fatima and Ali. The Shiites believed that
the descendants of the Prophet were divinely inspired. The Sunni believed that inspiration came
from the example of Muhammad as recorded by his early followers.
Ali became the fourth caliph, but he was assassinated in 661 in a struggle for leadership.
Later, his son, too, was killed. Many other Shiites died in battle against Sunni, trying to install
their candidates for caliph. Shiites grew to admire being a martyr, or someone who was willing
to die or suffer for their faith.
Like the split between Roman Catholics and Eastern Orthodox Christians, the division
between Sunni and Shiite Muslims had survived to the present day. Members of both branches of
Islam believe in the same one God, look to the Quran for guidance, and make the hajj. But
numerous differences have emerged in such areas as religious practice, law, and daily life.
Today, about ninety percent of Muslims are Sunni. Most Shiites live in Iran, Lebanon, Iraq, and
Yemen. The Shiite movement itself has split into several different factions.
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Name: __________________________________________________
Date: ____________________________
SUFI
A third tradition in Islam emerged with the Sufis, Muslim mystics who sought
communion with God through meditation, fasting, and other rituals. Sufis were respected for
their piety and miraculous powers.
Like Christian monks and nuns, some Sufis helped spread Islam through missionary
work. They carried the faith to remote villages, where they blended local traditions and beliefs
into Muslim culture.
Empire of the Caliphs
After the death of Ali, the Umayyad (OH MY AD) family set up a dynasty that ruled the Islamic
world until 750. From their capital at Damascus in Syria, they directed the spectacular conquests
that carried Islam from the Atlantic to the Indus Valley.
UMAYYADS Even as victories expanded the Arab empire, the Umayyads faced numerous
problems. First, they had to adapt from desert life to ruling large cities and huge territories. To
govern their empire, the Umayyads often relied on local officials, including educated Jews,
Greeks, and Persians. As a result, Byzantine and Persian traditions of government influenced
Arab rulers.
While conquests continued, vast wealth flowed into Umayyad hands. When conquests
slowed in the 700s, economic tensions increased between wealthy Arabs and those who had less.
Many Muslims criticized the court at Damascus for abandoning the simple ways of the early
caliphs. Shiites hated the Umayyads because they had defeated Ali and killed his son,
dishonoring the Prophet’s family. Unrest also festered among non-Arab converts to Islam, who
under the Umayyads had fewer rights that Arabs.
ABBASIDS Discontented Muslims found a leader in Abu al-Abbas, who captured Damascus in
750. Soon after, one of his generals invited members of the defeated Umayyad family to a
banquet – and killed them all. Abu al-Abbas then founded the Abbasid dynasty, which lasted
until 1258.
The Abbassid dynasty ended Arab dominance and helped make Islam a truly universal
religion. Under the early Abbassids, the empire of the caliph reached its greatest wealth and
power, and Muslim civilization enjoyed a golden age.
SPLENDORS OF BAGHDAD The Abbassid caliph al-Mansur chose Baghdad as the site of
his new capital, a small market town in present-day Iraq. “It is an excellent military camp,” he
wrote. “Besides here is the Tigris to put us in touch with lands as far as China and bring us all
that the seas yield.” Under the Abbassids, Baghdad exceeded Constantinople in size and wealth.
In Baghdad, Persian traditions strongly influenced Arab life, but Islam remained the
religion and Arabic the language of the empire. Poets, scholars, philosophers, and entertainers
from all over the Muslim world flocked to the Abbassid court. Visitors no doubt felt that
Baghdad deserved its title “City of Peace, Gift of God, Paradise on Earth.”
Many gardens, dotted with fabulous fountains, gleamed in the sunlight. Above the streets
loomed domes and minarets, the slender towers of mosques. Each day, a mosque official called
a muezzin climbed to the top of the minaret and called the faithful to prayer. In busy market
courtyards, merchants sold goods from Africa, Asia, and Europe. The palace of the caliph echoed
with the music of flutes, cymbals, and tambourines, along with the voice of female singers.
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Name: __________________________________________________
Date: ____________________________
The city of Baghdad reached its peak under the reign of caliph
Harun al-Rashid, who ruled from 786 to 809. For centuries, in both
Europe and the Muslim world, Harun was admired as a model ruler.
He was viewed as a symbol of wealth and splendor.
Decline of the Caliphate
Starting in about 850, Abbassid control over the Arab empire
fragmented. In Spain, Egypt, and elsewhere, independent dynasties
ruled separate Muslim states. As the caliph’s power faded, civil wars
erupted, and Shiite rulers took over parts of the empire. Between 900
and 1400, a series of invasions added to the chaos.
SELJUKS In the 900s, the Seljuk Turks migrated into the Middle
East from Central Asia. They adopted Islam and built a large empire
across the Fertile Crescent. By 1055, a Seljuk sultun, or authority,
controlled Baghdad, but he left the Abbassid caliph as a figurehead. As
the Seljuks pushed into Asia Minor, they threatened the Byzantine
Empire. Reports of Seljuk interference with Christian pilgrims
traveling to Jerusalem led Pope Urban II, in 1095, to call for the First
Crusade.
CRUSADERS In 1099, after a long and bloody siege, Christian
crusaders captured Jerusalem. For 150 years, the city passed back and
forth between Muslims and Christians. The Muslim general Saladin
banned Christians from Jerusalem in 1187. They regained it after his
death, holding it until 1244.
Christians also ruled a few tiny states in Palestine, but they
were eventually expelled. In the long term, as you read, the Crusades
had a much greater impact on Europe than on the Muslim world.
Harun al=Rashid
763(?) – 809
Many stories and legends recall
Caliph Harun al-Rashid’s
wealth, generosity, and support
of learning. Poets, physicians,
philosophers, and artists all
gathered at his court in
Baghdad. One story tells how
Harun rewarded a favorite poet
with a robe of honor, a
splendid horse and 5,000
dirhams, a vast sum of money.
Harun used his generosity to
create closer ties with other
rulers. He sent Frankish king
Charlemagne several gifts,
including a mechanical clock
and an elephant. Harun hoped
that the Franks would join him
in an alliance against the rival
Umayyad caliphate in Spain.
Despite his lavishness and
generosity. Harun amassed a
great fortune. At his death, he
had millions of dirhams, plus
huge stores of jewels and gold.
Theme: Impact of the
MONGOLS In 1216, Genghiz Khan led the Mongols out of Central Individual How did Harun
Asia across Persia and Mesopotamia. Mongol armies returned again help make Baghdad a major
center of Muslim culture?
and again. In 1258, Hulagu, grandson of Genghiz Khan, burned and
looted Baghdad, killing the last Abbassid caliph. Later, the Mongols adopted Islam.
In the late 1300s another Mongol leader, Timur the Lame, or Tamerlane, led his armies
into the Middle East. Though he himself was a Muslim, Tamerlane’s ambitions led him to
conquer Muslim as well as non-Muslim lands. His victorious armies overran Persia and
Mesopotamia before invading Russia and India.
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Name: __________________________________________________
Date: ____________________________
Looking Ahead
As the 1200s drew to a
close, the Arab empire
had
fragmented
and
fallen.
Independent
Muslim caliphates and
states were scattered
across North Africa and
Spain, while a Mongol
khan ruled the Middle
East. After five centuries
of relative unity, the
Muslim world was as
politically divided as
Christian Europe.
Even though the
empire crumbled, Islam
continued to link diverse people across an enormous area that Muslims called the Dar al-Islam,
or “Abode of Islam.” In the future, other great Muslim empires would arise in the Middle East
and India. Muslims also benefited from an advanced civilization that had taken root under the
Abbassids. As you will see, the Muslims had tremendous advancements in art, literature, and
other fields of life.
Questions
1. Recall
a. Abu Bakr
b. Battle of Tours
c. Fatima and Ali
d. Sufi
e. Umayyads
f. Abbassids
g. Harun al-Rashid
h. Seljuks
i. Tamerlane
2. Define
a. caliph
b. minaret
c. muezzin
d. sultan
3. What areas did Arab armies conquer?
4. Give three reasons for the rapid success of the Arab conquests.
5. What issues divided Sunni Muslims and Shiite Muslims?
6. Why did the empire of the Abbassid caliphs decline and eventually break up?
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