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Language and Literacy Levels:
Teaching Strategies
Consultative draft January 2015
Lead writers
Stella Emberson
Camilla Karaivanoff
Additional writers
Gloria Capolongo
Wendy Paddick
Reference group
Rosie Antenucci
Velma Beaglehole
Marie Davis
Stuart Kenny
Erika Von Aspern
Bev White
Project leader
Ross Hamilton
This resource has been released as a consultation draft for 2015 and any feedback can be directed to
[email protected] until 25/09/15.
The Department for Education and Child Development requests attribution as: South Australian Department for Education and Child
Development.
Introduction
The explicit teaching strategies described within are primarily a guide for teachers of EALD students. The
strategies were designed with the Language and Literacy Levels (Levels) professional learning modules in mind.
These modules, available at http://www.decd.sa.gov.au/literacy/pages/esl/45473/, introduce the Levels, build
teacher grammar capacity and support teachers to assign accurate Levels, use Levels data and identify
language learning goals and targets for students within their ability to learn with support from a teacher or
capable peer (Zone of Proximal Development). The final module, Setting Goals and Targets, enables teachers
to answer the Learning Design question “What do we want them to learn?” Teachers can then use the
teaching strategies contained in this resource to intentionally teach students’ identified language needs
thereby answering the Learning Design question “What will we do to get there?”
Separate teaching strategies to develop strong foundations in groupings of Language and Literacy Levels (e.g.
Levels 1-4) have been written for:
 Thematic progression and foregrounding
 Sentences: simple, compound, complex and lexically dense
 Verbs and verb groups
 Circumstances – using adverbs, adverbial phrases and prepositional phrases
 Nouns and noun groups
 Evaluative language
 Vocabulary
 Spelling
The strategies could also be used by other teachers to meet the needs of other students and without having
first completed the professional learning modules, but teachers should be aware that some of the strategies
have been designed for older students who are operating at a Language and Literacy level that is relatively
low. Teachers will have to modify these strategies so they can be used with native English speakers who are
operating at or near the language and Literacy level for their year level. The following table shows the
alignment between year levels and Language and Literacy Levels.
Year Level
R
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10-12
Language &
1-4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Literacy Level
It is strongly recommended that the teaching strategies are not taught in isolation but as part of a teaching and
learning pedagogy that includes a gradual release of teacher responsibility. It is anticipated that:
 Highly Accomplished EALD teachers may only need to refer to the strategies to have their current
good practice confirmed and model this for colleagues
 Proficient EALD teachers may be able to initially borrow from the strategies before developing their
own to suit their own context
 Graduate EALD teachers will be more reliant upon the strategies while they begin to modify them for
their own contexts.
Regardless of their level of expertise, all teachers should consider the learning strategies that accompany each
teaching strategy. This assists them to answer the Learning Design question “How will we know they got it?”
They should expect to observe and hear their engaged students doing certain things such as:
 Talking a lot about the text
 Comparing texts
 Exploring particular patterns generated in texts
 Asking and answering higher order questions
 Using the language in authentic dialogues about the topic.
If teachers do not see the learning strategies they anticipated, then they should revise the teaching strategy or
use their own.
Foregrounding - Developing thematic progression through cohesive and coherent texts
This resource is to support teachers who have set goals and targets, around cohesion and coherence for their students’ texts using the Teaching and Learning
Goals and Language and Literacy Levels Targets proforma. This proforma is in the Language and Literacy Levels: Recording and Tracking for Learning
document.
Good text organisation depends on



Organisational structures. These are words used to structure the text. 1. Rhetorical language features are used to begin paragraphs. Common
examples are Firstly, A further point to make, In addition. These are common in exposition texts at each stages that function to organise the text where
an author is setting out their arguments and viewpoints. These have been accepted in the cultural and social context of both written and spoken texts.
2. Cohesive conjunctions are used to link paragraphs and sentences in logical relationships eg In fact; Yet; Therefore;
Foregrounding. The introductory paragraph, the topic sentence in paragraphs and the beginnings of sentences in the paragraphs and the connection
between these three elements at whole text level, at paragraph level and at sentence level (including clause level) are what makes the text flow and
gives the thematic progression or coherence to a text.
Reference. The use of reference items and synonyms are the language items that make the text hang together and give cohesion to the text.
The following resource suggests strategies and activities to move the learners towards higher language Level achievement in both their spoken and written
texts. Examples are taken from Language and Literacy levels across the Australian Curriculum: EALD Students – Text Knowledge (Organisational features;
foregrounding; reference)
Language
Level
Level 1 – 4
Across the
stages of
schooling
equivalent to
the end of
Reception
Discussion
Activities
Expansion
Most often the first texts
that learners see are
story/picture books and at
the earliest stages of
learning about texts children
are recognising the
sequence of pictures to tell
a story. They will expect the
main character to be
repeated in each picture.
Often the main character
appears in every picture and
this is the simplest form of
foregrounding.
Engage Reception students and year 1 students in paired or
group work activities that require them to put pictures of a
familiar story into sequence. If possible have a student
report back on how they arrived at their final consensus of
the sequence.
The repetition of the main characters is typical at this
level eg ‘Billy Goats Gruff’. Available at
http://www.kizclub.com/storytime/billygoat/goat13.html
Model the beginning words on each ‘page’ or segment of
the story. Point out repetition which at this stage is a
cohesive language device.
Show the learners the words representing the main
character and then point out the reference items (pronouns
to start with). If possible, use the text with a smart board,
circle the reference item and link it to the participant.
Reference items and cohesive conjunction.
The three billy goats gruff were very hungry.
They wanted to eat the green grass across the river. But
an ugly monster lived under the bridge. So they were
afraid to cross the bridge.
NB ‘So’ is acting as a cohesive conjunction. ‘So’ can also
be used as a linking conjunction eg.
It was hot so we went swimming.
Language
Level
Level 1 – 4
Cont’d
Across the
stages of
schooling
equivalent to
the end of
Reception
Discussion
Activities
Use stories (Narratives)
that have circumstances of
time or place in foreground
position.
Using familiar written stories or fables on-line or in books focus on
circumstances of place and time and ask students consider if the
circumstance relates to the picture eg But an ugly monster lived under
the bridge. “Is there a bridge in the picture? Is there an ugly monster
under it?”
If no circumstances are foregrounded take sentences like the example
just given and rewrite: Under the bridge lived an ugly monster.
Introduce simple Recounts
and Information Reports
next.
Model and Teach how sentences of a familiar topic can begin with
 repetitive sentence openers
 a pronoun or other reference item
 a circumstance
 a cohesive conjunction
 a time conjunction
and call these the starting points of the sentence.
Engage students in group activities and games that require them to
put cards with sentence parts together to make full sentences.
Focussing on the changes made by foregrounding different language
elements, discuss with students which completed sentences they like
the best. Have students copy out the sentences.
Introduce demonstrative pronouns – This, These, (for close proximity)
That, Those (for distance) and have students make up sentences using
demonstrative pronouns in spoken and written contexts. When they
understand the meaning of the proximity /distance and
plurality/singularity of these words in spoken language model for
students how to use them in foreground position in spoken and
written texts.
Model and Teach simple sub-headings for information reports:
Appearance/Description (what it looks like); Habitat (where they
live); Diet (Food); Reproduction (How they have babies).
Use the nominalisations as headings particularly with older students,
otherwise use the words in brackets.
Use familiar information about an animal and have students copy
appropriate sentences into a proforma/table or under headings.
Description/Appearance; Habitat; Food; Reproduction.
Expansion
Bees are insects. Bees make honey.
Bees are insects. They live in hives.
Last weekend I saw bees in the garden.
Also, I saw bees at school.
Then I saw bees at school.
Another example:
The Wolf is like a dog. The Wolf lives in Canada.
Last weekend I saw a wolf in the zoo.
The Wolf is like a dog. It lives in Canada.
Also I saw a Canadian wolf at the Adelaide zoo.
In answer to questions such as “Which toy(s) do
you like best?” Have students answer:
I like this/that one.
I like these/those.
Then model foregrounding of reference item
This/That is the one I like.
These/Those are the ones I like.
Also, for older students use similar proforma for
note taking and explain to students that this
will help them ORGANISE their texts.
Language
Level
Level 5 – 7
Across the
stages of
schooling
equivalent to
the end of Year
3.
Discussion
Continue use of Information Reports.
It is crucial that students work with
texts other than Narratives.
Procedures including protocols eg
how to behave at Sports Day, are
appropriate text types to develop at
this stage.
Foregrounded Elements (theme) in
procedural type texts eg
Process
Place the mixture in the oven after five
minutes.
Time
After five minutes, place the mixture in
the oven.
Human (in a procedural recount)
We placed the mixture in the oven
after five minutes.
Non-human using passive voice
The mixture was placed in the oven
after five minutes.
Students need to begin to develop
language to express their own voice
and opinions. Introduce simple
Expositions.
Activities
Model and Teach simple procedures foregrounding the
processes: Directions – How to get to somewhere (simple
directions can be done in the playground with a
blindfolded student walking a number of steps
forward, sideways, reverse, while being supported
by another student, in order to reach a chalk mark
on a netball rectangle)
 How to make a – paper kite; pancakes; cup of tea
 How to use a – pencil sharpener; ruler
 How to behave in school assembly.
Model and Teach other theme elements of procedural
texts eg time; human and non-human participants.
Introduce and model passive voice in learning area
procedures.
Model and Teach foregrounding of cohesive conjunctions
eg ‘Next’, ‘Then’. Also Teach and model foregrounding of
Manner circumstances in procedures eg ‘Carefully’;
‘Quickly’; ‘Immediately’.
Encourage students to take a position on an issue such as
bullying (or name calling) and encourage them to respond
orally foregrounding a sensing verb eg I believe…; I think…;
I would like…;
Introduce the structure of a formal argument Exposition
by modelling an introductory paragraph with three main
points or reasons. Model how these three points become
the topic sentences of the three following paragraphs.
Teach the metalanguage of ‘Introductory paragraph’ and
‘Topic sentence’ and ‘theme’ and show how they create
thematic connection, highlighting and drawing arrows as
appropriate.
Expansion
Use simple maps and have pairs of students
tell each other how to go from point A to
point B.
Have students explain to each other how to
play a game from their culture.
eg. Have a student operate a simple
machine/tool and orally explain what they are
doing. Write the sentences on a smart board.
Read them through in order to recall then
hide the sentences and ask the class :
“After …… what did XXXX do?”
“So after (action) what is the next
instruction?” “How did we do it?”
I think some children call other children
names to be funny but I believe it hurts them.
I would like the students to tell each other
when they say something wrong. I would like
the students to listen to each other and to do
the right thing.
Appendix 1 shows introductory paragraph
(consisting of one sentence) and topic
sentences re smoking.
Language
Level
Level 5 – 7
Cont’d
Discussion
Foregrounding
Suggest a metaphor to students that a
text is like a journey on which the
Across the
writer must take reader.
stages of
The Introductory paragraph sets out
schooling
the journey like the big signpost at
equivalent to
the beginning of a journey from one
the end of year
capital city to another.
3.
The topic sentences at the beginning
of the paragraphs are like the
signposts that indicate main junction
points in the journey.
The beginnings of sentences are like
signposts between the smaller
towns on the journey.
Sequential Explanations are
introduced. Natural phenomena,
production processes can be
explained with sequential
Explanations.
Activities
Introduce a simple science investigation:
eg Use a toy vehicle and a one metre plank of wood with
sides to prevent the toy from falling. Put one end of the
plank of wood on the ground and the other end raised to
different heights, 10 centimetres, 20 centimetres, 30
centimetres etc . Record the speed of the toy at different
heights. Repeat with different surfaces and different ty
cars.
Teach students how to write an explanation paragraph:
First Model for students how to write up the science
investigation as a Procedure and to record results in a
table. Highlight the language that is foregrounded in the
Investigation purpose
eg We wanted to know…; We thought that……; A toy
vehicle was used…..; a plank was put…..; Then we rolled
the car…etc
Then write up the results as an Explanation and again
highlight foregrounding elements eg A slope of one metre
and 50cms elevation causes the toy car to go faster. When
the elevation is reduced …….. etc.
Bring attention to the grammatical shift in language.
Introduce Creative Responses and Reviews and focus on
foregrounding when modelling texts.
Model - Creative Response in the form of a letter to a
character in a familiar story.
Model and jointly construct - Book Review; Performance
Review.
Introduce the use of topic sentences. First write topic
sentences on cards. Do this with Reports (also using the
learnt sub headings) and Recounts. Have students work in
pairs to put topic sentences with matching paragraphs
(also on cards). Have the pairs then place the paragraphs in
order for the whole text.
Expansion
Model and show sequential Explanations
such as milk production; chocolate
production, digestion, respiration etc.
Demonstrate the connection between the last
parts of sentences and the beginning parts of
the following sentences (rheme and theme
See Appendix 2 for example. The theme is like
a signpost orienting the reader to the topic.
The rheme is new information about the
theme)
Explain how this gives coherence (flow) to the
text.
Pronouns, substitutions, rhetorical and
cohesive conjunctions are language elements
creating cohesion of a text.
Language
Level
Level 8 – 10
Across the
stages of
schooling
equivalent to
the end of
year 6
Discussion
Activities
Expansion
At this stage students should be
able to independently construct
simple Sequential Explanations.
Some of these can be turned into
Causal Explanations and new
Causal Explanations can be
introduced.
Teach structure of genres relevant to Learning Areas
and topic by deconstructing, modelling, and jointly
constructing.
Identify and highlight (revise) language for staging
and structuring the text.
Identify (revise) other foregrounding language: the
participants (the noun groups and nominalisation)
and the circumstances.
For Teacher Reference see example on Page 22 and 23 of
the DTLA cycle Year 9 Science which gives some ideas for
activities for older students working at these Language
Levels. It can be accessed at this URL.
Continue development of
Information Reports and develop
Classifying Reports
Recounts need to be further
extended as Biographical and
Historical Recounts.
Exposition writing also needs to
be extended and may include
more evaluative language (as do
Personal Reflection texts)
The use of passive voice also
determines what is foregrounded.
(passive voice is formed by ‘to be’
+ past participle)
Referencing in texts moves
beyond pronouns, and
demonstratives refer to complex
participants or large segments of
texts
Model and jointly construct texts where, in complex
sentence, the subordinate clause is foregrounded eg
in Historical Recounts/Narratives - When they
arrived at the Cove, now known as Anzac Cove,……..;
Before the first wharf was built,……..
in Explanations and Arguments – If the surface is
smooth,……; If young people don’t control their
spending, ….
in Historical Reports and other genres, using passive
voice to change the focus of the sentence and text
eg Penicillin was discovered…..; Penicillin had been
discovered prior to…..
in Explanations and Arguments using a passive
voice verb and subordinate clause – If penicillin had
not been discovered,….
Deconstruct texts by circling demonstratives and
connecting to the relevant pieces of text.
Repeat activity (mentioned in Levels 5 – 7) topic
sentences on cards, at a higher language level.
Particularly use Argument texts. Have students work
in pairs to put topic sentences with matching
paragraphs (also on cards). Have the student pairs
then place the paragraphs in order.
http://www.decd.sa.gov.au/literacy/files/links/Year_9_Science_Explanation.doc
some examples of ‘Demonstratives’ that refer to
complex participants or large segments of texts
The woodchips are mixed with water to make pulp. This
pulp is …..; In the middle of 1852 gold mining licences
were introduced. These licences were….;
Canteens also have a traffic lights method: green light
are…, orange light foods are…., and red light foods ……
This method of food identification is…….
See Appendix 3 as an example.
Language
Discussion
Level
Level 8 – 10
A paragraph has a topic sentence
Cont’d
usually at the beginning. A
paragraph contains one idea that
Across the
relates to the main topic and is
stages of
supported by the information and
schooling
equivalent to evidence in that paragraph.
the end of
year 6
The following sentences should
elaborate (expand, extend or give
examples), of the main idea in the
topic sentence.
expand the main idea by giving
more information about it.
extend the main idea by giving
points that are relevant and
closely related to the main idea.
give examples in a paragraph to
support the main idea.
Activities
Introduce/Revise with students how to develop a paragraph idea by
expanding (saying the same thing in more detail); extending (give
further detail that relates to main idea); exemplifying (give examples
of the main idea).
Show how topic sentences can be elaborated upon: eg
Explain /Define
The Industrial Revolution was the period from about 1760 to
sometime between 1820 and 1840. (Topic sentence)
The term refers to the transition from earlier technology to new
manufacturing processes.
Expand/Explain
Another advantage of early technology in farming was that very little
pollution was produced. (Topic sentence)
The following sentence expands or elaborates the idea
There were no fuel-powered machines to pollute the atmosphere
because the power came from human hard work.
Extend
However a disadvantage of this stage of farming development may
have meant that not everyone was employed. (Topic sentence)
The following two sentences extend the idea because they introduce
other possible issues caused by the point made in the topic sentence
Some people may not have been able to feed and clothe themselves
properly. This may have led to more crime and more social problems.
Exemplify/Give examples/evidence
The view that Aboriginal people came from Asia is widely accepted.
(Topic sentence)
There is considerable evidence for this. (These words introduce the example)
There are, for example, groups of people in Asia today who have
physical resemblances to some Aborigines and who may be part of the
same original racial group.
See Level 11 -12 for further development.
Expansion
Students in this range of Language
Levels confidently use circumstances of
time and place in foreground position.
At Level 10 they can also use
Dependent clauses in foreground
position. This requires a comma at the
end of the Dependent clause.
Dependent clauses at Level 10 can be
non-finite clauses, again requiring a
comma at the end of the clause.
NB. At level 8 students tend to use
spoken-like non-finite clauses but do
not foreground them in theme position.
Appendix 3. Text Deconstruction
How to write a good Research Report.
This appendix highlights the topic
sentences in the first three paragraphs.
The second paragraph shows how the
topic sentence is expanded with
questions. The last sentence extends
the topic sentence giving the reason for
‘understanding’. More deconstruction
can be done on this text but the main
point is to organise the paragraphs by
working in pairs and using the headings.
Language
Level
Level 11 –
12
Language Level
Across the
stages of
schooling
equivalent
to the end
of Year 8
Simple Investigation:
At these levels students can
independently compose
mathematical and scientific
investigations, based on
provided headings for each
stage, eg introduction, aim,
hypothesis, method, results,
analysis of results and
conclusion.
Activities
Statistics and quotes also exemplify topic or earlier sentences. Refer
back to Levels 8 to 10 re Exemplify/Give examples/Evidence
Teach paragraph elaboration with more complex sentences eg:
The current status of the health of Aboriginal people is a direct result
of colonisation. Europeans introduced life-threatening diseases into
Australia such as whooping cough, colds, flu, measles and sexually
transmitted disease. As the indigenous people had no immunity to
such diseases, many died. (Topic sentence and elaborating sentences)
The underlined words then introduce the example
A prime example of this was the small pox epidemic of 1790’s that
killed a high percentage of Aboriginal people living along the River
Murray (McCorquodale 1997).
Model and jointly construct more complex introduction and topic
sentences appropriately to clearly predict the content of the whole
text and the paragraph respectively
Show, model and jointly construct paragraphs using text connective
phrases to structure and stage a text eg One reason; The first event;
The next instance; The last event
Show, model and jointly construct use of text connectives to make
logical connections between paragraphs and sentences: eg In
addition; Overall; Indeed
Model the use of rhetorical questions to structure and stage an
exposition (persuasive argument), particularly oral debates. eg But is a
total ban on mobile phones necessary?
Model use of abstract noun groups and nominalisations in factual
genres: The loss of habitats……; The safety of workers……
Also model passive voice to foreground issues and abstractions:- The
damage to these habitats needs to be investigated rather than The
Conservation Foundation needs to investigate ……
Expansion and examples from Levels
Create more paired activities around
matching topic sentences with appropriate
paragraphs.
At this stage teacher consciously models and
jointly constructs a range of sentence
starting points that orientate the reader and
organise the flow of information
o time:- During a scene that is focused on
a good character….; After changing the
two fractions into twelfths and then
twenty-fourths….; When adding heat
energy to a chemical reaction ….
o place: In a physical change, materials
may change colour
o means: By using eco-tourism and
raising awareness about the reef’s
protection…..;
o comparison: In contrast to the lengthy
ship and mast ……;
o cause: Due to mining..; Because we had
some difficulties….; Because of this….
o contingency: (concession) Even though
this is true….; If I was a peasant;
o angle:- As a modern day person reading
about Viking raiders ….;
Refer to Appendix 4 section on citing
sources
Language
Level
Level 13 – 14
Discussion
Activities
Explanation: confidently constructs longer,
more detailed causal, factorial and
consequential explanations with effective use
of paragraphing; begins to compose
theoretical explanations using models and
diagrams.
Model and jointly construct texts which use a full range of
alternative sentence starters to organise the thematic links
within the text
eg The primary argument for an increase is …; One of the
features of …; The most significant feature of …; The first
step to determining …
Across the
stages of
schooling
equivalent to
the end of year Response/Review/Source Analysis:
10
synthesises information from multiple sources
to create own interpretation and insight;
makes reference to and draws comparisons
with other relevant texts; analyses accuracy of
interpretations, identifies bias and prejudice
and offers alternative readings to a text
It is important at this level to encourage
writers to reflect on the organisation of their
text and the thematic flow of ideas. At this
level delicate choices are needed that reflect
audience and purpose. Either of two
statements (clauses): Children must be
protected; We don’t want a nanny state, could
be the independent clause when using a
conjunction of concession – Although. The
conceding dependent clause is foregrounded
so that the independent clause concludes the
statement with impact. To an audience of
parents the sentence would be Although we
don’t want a nanny state, children must be
protected. To an audience of civil libertarians
the sentence would be Although children must
be protected, we don’t want a nanny state.
Expansion
Also refer to the Circumstances Teaching Strategies
Model and jointly construct a wider range of more complex
foregrounded phrases and clauses:o time: As your awareness widens; During the
experimental process
o place: Against this background
o means: By following The Law of Conservation of
Energy;
o cause: Because of the law of conservation of energy
o contingency: Without the inspiring leaders of the
World Cup campaign, such as …; Despite the fact that
there is a lot of information……..
Model and jointly construct a wider range of foregrounded
abstractions:- The evidence shown in both these examples…
Foreground abstractions in reference to people: Cathy
Freeman’s aspirations….
Model and jointly construct a range of reference items
strategically to compact and carry forward previously
mentioned ideas: The language used in this chapter …; A
particularly apt example …; Such word usage …;
We followed this procedure with every piece ….. where ‘this
procedure’ refers back to 7 steps outlined in the previous
sentences; These differences….. referring back to the
previous paragraphs.
Teacher can create her own model
texts to highlight structure and
organisation; thematic progression
(coherence); and cohesion through
reference and substitution.
Appendix 1
Argument: Linking EVIDENCE to REASONS (thematic patterns)
Suggestion: Teachers print the ‘Argument’ template below in A3 size for students to use with the following page of text which has been cut into boxes.
1.1
1. Smoking is really bad for the person’s
health. It can make them very, very sick.
1.2
1.3
Introductory paragraph
Young people should not
smoke.
2.1
2. Smoking can badly affect people who
are not smoking.
2.2
2.3
3.1
3. Smoking creates a huge cost to the
Australian government and to all
Australian people.
3.2
3.3
Conclusion [last
paragraph]
Smoking is not only
unwise it is really
dangerous. Young people
should NEVER smoke.
Teachers - Print the ‘Argument’ outline above in A3 size. Students cut each of the following pieces of evidence and sort them according to which ‘reasons’
they support. They copy them onto the grid OR stick them onto the grid. This activity builds an understanding of the structure of ‘Argument’ and the notion
of including evidence and/or elaboration in each paragraph to make each reason more persuasive. Sentence are:-
In a year, children of parents who smoke are likely to inhale
about the same amount of nicotine as if they were actively
smoking 60 to 150 cigarettes in that year.
Employees who smoke are costing Australian companies &
businesses millions of dollars per year, as smoke breaks and
days absent due to illness lead to decreased worker
productivity.
The more time people spend in close company with smokers, the
more they are exposed to environmental tobacco smoke. In 1998,
128 people died of passive smoking and another 1,968 were
hospitalised. Frequent exposure to environmental tobacco
smoke in homes and other enclosed public places, hotels,
sporting fields and in
some working environments is really
dangerous.
Even before it is born, a developing baby can be affected by
environmental tobacco smoke if the mother smokes. Many
harmful substances can reach an unborn baby through its
mother’s bloodstream Exposure of unborn children to
tobacco smoke can increase the risk of miscarriage, low birth
weight and sudden infant mortality.
The major tobacco-related diseases common in smokers are
cancer, heart disease and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.
In one year, $7million of federal government money was spent
on ‘Quit’ smoking campaigns and even more money was added
by each state government.
The annual cost of smoking to the government health system in
Australia is about $1.84billion a year, to treat smoking-related
illness.
The amount of life expectancy lost for each pack of cigarettes
smoked is 28 minutes, and the years of life expectancy a
typical smoker loses is 25 years over a lifetime.
Smoking and smoke related disease in Australia, is killing 50
Australians daily, 350 each week, and around 19,000 every
year.
Appendix 2
Student Text
People write lots of different texts and they
are structured differently and they use
different language. The language the writer
decides to use depends on audience and
purpose. Information texts, advertising
posters and a personal letter are types of texts
that are very different.
Analysis of student text.
Improved Text
All texts, particularly written texts, follow
predictable patterns of structure and language
use. The language patterns and language
choices made by writers of texts are
determined by the purpose of the text, eg to
persuade, entertain, instruct, inform etc and
who the text is for, in other words the
audience. Text types such as a personal letter,
an advertising brochure and an information
pamphlet are written for different people and
for different purposes. Consequently the
language patterns and choices in these texts
show considerable variance.
Analysis of improved text.
Commentary
Student foregrounds people and
the pronoun ‘they’. The verbs are
mainly action verbs.
Commentary
In this text the topic ‘written texts’
is foregrounded. Two metaphorical
relational verbs are used ‘follow’
and ‘show’ and also ‘is’. The other
two verbs are in passive voice.
In the improved text the theme patterns are more complex and more passive voice verb form and metaphorical relational verbs are used.
Appendix 3 This resource is relevant to examining text structure for secondary students. It is in big enough font to
allow cutting up for use. Only the first three paragraphs have highlighted topic sentences. This allows the teacher to
elicit answers from the students about the topic sentences in the other paragraphs. The labels are to help the
students in pairs to think about the organisation of the text and thus its thematic progression.
How to write a good Research/Investigation Report
Research and Investigation are part of senior studies in any school. Sometimes
students are given questions to investigate; sometimes they devise their own
question, statement or hypothesis. They then need to collect information, analyse,
evaluate and select relevant and appropriate information to write their report
indicating clearly the sources of their information.
To begin with the student needs to understand the given question. Is it asking for a
discussion of current ideas around the given topic? Is it asking for an explanation
of a phenomena or situation? Is it asking for a report of the issues or problems,
and strategies to address the problems? Understanding the demands of the
question is essential to collecting the right information and framing the written
report.
Collecting information from the Internet, books, newspapers or magazines
requires careful note taking. Rather than cutting and pasting web material the
student should have a word document open and type in key words and phrases
making sure the website URL and other ‘author’ details are also recorded on the
document. Recording the date the website was accessed is also important. Similarly
when note taking from books and other print material the student needs to record
author and date of publication followed by the relevant pages and succinct notes.
By trying to write notes in their own words students paraphrase the author’s
comments and so are not accused of copying.
When at least five relevant resources (experts’ ideas) have been studied students
can group the ideas. Typing up a list of points and viewing them in ‘outline’ allows
the learner to move and group ideas into appropriate paragraphs. It is then easy
to see which points might be general statements and which group of ideas still
need a topic sentence to be written.
The ‘outline’ view should be printed because it gives a good basis for the
investigation outline. Teachers usually expect an outline of students’ investigations
and will ask to see one before a student begins a research/investigation report
especially if the report is expected to be over 800 words.
When writing the report it is important to have an introductory paragraph that
clearly indicates to the writer what the text is about. The research/investigation
question may be included or the question may be put into one or two sentences
stating the nature of the research. The introduction may include definitions of
issues, situations or behaviours. It may also have a preview statement about
arguments in the following text.
In the body of the report each part of the argument or issue will have its own
paragraph with a general topic sentence. The following sentences will give more
specific details. They will expand the idea, or extend the idea with closely related
points and or give examples.
The ideas that are presented in the body of the report text have to be those
sourced from the ‘experts’ or relevant people interviewed. This is where in text
referencing is important. Rather than quoting word for word what they ‘experts’
have said students can paraphrase the information prefacing it with words such as
‘According to Smith….’, Smith concludes that…..,’ ‘Smith predicts that …’, and
‘Smith argues that…’. Yet another way of referencing the writing is to use the
Harvard in text referencing in brackets like this (Jones 2004 p65). It is also
important to remember that any imported graphic, graphs or illustration also be
properly referenced.
Finally ‘Research Reports’ can sometimes be written as essays but more often than
not they are structured with subheadings. Subheadings need to be in smaller print
than the report heading but in bigger print than the body of the text. They should
be left justified and can be underlined or in a different font. A contents page at
the beginning of the report is helpful and a bibliography (list of books and
resources) must be included at the end of the report text. A research report of
2000 plus words may require an abstract of 100 to 200 words to be written on a
front page. An evaluation of the research process and the student’s opinions may
also be required and these are included at the end of the report.
In conclusion Investigation and research are an essential part of students’ learning
in senior school. They offer a chance for students to direct their own learning
through personal interests that might not otherwise be covered in the school
curriculum.
Introduction
Structuring the report
Beginning the research
Summing up
Writing the Report
Appendix 4
Reading to
Learn (R2L)
project
Oratory
rhetoric
Primary and
Secondary
Sources
Discussion
The Reading to Learn (R2L) project has an important point to make about leading learners into text deconstruction and reconstruction.
In the third generation of Accelerated Literacy (ie R2L) a text is deconstructed by looking at the focus (topic, purpose)
and then identity (author and audience). To deconstruct a text the context is first examined. Then text paragraphs are
examined, followed by sentences, word groups, words, syllables and finally letter patterns. The approach confirms the
whole text inwards to deconstruction and reconstruction. 20 to 25% of lesson time is devoted to this type of work on
texts. The students use a single slash between word groups and a double slash between clauses. There is Lexis
deconstruction by linking members of grammatical categories such as nouns in hyponymy relationship. Knowing the
context of the text gives an understanding of audience and purpose.
This approach contributes to understanding about cohesion and coherence of a text.
Another point to make about cohesion and coherence is the use of oratory rhetoric which leads an audience on a journey. A memorable
recent speech is Obama’s victory speech where he used the tri-parallelism of ‘yes we can’ to such effect that the audience, so engaged,
began to reiterate his potent phrase. Kevin Rudd also grounded his exposition – ‘Sorry’ speech in narrative and parallelism.
Citing Primary and Secondary Sources
Besides grammatical reference there is another aspect of reference which is referencing to primary and secondary source materials. In
the levels this is covered in Expressing opinion directly and indirectly. Students express their own opinions directly up to Language level
9. In language Level 10 students are expected to reference to others eg Research shows that…; Some parents think that….
Although not a grammatical feature of texts, correct referencing supports thematic development. Students need to be taught how to
quote from experts and to reference indirectly and directly with the Harvard System of in-text referencing. However when texts clearly
carry the opinions and views of others relevant questions help students to understand whose views are being represented by the author.
Here are some suggestions for supporting students to interrogate ownership of views and beliefs in a text.
Line X: who is concerned?
Line XX: what has been suggested?
Line XXX: who said?
Line XXXX: according to whom?
Line XXXXX: who has asked?
Line XXXXXX : who claims? etc
NEXT RESOURCE FOLLOWS
Simple, Compound, Complex Sentences and lexically dense Simple Sentences
This resource is to support teachers who have set goals and targets, around sentence structure for their students’ texts using the Teaching and Learning Goals and Language and
Literacy Levels Targets proforma. This proforma is in the Language and Literacy Levels: Recording and Tracking for Learning document.
Developing and improving sentence structure in student writing is supported by explaining to learners the function of different parts of the sentence. The meta language
of clause, compound sentence, complex sentence, linking conjunction, binding conjunction, coordinating clause, subordinating clause, relative clause, non-finite clause,
and lexically dense clause need to be introduced to learners gradually as they become appropriate. See Teaching Strategy resource on Text organisation, foregrounding
and reference for ideas to build sentences into continuous text.
Examples are taken from Language and Literacy levels across the Australian Curriculum: EALD Students – Grammar Knowledge (Sentence Structures)
Language
Discussion
Activities
Expansion
Level
Level 1 – 4
Begin early by identifying with students the participants,
By Level 4 learners are able to processes and circumstances that make up a simple sentence.
complete simple sentences
Do this with the picture books and accompanying sentences.
Across the
with a circumstance of
Have students colour the given sentences in the appropriate
stages of
 place
way: Red for Participants (who); Green for Processes (Verbs)
schooling
 accompaniment
and Blue for Circumstances. Circumstances refer to what is
equivalent
 time.
going on ie the action (verb) in the sentence.
to end of
Reception
eg The three billy goats gruff were very hungry. They wanted to This example offers some challenges so it is
Students need to be able to
important to start with a more straightforward text.
eat the green grass across the river. But an ugly monster lived
identify the different parts of
In this text the quality of being hungry is acting as a
sentences as early as possible. under the bridge.
participant. This can be understood if the quality is
Circumstance of place is under the bridge.
added to the noun group eg The three very hungry
NB ‘But’ is used here as a cohesive conjunction not as a conjunction
billy goats gruff…
to join two clauses.
Punctuation
At this level emphasise the use
of Capital letters at the
beginning of sentences and
full stops at the end.
Develop with the students a poster headed Circumstances of
place using place prepositions and list common examples eg
on the table; under the desk; in the cupboard; beside the chair;
at my friend’s house
The green grass is followed by a qualifier across the
river which at first looks like a circumstance.
However it is giving more information about the
grass not about the action of eating.
Develop with the students a poster headed Circumstances of
accompaniment using the preposition with and list common
examples eg with mummy and daddy; with my dog; with class
3G; with the Principal; with all the children under eight years old
There is a verbal group in this short text: wanted to
eat. In such groups the first verb (process) modifies
the second verb. Only the first verb is made finite by
time and person. The second verb in the group stays
in its infinitive form: wanted to eat.
Language
Level
Level 1 – 4
Discussion
Activities
Develop with the students a poster headed Circumstances of
time using at; on; (during is a higher Language Level) and list
common examples eg
at 3 ‘o’ clock; on the weekend; on Sunday; (during the holidays);
Cont’d
Across the
stages of
schooling
equivalent
to end of
Reception
These activities about developing posters are also suggested in
the Using adverbs, adverbial phrases and prepositional
phrases to express circumstances resource.
Children can begin to use the
linking conjunction ‘and’.
However they often use this
with run on sentences: I went
to the show and I got on a ride
and I had an ice cream.
So, introduce them to other
linking conjunctions: but; so.
Punctuation
Continue emphasising the use
of Capital letters at the
beginning of sentences and
full stops at the end. Model
capital letters for names.
Expansion
Refer to using adverbs, adverbial phrases and
prepositional phrases to express circumstances Teaching
Strategies in this document
Circumstance of place.
The little boy took his new toy out of the box.
Circumstance of accompaniment
The little boy walked along with his new toy
Circumstance of time
The little boy received his new toy on Saturday.
Teach compound sentences
Children are given relevant/appropriate simple sentences (clauses) on large strips of card and
separate cards with the word ‘and’ (the activity can be repeated with ‘but’ and ‘so’).
eg
I am going to the show
and
my sister is coming too.
It is 1 pm
and
I am eating my lunch.
I went on holiday
and
I went in the pool.
Examples can also be taken from current story books or from simple procedures eg Sit down
and take out your books.
I am going to the show
but
my sister can’t go.
I want to go on another ride
but
I don’t have any money.
I don’t have any money
so
I am going to borrow some.
I’m going to get some money so
I’m looking for my friend.
Begin modelling complex sentences using the binding conjunction ‘because’.
We will not go outside today because
it is raining.
We will go swimming
because
it is hot
When talking children will often use ‘because’ to answer questions in incomplete sentences eg
Why were you late for class? Because he had my ball. Teach and model full sentences for
writing: I was late because Sam had my ball.
Expand the teaching of complex sentences with a similar activity, as the one above, using
clauses on cards and separate binding conjunction cards.
Look for causal
relationships in
stories and simple
explanations.
Teach and model the
sentence
construction to show
these relationships.
Language
Level
Level 5 – 7
Across the
stages of
schooling
equivalent to
end of Year 3
Discussion
It is important that children build
simple sentences using noun groups
and adverbs, adverbial phrases and
prepositional phrases to express
circumstance, so review the teaching
strategies resources for these
language items.
Punctuation
If learners understand capital letters
at the beginning of sentences and full
stops at the end, introduce commas in
lists of more than two items. Also
introduce the use of a comma after a
dependent clause when that clause is
foregrounded ie when dependent
clause comes first in the sentence.
Only the very basic of non-finite
clauses are used at these levels and
they are not foregrounded.
Depending on the age of students
draw their attention to shifts in
language to make texts more ‘schoollike’.
Activities
Expansion
Complex sentences
Continue the teaching activities that highlight the use of
binding conjunctions because; if; when; after;
Select complex sentences from a teaching text;
Write the individual clauses on cards;
make separate binding conjunction cards;
ask students to make up sentences and write them into
their books.
Teach and model the use of commas when the
dependent clause is foregrounded.
eg When a volcano erupts, it spits out rock, gas and
liquid called lava.
Commas:
the first comma shows the pause after the
dependent clause; the second comma is used in a list.
Draw learners attention to simple non-finite clauses in
information reports:
The bilby has big ears// to hear.
in science or maths investigations:
We used column charts// to compare our data .
One test for checking to see if an infinitive verb
(ie to + verb ) is being used in a non-finite clause
is to put the words ‘in order’ before it. If this
makes sense then the verb is the beginning of a
non-finite clause.
eg He strained // (in order) to listen.
He practiced // (in order) to improve his skills.
He climbed up // (in order) to get a better view.
However if using mental/thinking verbs,
eg He wanted to listen to the concert, the first
verb is modulating the second in the verbal
group.
Non-finite clauses are also formed using the
present participle of a verb eg
Thinking about my parents’ predicament, I
decided to investigate residential aged care.
Feeling cold and lonely, I headed north to my
home and the sun.
Language
Level
Level 8 – 10
Across the
stages of
schooling
equivalent to
end of year 6.
Discussion
Students continue to use binding
conjunction: because(cause); and
binding conjunctions of time: after;
while; when; until; as;
NB ‘During’ is a preposition and is
followed by a participant (noun).
See prepositional phrases in
Circumstance resource.
‘While’ is a conjunction and is
followed by a clause.
Activities
Complex sentences:
Build learners’ understanding of time conjunctions in
Historical Narratives and Recounts. Teach the difference
between while which requires a verb following and is
therefore part of a dependent clause and during which
refers to a noun or period of time and is therefore a
preposition and part of a circumstance.
Complex sentence with Dependent clause: While the
performance was going on, thieves broke into the props
room. But is a simple sentence with Time circumstance:
During the performance thieves broke into the props room.
Select sentences relevant to the topic and learning area and
model sentences. Point out the small reduction in the
number of words when using a time circumstance instead of
a clause. This is useful for précis and texts requiring a
restricted number of words.
Students are able to understand
clauses that concede a fact or
possible context using binding
conjunctions such as Although; Even
if; Even though;
Punctuation: continue use of comma
after dependent/subordinate clause
in theme position ie foregrounded.
It is important for students to be
able to change their spoken
language into written language to
write an academic essay.
Concession conjunctions:
Although I’d really like a holiday, I need to save my money.
Even if he apologises, I’m not inviting him to my party.
Even though it is raining, I‘m not taking my umbrella.
Expansion
Give students a simple clause on a piece of
card eg THE PERFORMANCE CONTINUED
and smaller cards each with one subordinate
conjunction eg
WHEN the ringmaster returned.
ALTHOUGH there were just six people in
the audience.
BECAUSE the trapeze artist was not
seriously hurt
AFTER everyone returned to their seats.
Ask students to complete the sentence/clause
following the subordinate conjunction.
Make this activity relevant to the topic
learning.
Show learners how to develop the participants in their texts
with relative pronouns creating relative clauses:
Captain James Cook who was born in Whitby Yorkshire ……
There was a federal convention in Sydney where they drew
up a draft constitution.
For further development of Complex
sentences refer to Appendix 2 for joining two
sentences with a relative pronoun. (see level
13 to 14 for interrupting clauses)
Focus students’ attention on shift in register as a result of
using more technical verbs and nouns; more abstraction
through nominalisation and more objectivity by removing
human participants. See other Teaching Strategies resources
for these language items.
PUNCTUATION
Introduce quotation marks for direct speech.
She said, “I’d like to go home please”.
He famously said, “I have a dream”.
Language
Level
Level 11 – 12
Across the
stages of
schooling
equivalent to
end of year 8.
Discussion
Continue to focus students’ attention
on the shift in language/text register
through increasing technicality,
abstraction and objectivity. Written
language typically has fewer verbs in it
and actions are expressed as concepts,
ideas and processes (not verbs) which
are often foregrounded. For these
things nouns/nominalisations are used
and often the noun groups have other
description words that could also be
actions in spoken language.
Activities
Use a text such as this one from AusAid Water
Resource management page.
http://aid.dfat.gov.au/aidissues/water/Pages/home.aspx
Create a table that has in the left hand column many
of the noun groups taken from the web page text.
Leave a blank column on the right and jointly
construct with students the active language that
develops understanding of the noun
group/nominalisation.
The UN has estimated that by 2025, 1.8 billion
people will be living in countries with absolute water
poverty and two thirds of the world’s population
eg “…the managed conservation
could be under water stress. As the driest inhabited
practices.”
continent on earth, Australia has decades of
managed is a verb that has become a
experience in managing water for scarcity and
describer in the noun group;
conservation is a nominalisation that is countries in our region are keen to access our
expertise and technology in water management.
now a classifier;
Improving water resource management is essential
practices is the head noun.
to provide adequate water for drinking and
sanitation, for agriculture, industry and for
electricity generation as well as for protecting the
environment and reducing water related disasters.
Improved management of water for irrigation and
domestic use can reduce labour inputs and increase
productivity, particularly for women.
Binding conjunctions of concession
continue to be used including
while/whilst at these Language Levels.
Expansion
eg:
Noun group
countries with
absolute water
poverty –
Australia has
decades of
experience in
managing water for
scarcity –
Improved
management of
water for irrigation
and domestic use
can -
How we say it.
countries that have no
access to any purified
water supply. They may
rely on rivers and rainfall.
Australia has managed its
limited supply of water for
many many years so has
lots of experience.
if water is managed well
for watering the soil and
for using in the home,
then….
Verbs are becoming simplified and relational. One
non-finite verb is used. Protecting and reducing
could be considered at gerunds (verb- present
participle, acting as a noun).
Language
Discussion
Level
Level 13 – 14 Students begin to build lexically
dense simple sentences.
Across the
stages of
schooling
equivalent to
end of year 10.
Activities
Using the coloured highlighting create your own
sentences and show students how sentences are
grammatically simple:
The rescued performing dogs gave a magnificent
performance.
Expansion/explanations
Refer to Appendix 3 for further nominalisations in
Science
The extraordinary performance of the dogs captivated
everyone.
The continued exploitation of performing animals for
human entertainment is evidence of a debased society.
Although grammatically simple these three sentences
are lexically dense. Gave and captivated which can be
action verbs are used metaphorically here to describe a
relationship between the participants.
Non-finite clauses of greater
complexity are used
Subordinate non-finite clause:
Using his voice gently, the ringmaster controlled the
animals’ movements.
To get the best performance from the dogs, the
ringmaster had some tasty treats in his pocket.
Punctuation
At this level consolidate the use of
a comma for an interrupting
clause.
Interrupting clauses:
The performing dogs, who had been rescued from the
pound, gave a magnificent performance.
Here the interrupting clause gives some extra
information but is not needed to identify the dogs.
The extraordinary performance of the dogs who’d been
rescued from the pound, outshone the other animals.
Here the commas indicate a pause in the voice when
the sentence is read.
Here the clause is embedded as a post qualifier of
the noun group and identifies the particular dogs.
There is no pause in the voice as indicated by the
contraction.
Appendix 1
Texts showing the shift in theme and foregrounding using passive voice and nominalisation.
In a traditional community a number of people who are related paint together. It is more
important for the people to paint together than for them to finish the painting. When they
act together or paint together they regenerate the natural world. People cooperate and
produce a painting that all can see and this holds the society together. (Active Voice)
In a traditional community an art work is painted by a number of people who are related. It
is more important for the painting to be done than for the painting to be finished. Acting
together the natural world is regenerated and a painting is produced. The society is held
together by this community activity. (Passive Voice)
In a traditional community a painting is the work of a number of people who are related in
a specific kinship way. The act of painting is more important than the final product since it
is through the act that there is regeneration of the natural world. The essential cooperation
needed between kin to produce visual art creates a subtle cohesion within the society.
(Nominalised)
Text deconstruction
Verbs
are related; paint; is; to paint; to finish; act; paint; regenerate; cooperate;
produce; can see; holds.
Nouns
a traditional community; a number of people; it; the people; them; the
painting; they; they; the natural world; people; a painting; all (people); this.
NB. The subject nouns are underlined. The text is in active voice. The active
subjects are ‘People’. They do all the actions.
There are lots of verbs, and thus clauses so we can say this text is
grammatically complex. Most of the verbs are action verbs.
Verbs
is painted; are related; is; to be done; to be finished; is regenerated; is
produced; is held; ‘Acting together’ is a non-finite clause
Nouns
an art work; a number of people; it; the painting; the painting; the natural
world; a painting; the society; this community activity
NB. the objects in the previous text have become the subjects
NB. Traditional community is part of circumstance clause – same in each text.
Passive voice is used - The subjects are having ‘actions’ done to them. The
subjects are:- ‘An art work’; ‘The painting’; ‘The natural world’; ‘A painting’;
‘The society’
Verbs
is; are related; is; is; is; creates; (‘needed’ part of the noun group and ‘to
produce’ non-finite clause)
Nouns
a painting; the work of a number of people; a specific kinship way; the act of
painting; the final product; the act; regeneration of the natural world; the
essential cooperation needed between kin; a subtle cohesion within society
The verbs in this text are simple/every-day and the first and third sentences
are simple sentences so we can say that the text is grammatically simple.
Nominalisation:- However the nouns are much more complex and some of
them are formed from the verbs in the first text eg regeneration;
cooperation. This text is lexically complex and lexically dense.
Appendix 2:
RELATIVE PRONOUNS:- Sentences that can be paired are written on cards. Students then join the sentences using the correct relative pronoun. This creates complex
sentences with dependent relative clauses. Refer to both ‘Sentence Structure’ resource and Foregrounding (cohesion and coherence) resource in this document.
Students identify the
NB ‘whom’ is used when the relative clause has a subject eg Could the person whom I spoke to yesterday please come forward. Although this is correct
English, it is very formal and the more common linking word used is ‘that’. Although ‘that’ is a demonstrative it can be used like a pronoun.
WHO
WHICH
Sentence
WHOSE
WHERE
Relative pronoun acting as
conjunction
Sentence
THAT
At the wood mill, the wood is ground into a pulp.
WHICH
The pulp is then treated with steam and chemicals.
The MTV Award was presented to Taylor Swift.
WHOSE
Her response was humorous.
My sister sold her car to her friend.
The solution was removed from the fridge.
I like the new house.
I met my new neighbour.
WHO
WHERE
WHICH/THAT
WHO
She lives across the road.
It had been there for 90 minutes.
It is on the corner.
She is called Harriet.
Appendix 3
Discussion – creating lexically dense texts by nominalising
science concepts.
What does this mean? Understanding the scientific
concepts of inquiry
Science teachers create and engage in a scientific world view
through the language of concepts and ideas. To apprentice
students into this world, questions that give them access to the
actions of science must be asked.
Once these actions are experienced and understood the
teacher can hang the language of scientific concepts and ideas
(nominalisations) onto students’ current understanding.
This gives the students the language to discuss ideas and so
partake in the powerful rhetoric of social and scientific decision
making.
What questions can we ask?
(this is
Meticulous Sustained Inquiry
How can we test that?
(this is
Experimental Observation
What do these results mean? Can we graph them?
Nominalisation
Detailed Analysis and Evaluation
(this is what we do
What does this mean for other similar situations? Can we
make any predictions? How should we act/ continue?
(this is what we do when we ask these questions
NEXT RESOURCE FOLLOWS
Rigorous, Informed and strategic debate
Using Verbs and Verb Groups or Phrases
This resource is to support teachers who have set goals and targets, around verbs and verb groups and verb tense for their students’ texts using the Teaching and
Learning Goals and Language and Literacy Levels Targets proforma. This proforma is in the Language and Literacy Levels: Recording and Tracking for Learning
document.
Not all languages use, define and qualify processes (verbs) in the same way as English. Giving learners a metalanguage to talk about the processes (actions, relatings,
sensings and sayings) going on in sentences enables them better reflect on their language choices.
Examples are taken from Language and Literacy levels across the Australian Curriculum: EALD Students – Grammar Knowledge (Words and word groups –verbs and
verb groups/phrases)
Language
Discussion
Activities
Expansion
Level
Level 1 – 4
In an activity lesson eg skipping, jumping, model for students
At this stage children express
Model active language in present and past
actions thoughts and sayings using the language of the actions eg “What are we doing?” “We are tense whenever possible eg We are playing….
skipping; We are jumping”. On returning to the classroom ask We played……
ACTIVE voice in the following
Across the stages
the students “What did we do when we were outside?” Model
tenses (time)
of schooling
for the students the past tense “we jumped; we skipped”.
Present continuous tense
equivalent to
end of Reception Simple present(timeless present)
Direct students’ attention to the change of words to indicate
Simple past tense
time (from present continuous to simple past tense).
Simple future tense
Most stories are written in past tense. Read a short story in
Story example: The fox chased chickens.
the past tense, twice if necessary using the visuals. Tell
The fox is chasing the chickens/ The foxes are
When asking questions highlight
students you are going to repeat the story as if it is happening chasing the chickens. (Note the change when
that the verb is in the Interrogative
right now. Ask them to listen carefully and to see if they can
subject is plural - subject verb agreement)
mood and show how it is used in
tell you what is different eg Are there different words? Help
The fox chases the chickens. (This is simple
the Declarative answer.
students to focus on the shift in time by asking questions eg
present)
“How would we say that if the fox was doing that NOW?”
Using timeless present tense in preparation for information
reports ask questions eg “Do all foxes chase chickens?”
Find a suitable point in a story and ask “What do you think will
happen next?” The students may respond with the present
tense but this is the opportunity to model the future tense
using ‘will’. eg “The fox catches a chicken.” “Yes. I think the fox
will catch a chicken.”
“Yes all foxes chase chickens.” (This is using the
simple present tense as timeless present)
Language
Level
Level 1 – 4
Cont’d
Discussion
Develop students’ vocabulary
(refer to Teaching Strategies
Resource: Vocabulary) by creating
Across the stages
various collections of verbs on
of schooling
charts.
equivalent to
end of Reception
Activities
Build an understanding of time and how it is expressed in
English by creating a chart with three columns Yesterday,
Today, Tomorrow and writing the equivalent verb forms that
have been learnt eg chased; is chasing (chases); will chase.
Encourage children to write using the examples that have
been collected on the chart.
Read a children’s story to students and identify, ask for or give
other verbs for saying process. See Appendix 1.
Create a chart of saying processes relevant to Level 1 -4 for
the classroom.
Expansion
Model active language in present and past
tense whenever possible, particularly with
irregular verbs eg We are swimming; Yesterday
we swam.
Use pictures which correspond to activity.
Teach and model other verbs of movement: eg walk, run,
crawl, jump, skip, hop, fly, slide, leap; and relate to the
movement of animals. Introduce more complex words such as
waddle, slither as relevant. Create a chart of relevant
movement verbs for display in the classroom.
Verbal groups using modality and
negative: can, can’t; don’t,
doesn’t;
Introduce ‘can’ to show ability: eg when doing measurement
and student’s heights, do an activity where the students have
to reach to a point on the wall. Measure the differing
distances and create each individual student’s sentence: I can
reach up to 120cm. Repeat activity using negative. I can’t
reach up to 130cm.
Verbal groups (multi-word groups)
using mental processes: I like to
play; I want to go; or behavioural
processes: I tried to help.
Teach multi-word groups:Fold and cut A4 sheets of paper to create a mini writing book
for students. Put ‘I like to….’ on at least half of the pages and
support the students to write what they like to do, using
modelling and the charts you have created.
Repeat with the verb ‘to try’. Ask students “What
games/sports/things have you tried to do?”
Encourage students to say what they can do: I
can swim; I can skip; I can run etc.
I like to play with…; I like to jump…; I like to
eat…; I like to swim on hot days etc.
This is an introduction to expressing opinion
and persuasive writing.
I tried to swim; I tried to skip; I tried to run etc.
Also check for subject/verb agreement when
using do/does and when using auxiliaries (is,
are) in present continuous.
Language
Level
Level 5 – 7
Discussion
Activities
There is a need to continue focus on
control of simple past tense forms
Across the stages
particularly for verbs that are more
of schooling
technical and precise in meaning and
equivalent to
year 1 to 3 of
for irregular past tenses.
schooling
At this stage older students can begin
to categorise verbs into: doing;
saying; sensing; relating
Choose a Learning Area text and categorise the verbs into
doing; saying; sensing and relating.
Elaborated tenses (ie using auxiliary)
Past continuous – was running
Present perfect –I’ve seen …; I
have eaten;
Verbal groups using modality and
negative: eg wasn’t; was not; didn’t;
did not; might; should; shouldn’t;
would; wouldn’t.
Use short movie clips pausing at regular intervals to ask
and record “What is he/she doing?” “What is happening?”
eg Mr Bean DVDs or sequences in Learning Areas eg
science - seed germination; Aboriginal Studies – canoe
making.
Verbal groups with multi-word verbal
groups, using mental verbs in other
tense forms: I want to go; I wanted
to go to the circus.
And using verbs in multi-word verbal
groups to indicate time/sequence: It
starts to bubble; It started to bubble.
Teach conditional: would; wouldn’t in response to “If”
questions
eg What would happen if:
we put the seed upside down?
all the insects in the world died?
Harry Potter lost his glasses?
NB. Language learners in this Level
attempt to use a basic non-finite
clause eg I went to the shop // to buy
some lunch. Refer to resource on
sentence building.
Highlight text to show single word verbs; elaborated verbs
and other verb groups. Ensure you sometimes use texts
with negatives and modality.
Expansion
Examples of elaborated verbs:
The fox was chasing the chickens.
The foxes have chased the chickens.
Use Cloze activity to fill in missing verbs. This can be done
using given list of more technical and precise verbs.
Teach obligation: should; shouldn’t; must; mustn’t
through safety issues: Safety on the road, at the beach, in
the science lab.
In Maths discuss mathematical problems using multi-word
verbal groups eg want to do; want to find.
“What were we doing in Maths today?” “What did we
want to do in maths today?”
“We were trying to find the area of a triangle”. “We
wanted to find the area of a triangle.” See extension in
Levels 8 – 10.
In all activities check for subject verb
agreement.
Language
Level
Level 5 – 7
Cont’d
Discussion
Activities
Expansion
In Science focus on technical verbs that explain scientific
processes eg evaporate; heat; measure; pour;
Across the stages
of schooling
equivalent to
year 1 to 3 of
schooling
May use modality of Obligation: eg
“must” eg “We must see the
penguins.” “We mustn’t forget to pick
up Sam.”
[Phrasal verb (to pick up) in a multiword verbal group (to forget to …)
with negative and modality (mustn’t)]
May use PASSIVE voice when
modelled. “He got hit” Teacher
models “He was hit”.
Begin to introduce more technical and precise verbs
eg
‘to allow’ instead of ‘to let’
‘to prevent’ instead of ‘to stop’
‘consists of’ instead of ‘is made up of…’
Use multi-word verbal groups that support sequencing
eg
starts to bubble…..;
begins to turn….;
continue to add….;
continues to glow…..;
check to see that……;
A Phrasal verb consists of a verb plus a
preposition. The addition of a preposition
shifts the meaning of the verb
eg to back up means to support;
to follow through means to complete (or take
to the next stage).
Highlight Phrasal verbs as appropriate.
Language
Level
Level 8 – 10
Discussion
Elaborated tenses
Future conditional - following
Across the stages
dependent clauses with binding
of schooling
conjunctions eg if we do not have
equivalent to
fresh water, we would not survive.
year 4 to 6 of
Past perfect: They had settled in the
schooling
outback
Present perfect continuous: They
have been going to school for five
years.
Past perfected continuous: They had
been going to school.
Future continuous: They will be
going to school.
NB Future conditional tense: This
tense uses modal auxiliary “would”
and two clauses one beginning with
“If” and one beginning with
“then”.eg “If we move, then he
would go to a new school”. Another
conditional verb form is “if we were
to move, then he would go to
another school”
Passive voice needs to be highly
scaffolded at Levels 8 and 9
Activities
Expansion
Provide a text which contains both simple past and past
perfect verbs. Work through the verbs with students,
questioning why there are single word verbs and why
some have two words. Explore with students the time
relationship of events.
Repeat with other texts that include a variety of
elaborated tenses including future tense.
NB Draw students’ attention to the need to
change auxiliary verb depending on singular or
plural (was/were).
To teach past perfect, provide students with sentences
from a recount or other past tense texts such as
One student was crying.
Ask “Why was he crying?”
Model the answer “Because he had fallen over”
The science seedlings were dead. We had forgotten to
water them. (past perfect multi word verb)
Create and model with students a Learning Area
procedural text eg making a kite; solving a maths problem.
Then highlight the command verbs and work with students
to change verbs to past tense enabling the writing of a
personal recount.
Begin to teach Passive Voice: After an excursion discuss
and model responses to questions eg “What were you
allowed to do? Were you allowed to buy an ice-cream;
Were you allowed to wear T-shirts? Were you allowed to
wear sandals? Where you allowed to play volleyball?
Instruction for a task such as Appendix 2
Read the following procedure about making
compost. Re-write this text as a personal
recount: that is, write a recount of yourself
making this compost. Remember to change all
the command verbs to past tense.
See first and second column of Appendix 2
Discuss with students the different audience
and purpose for procedures and recounts.
Language
Level
Level 8 – 10
Cont’d
Across the stages
of schooling
equivalent to
year 4 to 6 of
schooling
Discussion
At these Levels passive voice is used
when foregrounding different
theme/participant.
Activities
Explain that when writing in most Learning Areas, self is
not important. The focus is on the objects/ideas and the
actions. This is achieved by using passive voice. Highlight
verbs in past tense and work with students to change verbs
to passive voice enabling the writing of a procedural
recount.
Expansion
See second and third column of Appendix 2
Model the shift to passive voice when the actor participant
is known eg: The teacher bought our tickets the day before.
These were used to enter the zoo - instead of ‘We used the
tickets to enter the zoo’.
Verbal groups with multi-word verbal
groups, using mental verbs in other
tense forms: I was supposed to go; I
decided to go to the circus; He wanted
to spread the word.
Verbal groups using modality of
obligation: eg. ought
In Maths discuss mathematical problems using the
language of maths that uses non-finite clauses as well as
multi-word groups eg “To find the area of………” “We
wanted to find……….” And then following a maths activity
ask students to share/report orally on what they did to
solve the problem. The problem must be foregrounded
with a non-finite or verbal group. This is then followed up
with their written report.
NB multi-word groups in Maths (wanted to find) are
introduced in this resource in Levels 5 – 7. The increasing
technicality is found in the second word of the multi-word
verbal group at this Level. eg wanted to calculate
Continue substitution of more technical and precise verbs
eg
‘to initiate’ instead of ‘to begin’
‘to resemble’ instead of ‘to look like’
‘to till’ instead of ‘to dig over’.
Verbal groups using passive voice - elaborated
tenses.
Passive voice – Past perfect
Why did Chinese men come to Australia in the
1850s?
Because gold had been found in Victoria.
Why had the Orang-utan been brought to the
sanctuary?
Because her habitat had been destroyed.
Model obligation where appropriate.
Language
Discussion
Level
Level 11 – 12
Action, saying and thinking verbs become
Across the
more precise and nuances of meaning are
made through ‘delicate’ choices
Across the stages
of schooling
equivalent to
year 7 to 8 of
schooling
At higher Language Levels the more
academic language is achieved through
nominalisation and use of passive voice.
Level 13 – 14
Continue to achieve the more academic
language through nominalisation and use
Across the stages
of passive voice. In addition nouns/
of schooling
nominalisations representing concepts,
equivalent to
year 9 to 10 of
values, ideas and beliefs are juxtaposed
schooling
using relational verbs.
Since academic language levels require
nominalisation and simple but lexically
dense sentences use a variety of relational
verbs as in Appendix 3.
Activities
Begin to use other relational verbs from Appendix 3
Expansion
Students demonstrate better subject-verb
agreement but may make occasional errors
with more complex agreement. eg:
 after “there” where verb needs to agree
with a longer noun group that follows –
There has (sic – have) been several
dangerous events over the past years.
 noun groups with qualifiers: All of the
weapons that the Spanish used was (sic –
were) made of iron; their water for crops
are (sic – is) becoming polluted.
At this Level students demonstrate control of
subject-verb agreement and errors are only in
more complex agreements: when there is
confusion as to which noun should be agreed
with eg
The number of assaults have increased over
time.
The above agrees with ‘assaults’ when it
should agree with ‘number’ and read: The
number of assaults has increased over time.
Appendix 1 - adapted from Success for Boys. Catholic Education.
There are many substitutes for the verb ‘to say’. Verbs in narratives help to create a picture for the audience. Here are some substitutes for ‘said’; some are metaphors like ‘barked’;
some verbs are shifting from ‘saying’ processes to mental processes eg assumed, some are shifting to behavioural-like processes eg grinned, jeered, moaned and whimpered. You can
add your own examples.
accused
acknowledged
added
admitted
advised
agreed
announced
answered
apologized
approved
argued
asked
assumed
babbled
barked
began
begged
bellowed
blurted
boasted
boomed
bragged
cackled
challenged
chattered
cheered
chuckled
claimed
comforted
commanded
commented
complained
concluded
confessed
confided
continued
contradicted
cried
croaked
elaborated
emphasized
exaggerated
exclaimed
explained
exploded
decided
declared
defended
demanded
denied
described
determined
directed
discussed
hesitated
hinted
hissed
faltered
fumed
greeted
grinned
groaned
growled
grumbled
grunted
guessed
informed
inquired
insisted
instructed
insulted
jeered
lamented
laughed
lied
quarreled
questioned
quibbled
marveled
mentioned
moaned
mumbled
murmured
mused
muttered
raged
recalled
recommended
refused
replied
reported
retorted
responded
nagged
objected
observed
offered
ordered
panted
persisted
persuaded
pestered
pleaded
praised
predicted
proclaimed
promised
proposed
protested
screamed
screeched
shouted
shrieked
teased
thanked
uttered
ventured
whimpered
whined
whispered
Appendix 2 –This shows the change in verb form from Imperative in a procedure to past tense in a personal recount text and to passive voice in a procedural recount.
How to make Compost (How to do)
How I made Compost (How I did)
How Compost is made (How it was done)
Making compost and using it in the garden is a great way to
improve the soil. Good compost helps the plants and
vegetables to grow better and also helps to keep moisture
in the soil for longer.
Making compost and using it in the garden is a great way to
improve the soil. Good compost helps the plants and
vegetables to grow better and also helps to keep moisture
in the soil for longer.
Making compost and using it in the garden is a great way to
improve the soil. Good compost helps the plants and
vegetables to grow better and also helps to keep moisture
in the soil for longer.
To make compost
 Collect some animal manure such as chicken manure
or horse manure from local stables
 Clear a patch of ground in your garden away from the
house
 Build bricks to make three walls of a bay in which to
place kitchen scraps and lawn cuttings
 Put down a first layer of newspaper as this will help to
stop weeds coming up through the compost
 Make a second layer of animal manure
 Add the kitchen scraps
 Next add the lawn cuttings
 Repeat the layers using shredded paper in place of the
newspaper.
 When all the available materials have been used add a
little bit of soil to the top of the compost heap so that
fruit rats are not attracted to the vegetables
 Water the top of the heap gently for 15 minutes
 The heap will reduce in size quite rapidly over the next
week, then you can continue to add layers of mulched
weeds, lawn cuttings and vegetable scraps from the
kitchen
 After a few weeks dig over the compost heap with a
garden fork so that air can get into the rotting
material.
 This is a good time to clear a second patch of ground
next to the first bay and to build a second bay for the
turned compost
 After three months sift the oldest compost and put it
on the garden.
I collected some animal manure such as chicken manure or
horse manure from the local stables and then I cleared a
patch of ground in our/my garden away from the house. I
built bricks to make three walls of a bay in which I placed
kitchen scraps and lawn cuttings.
Some animal manure such as chicken manure or horse
manure was collected from the local stables and then a
patch of ground in the garden away from the house was
cleared. Bricks were built to make three walls of a bay into
which kitchen scraps and lawn cuttings were placed.
I put down a first layer of newspaper as this helps to stop
weeds coming up through the compost and then I made a
second layer of animal manure. After that I added the
kitchen scraps. Next I added the lawn cuttings. I repeated
the layers using shredded paper in place of the newspaper.
An initial layer of newspaper was put down to help stop
weeds coming up through the compost and then a second
layer of animal manure was added. After kitchen scraps
and lawn cuttings were added. The layers were repeated
using shredded paper in place of the newspaper.
When all the available materials had been used I added a
little bit of soil to the top of the compost heap so that fruit
rats were not attracted to the vegetables. I watered the top
of the heap gently for 15 minutes.
When all the available materials had been used, a little bit
of soil was put onto the top of the compost heap so that
fruit rats were not attracted to the vegetables. The top of
the heap was gently watered for 15 minutes.
The heap reduced in size quite rapidly over the next week,
then I continued to add layers of mulched weeds, lawn
cuttings and vegetable scraps from the kitchen. After a few
weeks I dug over the compost heap with a garden fork so
that air could get / gets into the rotting material.
This was a good time for me to clear a second patch of
ground next to the first bay and to build a second bay for
the turned compost.
The heap reduced in size quite rapidly over the next week,
then layers of mulched weeds, lawn cuttings and vegetable
scraps from the kitchen were continually added. After a few
weeks the compost heap was dug over with a garden fork
so that air could get into the rotting material.
This was a good time to clear a second patch of ground next
to the first bay and to build a second bay for the turned
compost
After three months I sifted the oldest compost and I put it
on the garden.
After three months the oldest compost was sifted and was
put on the garden.
Appendix 3
Common Relational verbs are ‘to be’ (is, are, was, were) and ‘to have’ (has, have, had). There are many substitutes for ‘to be’. These substitutes and metaphors are
grouped under relevant headings and are listed from low language level to higher language level.
form is changed
composition
naming
context is changed
interpretation
cause and effect
other metaphors
becomes
makes
grows into
develops
develops into
forms
produces
results in
shapes
contributes to
increases
decreases
resembles
ensues from
is made up of
is composed of
contains
consists of
includes
possesses
comprises
is called
is known as
is referred to
causes
results in
leads to
brings about
produces
allows
creates
gives rise to
sparks
fosters
initiates
inaugurates
generates
engenders
means
signifies
reflects
represents
mirrors
symbolises
causes
results in
shows
reveals
indicates
gave a wonderful
performance
form is modified
appearance
essential to
substitutes
equals
expansion
makes
resembles
affects
influences
inspires
renders
manifests
are realised (passive
voice)
seems to be
appears to be
needs
depends on
requires
represents
is the same as
equals
expresses
exemplifies
discloses
NEXT RESOURCE FOLLOWS
captivated the
audience
shows up as an
anomaly in our data
Developing Sentences using adverbs, adverb groups and phrases, prepositional phrases to express circumstances
This resource is to support teachers who have set goals and targets, around Circumstance development, for their students’ texts using the Teaching and Learning Goals and Language
and Literacy Levels Targets proforma. This proforma is in the Language and Literacy Levels: Recording and Tracking for Learning document.
Questions are a great way to interrogate a young person’s thinking around the context of an action, a thought/ idea, or a process (often as a gerund or nominalisation eg
shopping, entertaining, filtration, productivity, analysis, activism). Circumstances of time, place, accompaniment and some of manner are generally well understood.
Students can be challenged to use circumstances of cause, matter, role, angle and contingency according to the developing examples in the Language and Literacy
levels across the Australian Curriculum: EALD Students – Grammar Knowledge (Word groups)
Language
Level
Level 1 – 4
Discussion
This is generally the oral stage of
language development and a learner’s
Across the stages understanding of context/
of schooling
circumstance is developed with
equivalent to the
questions.
end of
Prepositional phrases are used for
Reception.
Place - Where did it happen?
and
Time - When did it happen?
A prepositional phrase beginning with
‘on’ is used with a named day or the
weekend; a prepositional phrase
beginning with ‘in’ will give
information about
 the period of the day (eg in the
morning/afternoon)
 the week or month (in the first
week; in May)
 the period identified (eg in the
holidays; in the first weeks of school)
 NB ‘at’ is used for other periods such
as: at night; at daybreak; at dawn;
at sunset; and also for times of the
clock).
Activities
Place:
Ask questions: Where is your bag? Where is the cat in the
picture? Where did it happen?
Teach the prepositional phrases of Place that begin with:
on (the couch); in (the basket); under (the chair); inside
(the cupboard); above (the door); outside (the room);
beside/next to (the TV); below (the picture), using the
following activity
Whole class or individual activity: Have a large picture (of
a room, a farmyard scene, or a shopping precinct) that
shows the position of numerous objects. Have cards with
circumstance of Place (as above) written and ask the
learners to come and place an appropriate card on the
picture in response to the questions of place.
Whole class or individual activity: Ask one student to go
outside of the room and place a toy in a specific position.
Model the circumstance of Place with the remaining
students eg The truck is on the shelf. Invite the student
back into the classroom and ask them to find the toy and
give the correct information. Correct answer leads to
student hiding the object for the next student. Prompting
may be needed to get the correct answer.
Expansion
Sample questions and answers
Place
Where is your bag? - under the chair; on the
table; outside the room.
Where did you go on the weekend? - I went to
the Circus.
Where was the circus? - in the Park.
In the picture, where is the woman with the
dog?
“outside the chemist”; “inside the barn”; “on
the tractor”
Reinforce this with “Who is on the tractor?”
and model the written response “The woman
with the dog is on the tractor.”
Give some students cards which show an
object in a position (eg a cat on a chair, a shoe
under a table, etc) Create a game where other
students have to ask questions about the
‘place’ of an object using “Where is…” or
“Where are ….”.
Language
Level
Level 1 – 4
Discussion
Across the stages
of schooling this is
equivalent to the
end of Reception.
Accompaniment - Who did
you go with? (Don’t worry
about ‘dangling’ prepositions.
With whom did you go? might
be grammatically correct but
no one speaks like this now
days).
Activities
Expansion
Time: Teacher uses the daily school routine to create questions,
Ask questions: When do we go to library? Use timetable plan to
elicit answer.
Teach the prepositional phrases of Time that begin with: on
(Saturday); in (the morning, the next week; the holidays, August); at
(night) etc.
Time
When did you go to the circus?
When did you go to your grandma’s?
When will you go on holiday?
Give some students cards which show
time. Create a game where other students
ask questions about time eg What time is
it? What time do you have? What does
your clock/watch say?
Accompaniment :
Ask questions: Who did you go to the circus with?
Model the answers: “I went with my sister”
Model how to write the sentences using prepositional phrases. Ask
students to copy sentences in their books and then to underline the
prepositional phrases.
Use simple cloze procedure texts requiring students to fill in missing
words of circumstance of Place, Time and Accompaniment.
Alternatively have this on an interactive board. Ask students come
to the board and ‘drag’ a preposition/prepositional phrase to the
space.
Develop with the students a poster headed Circumstances of place
using place prepositions and list common examples eg
on the table; under the desk; in the cupboard; beside the chair; at
my friend’s house; etc
Develop with the students a poster headed Circumstances of
accompaniment using the preposition with and list common
examples eg
with mummy and daddy; with my dog; with class 3G; with the
Principal; with all the children under eight years old; etc
Develop with the students a poster headed Circumstances of time
using at; on; (during is a higher Language Level) and list common
examples eg
at 3 ‘o’ clock; on the weekend; on Sunday; (during the holidays); etc
Accompaniment
Model the other form of questioning to
elicit the information eg Who went with
you?
Then model the full answers.
I went …with my sister; …with my dog, …on
my own.
Engage students in asking and answering
questions about time, place and
accompaniment.
Investigate free APPs that provide this
activity.
Language
Level
Level 5 – 7
Across the stages
of schooling this
is equivalent to
the end of Year 3
Discussion
It is important to teach
circumstances in context of
the focus genre and topic
matter.
Time circumstances can be
indicted without prepositions
when using defined periods
(eg today, yesterday,
tomorrow; next week; next
month; last holidays; every
two years)
At this Language Level
learners can talk about the
quality of how something
happens or can describe the
means by which something
happens.’ Means’ and
‘Quality’ are subsets of
circumstance of Manner.
Adverbs are used for
describing the quality of how
something is done.
Activities
Teach and model - Time circumstances with defined periods (see
words in discussion column).
Today we will go to lunch together.
(Time)
(Accompaniment)
Tomorrow you will go to lunch on your own.
(Time)
(Accompaniment)
Teach - Time circumstances using a Clock and the preposition ‘at’.
What time will we go to lunch?
We will go to lunch at 12.30pm.
Show how the circumstance can move according to what is the focus
or theme – ie at the beginning as theme, or at the end of the
sentence.
At 12.30pm we will go to lunch.
Demonstrate how circumstances of Quality can be used to describe
attributes that each class member has eg
Sophie dances gracefully;
Mohammed paints beautifully;
Jason cleverly works out his sums.
Notice how we can foreground the adverb when we want it to reflect
more on the subject than the action. This shifts the meaning slightly.
Introduce and model sentences with circumstance of means by asking
questions such as “How does the nurse get your temperature?” With
a thermometer; How does the cricket make that sound? With its
wings.
Introduce, model sentences with circumstance of cause.
eg for Diwali; for assembly
Activity: students match sentence parts to full sentences eg
We learned a new song \ for assembly.
We had a big party \ for Diwali
Expansion
Time
What are we doing today?
Today we are going to the circus.
What did we do yesterday?
Yesterday we went to the beach.
Every two years we go on a school camp.
What did you do in the holidays?
In the holidays, I went to see my
grandmother (The holidays are
foregrounded).
I went to see my grandmother in the
holidays (The subject ‘I’ is foregrounded).
Quality
How does your car go?
My car goes really fast. NB ‘really’ is an
intensifier like ‘very’.
How does Sally sing?
She sings beautifully.
I can fix that toy easily
Means
How did you come to school?
I came by bus; by bike.
Continue to engage students in question
and answer around circumstances.
Repeat this activity in Levels 8 to 10 by
using the circumstance as marked theme
ie as a sentence starter.
eg For assembly \we learnt a new song.
For breakfast \ I ate eggs.
Language
Level
Level 8 – 10
Across the stages
of schooling this is
equivalent to the
end of year 6
Discussion
Activities
It is important to teach
circumstances in context of the
focus genre and topic matter.
Teach - Time circumstances using higher level prepositions: during;
after (NB. ‘after’ is also used as a binding conjunction and in prepositional
At this Language Level students
use a greater range of
circumstances of Time and
Manner and place them
variously in sentences for effect
and thematic progression.
Teach the prepositional phrases of Time that begin with: during the
holidays/ the following term/Easter; after the holidays/ term
3/Easter;
Again show the shift in thematic foregrounding in sentences
relevant to the topic or subject learning area.
Model procedures where it is imperative to foreground the
circumstance of Manner eg Carefully remove the crucible; Slowly sift
in the flour;
Additional circumstances that
students should use in their
writing at this Level are:
Cause(reason) – because of; as
a result of; for a reason or
purpose
phrases)
Teach and model causal relationships using both dependent clauses
and Cause circumstances. Here are some examples:in History when modelling how to record the information about
causal relationships write a sentence using
a) a causal process (verb)
“The famine caused migration to the cities” (‘Famine’ is the
idea/issue but what was the cause?)
b) a dependent (causal) clause foregrounded
“Because the people were starving//they moved to the cities”
c) with the dependent clause changed to a circumstance phrase
“Because of the famine, people migrated to the cities.”
Cause (reason)continued In History / Literature
“The wealthy colonial nabobs moved to the cooler hill stations for
the monsoon.”
“The bungalow was refurbished for the new Governor and his family”
Continue modelling circumstances of Means.
In Science highlight circumstances such as - with a thermometer….;
with the tongs…; with a prepared solution…;
In History highlight circumstances such as - through these
discoveries, new lands were…;
Expansion
What did you do during the holidays?
During the holidays I went to see my
grandmother.
I went to see my grandmother during the
holidays.
Quality
Foreground other examples relevant to
subject area and topic.
or
“Migration to the cities was the result of
famine.”
“As a result of famine, people migrated to
the cities”
(note use of nominalisation: famine;
migration)
Means
How are you going to fix that broken toy?
I am going to fix it with some glue.
Language
Level
Level 8 – 10
continued
Discussion
Manner is articulated as
Quality, Means and
Comparison by Halliday.
Across the stages Terms that describe
of schooling this is
direction or relationship to
equivalent to the
space do not fit into these
end of year 6
three categories of manner.
Circumstances of
Comparison comes in at
Level 9
Activities
Teach – ‘Organisational’ Manner
The bee moves diagonally across the surface.
(NB across the surface is a circumstance of place)
You must come up with a solution in your teams.
Teach by modelling
Comparison - in Social Studies eg
Children like these are more likely to …;
The men behaved like overgrown babies.
Matter - in Literature eg
This part of the narrative about the impact on her life of the
events in her early teens, …
Matter and Role are at Level
10
Role – in History eg
As a young woman in early 20th century Russia, she was …….
Expansion
Horizontally; diagonally - Clearly these are manner
but to separate these words from quality, means
or comparison we can say they are circumstances
that give a spatial relationship to the physical
environment or to other people.
He danced in circles. The manner of his dancing is
relational to the space in which the dancer
performed. It does NOT mean He danced within a
circle (circumstance of Place)
However
‘He danced in a circle’ could be about place or
about spatial relationship. The sentence has to be
examined in context of the paragraph.
We worked in teams.(could be means or manner)
We discussed the project in relevant groups. (could
be means or manner)
The bees ran diagonally across the hive surface in a
wiggly manner. Here there are three
circumstances:- the first is organisation (spatial
relationship to the environment), the last is quality
with the middle circumstance being of place.
Language
Level
Level 11 – 12
Discussion
It is important to teach
Across the stages circumstances in context of
of schooling this is the focus genre and topic
equivalent to the
matter.
end of Year 8
Activities
Teach - Means that are of a higher level and relevant to the
topic or Learning Area eg
By careful interrogation the school counsellor was able to
establish the order of events;
Her attention to detail is shown through both her appearance
and her personality;
The ancient statue was surrounded by walls made of stone.
Expansion
Further examples:
Means The dog communicates through barks and
yelps;
Comparison: in contrast to the tall ship and mast, .
Cause: because of the pollution of the water; due
to lack of fresh clean water; for extra protection
against waves and sea spray, she wore …
Greater extension of Role,
Angle and Contingency
become valuable when
developing exposition
writing. Through the use of
these circumstance phrases
students are able to show
greater insight into the
actions of the actors/
provocateurs within the
argument.
Teach Role, Angle, Contingency:
Teach Contingency (condition) in a procedure: With the isolating valve shut, remove the ….;
Role: as a world heritage site ….; as a teacher at
the School….; as a modern day writer
As the driest inhabited continent on earth, Australia
has …
Challenge and Interrogate students thinking when reading
listening and writing texts by asking questions such as “Whose
view is this”; “What role does this person/group have in this
issue”; “What conditions were/will be (or won’t be) in place
for this to happen”; “What would happen if….?”; “What
wouldn’t happen if …….?”
Angle: from their point of view…; in their
position…;
Contingency: condition - with more tourists;
without tourists; without touching the magnet ….
see further categories of Contingency in Level 13-14
Language Level
Discussion
Level 13 – 14
It is important to teach
circumstances in context of
Across the stages the focus genre and topic
of schooling this is matter.
equivalent to the
end of Year 10
Further extension of Role,
Angle and Contingency
At this level of written
language students are
expected to present views
and arguments that explore
possibilities. Thus the
circumstances which give
context are linguistically
much more challenging.
Students are expected to
describe ideas and situations
that exist ‘despite other
circumstances’ ‘in spite of
other circumstances. This is
called Contingency of
concession. Closely related is
Contingency of condition.
This states what could
happen with or without a
particular circumstance
Activities
Role – As a dispossessed young women with a disability her struggle was
almost insurmountable.
Further focus on Contingency using the same type of questions.
Interrogate and challenge students ideas when modelling texts and/or when
conferencing their writing by asking “What conditions were/will be (or won’t
be) in place for this to happen”; “What would happen if….?”; “What wouldn’t
happen if …….?”
Have students write down the answers to these questions.
eg In Issues Analysis, when speaking to students about an issue such as
exploitation of garment out-workers, ask
“What conditions would make this situation better for the women?”
List ideas. Use each idea to model circumstance of contingency (condition) eg
They need to have:- shorter working hours; better light; better equipment;
comfortable chairs; regular breaks; increase in pay; fair bosses etc.
Then model sentences with circumstance of contingency: condition eg “With
better work conditions such as shorter working hours, the women would be
healthier”
NB make comparison by using a conditional clause eg “If there was better
lighting // the women would be healthier.” This is more spoken-like.
Also model concession “Despite the difficult conditions, the women….”
Repeat questions to investigate cause: eg
“Why do young women get trapped in this industry?”
Possible student answer, “Because they are poor and desperate for income
for their families; because they are unskilled.”
Ask “what noun/s can you make from the adjective ‘poor’ and ‘desperate’?”
Then model for students the circumstances of cause: Due to poverty and
desperation; Because of poverty and desperation; due to lack of skills/job
opportunities.
NEXT RESOURCE FOLLOWS
Expansion and other examples
from the Levels
Comparison: like a leaf falls off a
tree in the middle of autumn; as
opposed to the more commonly
used term.
Cause: for his efforts in promoting
the sport; because of their
personalities and where and how
they were brought up; for
guidance; out of fear and hunger …
Role: as small gas particles; as
prisoners of war of the Japanese;
under the banner of Australia
Angle: According to my results; in
the eyes of Australians …
Contingency: Concession - Despite
the bad weather, the boats set out
from the harbor; Despite the urging
of the event organisers, the circus
management cancelled / didn’t
cancel the performance.
Contingency: Condition – Without
the deteriorating weather, the
circus would not have been
cancelled; With some urging on the
part of the organisers, the
performers decided to continue.
Developing Nouns and Noun Groups
This resource is to support teachers who have set goals and targets, around Noun and Noun Group for their students’ texts using the Teaching and Learning Goals and
Language and Literacy Levels Targets proforma. This proforma is in the Language and Literacy Levels: Recording and Tracking for Learning document.
Students recognise and use nouns that represent people, places, things and ideas in the learning area and expand nouns to achieve greater precision. They can be
challenged to use nouns and noun groups according to the developing examples in the Language and Literacy Levels across the Australian Curriculum: EALD Students –
Grammar Knowledge (Word groups).
Language
Discussion
Activities and examples
Expansion
Level
Level 1 – 4
This is generally the
Introduce words about a topic eg. Birds:
Use big books, picture books concrete and visual resources. Ask students to
oral stage of language
wings, beak, feathers, nest etc. include
name given/nominated items. Explain/clarify what it is and what it is used for.
development and a
numbers eg. two (long legs), few, some,
Model the correct name and pronunciation of words and explain meaning if
Across the
learner’s
many.
necessary.
stages of
understanding of
Explain the meaning of the word ‘noun’ as ‘the thing’.
schooling
context is developed
Whole class, small group or individual activity: use pictures of people, places
equivalent to
with questions.
Use such sentences/phrases as ideas for
and feelings/emotions, everyday objects, have a large picture (of a room, a
the end of
an art activity. Some Senior student
farmyard scene, or a shopping precinct) that has lots of objects. Students name
reception
examples from an art class are:- one
as many objects as they can. Teacher has students repeat words that are new.
disgustingly wild, fat, hairy cat with red
.
Building Noun Groups
eyes and sharp claws outside my house;
Information is usually
Introduce and Explain the purpose of describing word and Use describing words
The community’s very big chlorine pool
given by students in
including size, shape and colour to build noun groups about topic words eg. big
next to the school; A couple of green
one word or short
pointed yellow beak; small shiny black feathers. Construct the sentence as
nocturnal owls hiding in the tree among
phrases using
follows to show the describing words:
the leaves; These six quite loud year 2
everyday nouns. The
a beak
students with big mouths.
students may also use a big beak
Focus on vocabulary connected with the
objects, visuals and
a big yellow beak
Learning Area / theme eg. The Beach:
gestures
a big pointed yellow beak
sand, sun, water, waves, lifesavers, rock
The bird had a big pointed yellow beak.
pools, shells, seagulls, etc
Introduce articles: ‘the’, ‘a’, ‘an’ and have students match with nouns.
List all new words on display posters to
highlight high frequency words and
Teach addition of ‘s’ and ‘es’ to regular plural form of nouns. Focus on irregular
technical vocabulary. Use pictures and
plural forms as they arise.
diagrams to support vocabulary
extension.
Language
Level
Discussion
Activities and examples
Introduce singular and plural pronouns eg. ‘it’, ‘they’ to substitute for nouns.
Level 1 – 4
Cont’d
Across the
stages of
schooling
equivalent to
the end of
reception.
Nominalisations do not
appear until Level 6 but
students may use
common examples such
as ‘activity’ or ‘free
time’
Use Appendix 1 ( modified for your students) to teach the correct order of
describers ie number, size, colour, shape, sound
Whole class, small group or individual activity: Students choose a picture and name
the item and how it is used if applicable. They then can choose two cards eg. an
astronaut and a house. Students make a short sentence about the two pictures eg.
“The astronaut lives in a house”. Ask for some words which describe and give more
information about the noun groups ‘the house’ and ‘the astronaut’. The noun
groups can be quirky/humorous/impossible. The aim is to encourage oral skills and
the use of new vocabulary in noun groups eg The big green astronaut lives in a small
mud house.
Use cloze exercises to fill in missing nouns as words and/or pictures (assist as
necessary).
Whole class, small group or individual activity: Have a collection of pictures, ask
students to group them in to similar categories.
Ask questions: “Why did you group them like that?” This might introduce the idea of
classification and hyponymy.
Ask questions: “Who can think of some words that tell us more about the object?”
Encourage noun group words: pointers eg a flower, the donkey, my bag; numbers eg
2 leaves, 4 legs; classifiers eg chocolate milk, birthday card.
Refer to Noun Group chart. See Appendix 2.
Whole class or individual activity: introduce labelling and reinforce in context with
certain genre eg. information report
Ask questions: “What is this part called?”
Model the answers: eg “This is called the wing”. Then write the sentences on a
whiteboard. Have the noun groups eg the wing, the feet, the eye, the beak, on cards
and ask a student to find and match a card to the noun group on the board.
Expansion
Remember to highlight to students
the importance of subject-verb
agreement: eg. I am…We are…
A car needs…Cars need…
A fun activity is to use a Snap cards
game with matching noun and
picture.
Write words of a sentence on cards
or small whiteboards and students
place in order. Consider reading
level of the students. Cater for
differentiation.
Language
Level
Level 5 – 7
Across the
stages of
schooling
equivalent to
the end of
year 3
Discussion
It is important to teach nouns,
noun groups and
nominalisations in context of
the focus genre and topic
matter whenever possible.
At this Level learners are
constructing noun groups using
a narrow range of vocabulary to
add some detail to descriptions.
These include possessive
pronouns, numeratives,
describers (what’s it like?),
classifiers (what type?) and
qualifiers (tell me more). Refer
to the Language and Literacy
Levels for more information.
Activities and examples
Expansion
Focus on correct order of adjectives refer to Appendix 1 and include
commas as appropriate.
Use noun group table Appendix 2.to deconstruct noun groups in a
given text eg a Narrative, Information Report. Teacher models some
of the deconstruction, students fill in noun group table.
Develop further understanding by constructing sentences and
reinforcing word order in noun groups.
Use cloze exercises and have students fill in missing nouns and or
describers.
In an Information Report on fish, focus on nouns as key words in
texts. Students can highlight nouns. Are these nouns generic eg.
‘fish’ or are they words that name specific fish eg. ‘snapper’. This is a
development of hyponymy.
Teach classifiers: define what they are and their purpose. Ask
questions eg Are there any words that give us more information
about the type of thing/noun? Guide students to pick out classifiers.
Whole class, small group or individual activity: Teacher to select
nouns eg animals. What words can we put in front to make groups
of animals? eg. farm animals; native animals; wild animals;
Australian animals; hairy-nosed wombat; eastern, grey kangaroo etc.
Use cloze exercises as a paired activity: have describers and
classifiers on a separate sheet or on the bottom of the page. Pairs of
students build the noun groups
Teach qualifiers using prepositional phrases: ie using prepositions.
Emphasise that they come after the noun and explain that they add
more information to further define the head noun.
Whole class activity: use noun groups that they have already
constructed in earlier lessons. Revise what the head noun is. Ask
what other word/s could be added after the noun to give more
information about the noun. eg “The big, black dog in the back yard
barked loudly.”
‘dog’ is the head noun and ‘in the back yard’ is the qualifier.
NB Intensifiers are only included in noun
groups because they modify the describer.
When reading texts identify the nouns and
ask students if there are describing words
in front of the nouns that give more
information about that noun.
Triangular poems:
cats
big cats
big fluffy cats
big fluffy grey cats
To develop qualifiers further:Give noun groups on a worksheet and ask
students to add a qualifier. eg
The beautifully iced birthday cake …….. (on
the table)
A bright sunny day ……. (at the beach)
The antique school hand-bell ……. (in the
principal’s office)
Support students by suggesting that what
they need to add after the head noun
starts with a preposition eg in, on, under
Language
Level
Level 5 – 7
cont’d
Across the
stages of
schooling
equivalent to
the end of
year 3
Discussion
Activities and examples
Introduce the concept of nominalisations as appropriate to topic.
Make a list of common suffixes (eg ment, ivity, ence, tion), and show
how nominalisations are formed and what their purpose is.
Use a non-fiction text, for example an information report about
volcanoes, to show how nominalisations are used and the effect they
have on the text.
eg the verb ‘erupt’ is changed to the nominalised form ‘eruption’:When volcanoes erupt lava runs down the side.
The violent volcanic eruption results in a dangerous flow of lava.
This shows the use of a higher order relational verb (results in) and
packing of information into the two participant noun groups: violent
volcanic eruption; dangerous flow of lava.
Whole class or partner activity for students needing development in
this Language Level band, focus on one common ending such as tion.
Students can look for words with this ending in dictionaries; nonfiction texts etc and list them.
Discuss the meaning of the words found and how they would be used
in sentences. Talk about how they change from being a verb (or
adjective) to a noun.
Expansion
Language
Level
Level 8 – 10
Across the stages
of schooling
equivalent to the
end of Year 6
Discussion
Activities and examples
It is important to teach
nouns, noun groups and
nominalisations in context
of the focus genre and
topic matter.
Teach the value of using nouns which are more specific in nature. They
clearly define what students are writing about.
Focus on noun groups in texts. Refer to Appendix 1 and 2.
Explore how the noun groups add meaning to the text and what purpose
they serve.
Remove the words in the noun groups except the head noun. Compare with
the original text paragraph. How are the two texts different? Which text
gives you a better ‘mental picture’ of the noun participant?
Extended noun groups add
description to build a
character and a setting in
Narratives. Information
Reports also contain
extended noun groups
which typically contain
classifiers. Extended noun
groups in Recounts add
detail.
Discuss how the noun groups in Narratives can
 create a character
 set the scene
 build suspense
Activity: find noun groups in different genres. How similar are they? How
different are they and why?
Revise qualifiers and explain that they add more information after the head
noun. They can be made by using prepositional phrases or relative clauses:
Adding a post qualifier to a
noun adds/compacts more
information into the noun
group.
Teach relative pronouns (eg who, where) and relative clauses as qualifiers:
eg ‘Captain James Cook who was born in Whitby Yorkshire ……’; ‘The federal
convention in Sydney where they drew up a draft constitution …………’
Whole class activity: distribute a worksheet with noun groups and
additional information and another with the relative pronouns.
Students rewrite noun groups using the relative pronouns to form qualifiers.
Refer to Appendix 3 as an example.
Expansion
Provide students a selection of
words (nouns, pointers, describers,
classifiers etc) Ask students to use
them to make sentences to create
an atmosphere, to build a character
or to create a setting.
Distribute pictures of people, places
or a scene – ask students to write
sentences that include noun groups
based on the details in the pictures.
Visualisation: A type of ‘dictogloss’
based on using visualisation and
memory:Read a poem, a description or an
excerpt from an appropriate text;
Encourage careful listening to
enable students to create mental
Model the use of longer prepositional phrases eg at the bottom of the pile as images of what they are hearing.
In pairs students then describe in
qualifiers by first identifying the preposition (at) and then noting that the
written form the images they have
rest of the phrase (the bottom of the pile) is another noun group and
therefore can be built up in the same way as any other noun group:- eg the imagined.
last sock at the very bottom of the great big pile of dirty socks
Language
Level
Level 8 – 10
Cont’d
Across the stages
of schooling
equivalent to the
end of Year 6
Discussion
How do I know if a word is a
nominalisation?
Can my, a, the, be put in front of
the word? Are the words abstract
not concrete/physical?
eg my respect; the cooperation; a
definition; her courage.
Nominalisations are concepts,
ideas, beliefs, processes etc.
Activities and examples
Expansion
Introduce nominalisations as appropriate and in context.
Teach how they are formed and why. Students to
complete worksheet changing given words into
nominalised form.
Make a list of suffixes (eg ment, ivity, ence, tion).
Direct students to walk around the classroom and school
and make a list of the nominalisations they find eg
pollution, environment (from topics being taught)
Reception, administration.
Look for nominalisations in texts.
Distribute sentences. Ask students to nominalise given
words. Rewrite the sentences.
Give students selected texts from a range of genre both
fiction and non-fiction. Look for nominalisations and
complete the table.
Look for nominalisations in advertisements on trucks,
work vans and billboards eg excellence, expertise
List them and discuss why they have been used.
Genre
Information
report
Explanation
Narrative
Persuasive
text
Historical
Recount
Nominalisation
What is the
meaning
Language
Discussion
Level
Level 11 – 12 It is important to teach nouns,
noun groups and
nominalisations in context of
the focus genre and topic
matter.
Across the
stages of
schooling
equivalent to
the end of year
8.
Nouns and noun groups are
used to express shades of
meaning and more specialised
knowledge.
Students begin to use more
complex noun groups built
around a nominalisation using
precise and technical
vocabulary.
Activities and examples
Expansion
Use modelled texts to focus on the noun groups and
nominalisations. What technical vocabulary is used? Introduce
specific vocabulary relevant to new topics. Talk about why it is
important to the text to help achieve its purpose and what
specific meaning it brings to the text.
Clarify the information by looking at:
classifiers eg. domestic animals, chemical reaction, primary
industry, and
qualifiers eg sand dunes which have been eroded; business
practices that have reduced the number of workers.
Develop understanding of the purpose and benefits of using
nominalisations
 ability to include a lot of information in less words
 moving a focus of the text from concrete to abstract
concepts eg
I feel happy
My happiness
Water dries up
Dehydration occurs when ……..
 naming a complex phenomenon or process eg filtration;
dehydration; evaporation; photosynthesis; logging.
 being able to show the relationship between things eg
eruption and the flow of lava ie the eruption resulted in
the flow of lava
 convey a particular image of a product eg as in made up
words such as schweppervessence
For older learners refer to EALD Teaching and
Learning under first tab DTLA cycle
http://www.decd.sa.gov.au/literacy/pages/esl
Ask students to de-nominalise words within a sentence,
paragraph or short text. Discuss how this changes the tenor of
the text. For more examples refer to
Year 9 Explanation:
Appendix D: (work sheet 2 – moving lexically
dense to more spoken-like)
Appendix F (worksheet 3 moving from spoken
to written language)
Language
Level
Level 13 – 14
Discussion
It is important to teach nouns,
noun groups and
Across the stages nominalisations in context of the
of schooling
focus genre and topic matter.
equivalent to the
end of Year 10.
At this level of written language
students are expected to
compose texts which are more
academic and formal showing a
definite move to the right hand
side of the register continuum
Nominalisations also hide the
actor and action ie what is
actually happening.
eg “collateral damage” .
We know what this means but it
is implied or inferred.
Activities and examples
Expansion
Use a variety of genre and texts from different subject
areas including scientific or medical articles. Look for:
 complex and expanded noun groups with
nominalisations
eg the industrial construction process
 multiple classifiers and qualifiers that carry a lot of
information before and after the head noun
eg the continual mass destruction (of the world’s
forests).
 nominalisations that express
o cause eg impact, outcome
o thinking and saying verbs eg debate, notion
o abstraction and technicality eg evidence,
approach
Nominalise a sentence or paragraph.
De-nominalise a text on the same topic. Compare
both texts. When and why would you use one or
the other text? How does it change the tenor of
the text? What affect could/would it have on the
intended purpose of the text or a particular
audience?
Activity: look at examples of
 critical book and film reviews,
 applications for grants, for permission to do
something ,
 advertisements,
 political statements.
Engage students in critical literacy, focussing on use of
nominalisations. How effectively are the messages
conveyed? (Refer to Evaluative language resource in this
document for further critical literacy focus ideas)
Would the messages be different without the nominalised
words? How easy is it to read the text? How easy is it to
understand the text and its message?
Refer to example of two texts in the next column.
Texts with a lot of nominalisation may appear to
be challenging (eg dense, difficult to read) when:
• noun groups are complex
• “actors” are removed
• abstract concepts are used
• metaphorical relating verbs are used (e.g.
contains, comprises, indicates). See Verbs
resource in this document.
The taking of evasive measures resulting in the
avoidance of predatory actions by the offending
party was a result of the meeting of the
previously mentioned little pigs and their
awareness of the premeditation of the wolf in
terms of harmful deceptions and his cleverness in
the execution of his criminal intentions.
The little pigs evaded the attempt of the sneaky
wolf to kill them because they had met before
and knew that he planned to deceive and to kill
them.
NB overuse of nominalisation should be avoided.
Appendix 1: Adjectives - Word Order
An adjective can be a describer or a classifier that describes (eg old hat) or classifies (eg sports car) a noun (person, place or thing).
Although not fixed there is a common order (culturally accepted order) of these describers and classifiers:Describers these can have an intensifier added to them
Classifiers
Opinion
Size
Shape/
Weight /
Length
Condition
Age
Colour
Pattern
Origin
Material
Purpose or
use
beautiful,
boring,
stupid,
delicious,
useful,
lovely,
comfortable
big, small,
tall, huge,
tiny
round,
square,
circular,
skinny, fat,
heavy,
straight,
long, short
broken, cold,
hot, wet,
hungry, rich,
dirty
old, young,
new,
ancient,
antique
white, blue,
greenish –
blue, reddish
-purple
striped,
spotted,
checked,
flowery
American,
British,
Italian,
eastern,
Australian,
Chilean
gold,
wooden,
silk, paper,
synthetic,
cotton,
woollen
sleeping
(bag),
gardening
(gloves),
shopping
(bag),
wedding
(dress)
Questions that can help determine classifiers.
What sort/type of gloves are they? (gardening; skiing)
What are they made of? (rubber; cotton; leather)
What sort/type of bag is it? (shopping; shoulder)
Where does it come from? (Spain - Spanish; PNG - Dilly)
NB commas are used when describers/adjectives are interchangeable ie to separate describers use from within the same category.
Appendix 2
EXPANDING THE NOUN GROUP
DETERMINER
INTENSIFIER
QUANTIFIER
Which one/s are you
referring to?
Who/ what does it belong
to?
To quantify the
noun
Which or Whose?
How many or how
much?
Articles Demonstratives
Possessives
Numbers, Ordinals,
Inexact amounts
POINTER
a, an, the
this, that, these, those
my, your, his, her, its,
our, their, mum’s,
Gloria’s
COUNTER
one , two, second, most, few, a lot
of, a little, another, enough, a bit
of, several, much, plenty of,
numerous, various, more, less,
many, some
PARTICIPANT
DESCRIBER
NUMERATIVE/
Points to the noun.
Increases the
intensity or level of
the describer.
Describes the
noun.
What is it like?
CLASSIFIER
Classifies the
noun. What
kind is it?
(THING/ PERSON/
PLACE)
What or who we are
talking about?
Adjectives
To what degree?
What type?
Describers:
INTENSIFIER
really, very,
absolutely,
extremely,
somewhat, slightly,
incredibly
Factual or
Opinion
DESCRIBER/S
Evaluative positive,
negative
red, black,
big, old
, round,
CLASSIFIER/S
long, hairy, long-necked,
sharp
Male, female, teenage
girl, mountain bike,
Holden car, Tiger shark,
lovely, pretty, wonderful
living room
horrible, scary, boring
NB intensifiers do not add to the head noun but are used to vary the effect of the describers.
KEY NOUN
QUALIFIER
Phrases/clauses
that tell more
about the noun:
Where? With
whom/ what?
What like? About
what? What for?
Which one in
particular? Includes
circumstances of:
place, time,
manner,
accompaniment,
reason.
QUALIFIER/S
in the corner, under the
table, over the bridge
due to the rain, with the
curly hair, for dinner on
Thursday, who lived with
her grandmother
Appendix 3
RELATIVE PRONOUNS:- the noun group and the additional can be written on cards. Students then rewrite the noun group with the correct relative pronoun so making a noun group
with a qualifier. Refer to ‘Sentence Structure’ resource in this document for complex sentences with dependent relative clauses.
NB ‘whom’ is used when the relative clause has a subject eg Could the person whom I spoke to yesterday please come forward. Although this is correct English, it is very formal and the
more common linking word used is ‘that’. Although ‘that’ is a demonstrative it can be used like a pronoun.
WHO
WHICH
Noun Group
Answers: Relative pronoun used to
join qualifier to noun group
The loggers
WHO
WHOSE
WHERE
THAT
Additional information to turn into a qualifier
The loggers harvest trees from the forest plantations
The wood mill
WHICH
The wood mill is on the edge of town
The wood mill
WHERE
The wood is ground into a pulp
The ground up pulp.
WHICH
The ground up pulp is treated with steam and chemicals
The mill owner
WHO
The mill owner employs children
The children
WHO
The children are too young
The children
WHOSE
The mill cat
THAT
The mothers are very worried
The mill cat chases the mice
NEXT RESOURCE FOLLOWS
Developing Evaluative Language and modality
This resource is to support teachers who have set goals and targets, around Evaluative language and modality for their students’ texts using the Teaching and Learning
Goals and Language and Literacy Levels Targets proforma. This proforma is in the Language and Literacy Levels: Recording and Tracking for Learning document.
Developing appropriate tenor for a text depends on a writer’s ability to use modality, to open up to other viewpoints and to use relevant language of Appraisal (feelings,
judgement, and appreciation of things or processes). There are also skills in expressing opinions directly and indirectly.
The following resource suggests strategies and activities to move the learners towards higher language level achievement in both their spoken and written texts. Many
of the examples are taken from Language and Literacy levels across the Australian Curriculum: EALD Students – Grammar Knowledge (Expressing Opinion and point of
view; Evaluative Language and Modality).
Language
Discussion
Activities
Expansion
Level
Level 1 – 4
Attitude is an aspect of Appraisal
Ask students how characters, from books being read, might be feeling. Accept all Appendices 2-4 are
language. The first category in Attitude
answers but expand on students’ answers by offering alternative synonyms and
examples to support
Across the
is AFFECT – that is words about feelings. phrases. Write these up on an ‘Electronic board’ so that the words can be moved teachers’ own text
stages of
JUDGEMENT of others and
around and grouped under positive feelings and negative feelings.
deconstruction.
schooling
APPRECIATION
of
‘things’
are
the
other
equivalent to
Similarly use images conveying a range of feelings to build word banks.
Read the attached
categories.
end of
example of Tangaroa’s
When building vocab about physical characteristics of family members, book
Attitude is expressed in language that
reception
gift (Appendix 2) to
characters and other people, take the opportunity to ask students how these
shows feelings, makes judgements of
inform yourself about
family/friends feel in certain situations.
people and their behaviour or appreciates
affect language. The
things. It is further categorised:
Create scenarios that draw on student experiences of issues such as:
highlighted words in
 Affect is language about ourselves and
 Canteen runs out of ice-cream on a hot day.
our feelings and emotions
blue indicate Paua’s
 Being bullied
 Judgement is language about other
feelings. Use this to
 Going to a party
people’s character and behaviour
support you to
 Being asked to stand up in front of the class
 Appreciation is language about things,
deconstruct the texts
 Being told off by the teacher
ideas, programs, performances, art
that you have chosen
work etc.
 Learning how to swim
for your students to
It is only at the end of level 4 (end of
 Singing/dancing in front of friends and they clap a lot.
identify a character’s
Reception) that learners are expected
Ask how they feel about these situations
feelings.
to express attitude with I like…; and to
Build a word bank/word wall of feeling words
use common evaluative language: My
NB At a higher level,
Introduce
students
to
mental
process
to
express
attitude:
like;
want;
think;
eg
I
best toy; He’s not nice; She’s happy;
students can be asked
Evaluative language is most appropriate like dogs best; and use in
to make a Judgement of
 verbal groups eg I like going to the footy; I want to go to the zoo;
in non-factual texts such as Narratives,
people or places in
 projecting clauses eg I think I will get a bicycle for my birthday.
Personal Recounts and Expositions.
these scenarios.
Language
Level
Level 5 – 7
Across the stages
of schooling
equivalent to
end of year3
Discussion
Appraisal is about the tenor of a text. When
a text is very subjective without the
possibility of other viewpoints its
Engagement language is monoglossic eg
People will become sick. When this
viewpoint is expressed as: I believe people
will become sick or People may become sick,
there is opportunity for other viewpoints
and this opens up the text. The text is said to
be diglossic.
Attitude is expressed in language that shows
feelings, makes judgements of people and
their behaviour or appreciates things.
 Affect is language about ourselves and
our feelings and emotions
 Judgement is language about other
people’s character and behaviour
 Appreciation is language about things,
ideas, programs, performances, art work
etc.
Both Attitude and Engagement are
subjected to words that increase or decrease
the intensity. This is the language of
Graduation.
Modality is used in expositions to both
soften and strengthen arguments and open
up to other points of view. Learners at level
6 can express levels of modality.
Activities
Expansion
To follow up with Affect from Levels 1 – 4 use following
synonyms and graduation (intensity) to vary happiness in
a chosen text.
Happy: glad, pleased, delighted, overjoyed.
Intensifiers: so, very, extremely
Repeat for sadness
Sad: upset, depressed, miserable
Intensifiers: slightly, a bit, really, rather, so very etc.
Highlight in a suitable text the words that reveal
judgement and appreciation. For older students some
feature articles in newspapers may be suitable.
Use similar texts to highlight for modality –
modal adjuncts: can; will; might; should
modal adjective/adverbs: possible; possibly; frequently
See Appendix 1.
The use of quantifiers such as a few, some, most; and
mental processes or modality, open the text up to other
points of view. This is called diglossia.
eg Some people think ice-cream is delicious; Most
students do their homework; It might rain tomorrow.
Provide students with short monoglossic statements
eg Ice cream is delicious; students do their homework; It
will rain tomorrow; Young people love parties; Men are
hopeless at cooking
Ask students, to work in pairs and change a monoglossic
text using the language items to open it up to other
viewpoints.
Provide texts from your Teaching Learning Cycle and use
this learning about diglossia to highlight this language in
other texts.
Read the attached text of Tangaroa’s gift
(Appendix 3) to inform yourself about
judgement and appreciation language.
The highlighted words in red indicate
Paua’s judgement of other characters and
words in light blue indicate appreciation
of his surroundings and the things he is
given.
Use this to support you to deconstruct
the texts that you have chosen for your
students.
Language
Level
Level 8 – 10
Across the stages
of schooling
equivalent to
end of year 6
Discussion
To use language that expresses
feelings, judgements of people and
appreciation of things can be
developed into a fun activity.
Modality becomes increasingly
important when the author needs to
persuade the audience to agree or to
take action.
Modality can soften the ‘attack’ to
make it sound reasonable and open to
discussion. Whereas the language of
obligation (modal auxiliary verbs)
should; must, can exhort the reader to
action.
eg Human beings must save the
rainforests. This is an example of
language expressing obligation.
Human beings need to be stop
rainforest destruction. – Here a modal
process softens the ‘attack’.
Activities
Expansion
Use an advertising pamphlet and jointly with your students
highlight all the evaluative language in the text.
Use the following text example to inform your
understanding about feeling, judgement and
appreciation words. Deconstruct your own
text with positive words and having built a
bank of negative words have students work in
pairs to change your chosen text to a negative
meaning.
Students create their own promotional texts using positive
language eg. Promoting the school camp to younger
students.
Concentrate on modal verbs and modal adverbs.
Then ask students working in groups to change all positive
evaluative language into negative evaluative language.
Share responses.
Show students how negative language from a previously
prepared text can be changed into neutral language with
little subjectivity.
Create another scenario such as a day at the beach, a
school sports day, a visit to the Museum/Art Gallery/
Botanic gardens. Organise students into three groups.
Have one group write a recount that is neutral, one group
write a recount that is positive and one group write a
recount that is negative. Compare answers and list new
vocabulary as well as teaching new vocabulary.
See level 11 to 12 for further development of this idea. 
Use texts that show modality, using language items from
chart - Appendix 1.
modal adjuncts(auxiliary verbs): can; will; might; should
modal adjective/adverbs: possible; possibly; frequently
and particularly modal nouns: possibility; frequency;
probability;
Model increasing Evaluative Language using a text similar
to ‘Convict Ships’ Appendix 5.
ACTIVITY Show shift to objective writing as per the Level
10. Appendix 6.
Example.
I love cooking so I was thrilled to be asked to
attend a very important culinary experience
where a well-known chef demonstrated some
amazing cooking skills.
All the attendees were so excited and you
could see their mouths watering in
expectation of the delights we would be
shown. The smells in that beautiful kitchen
were sublime and we couldn’t believe that the
time went so quickly. At last it was time to try
the tasty morsels and while we waited our
turn it was hard to be patient. The sounds of
people enjoying the samples were soon filling
the kitchen. There was lip-smacking and
‘oohs’ and ‘aahs’ from everyone
Expand and extend evaluative language by
changing as many as possible of the positive
evaluative words (in Bold) into negative
words.
Refer to sample Evaluative Language Convict
Ships Appendix 5.
Language
Level
Level 11 – 12
Discussion
At this level students are using an
Across the stages extensive range of evaluative language
of schooling
and are beginning to use
equivalent to
nominalisations for feelings (beyond
end of year 8
simple words such as sadness,
happiness), for judgements and for
appreciation eg A man full of
forgiveness; this terrible destruction
of the habitat.
Graduation of evaluative language
becomes important as writers make
language choices to show the nuance
of meanings. In the Tangaroa text
greater focus and force is given
through language such as: a single
solitary friend; a booming voice.
NB. Older students will need to use
Appreciation language to report on
their science experiments,
movie/book reviews and excursions as
well as their Personal Learning Plan
(PLP). Refer to the table in the next
Levels to introduce relevant evaluative
(Appreciation) language.
Activities
Expansion
Analyse with students an advertisement for a product(s),
highlighting the evaluative language and modality.
Scaffold with students the writing of an advertisement for
a ‘Miracle’ product eg face cream; shampoo.
Students then create their own advertisement for a
product.
At Level 11/12 concentrate on modal adjectives and modal
nouns.
Assuming the students have done an exercise like the
one suggested in level 8 to 10 continue with the following:
Find a suitable media text that reports on an issue of
national or international importance and
Examine it together with the class for evaluative language.
Look for describers, adverbs and nominalisations. Some
verbs (processes) may also carry feelings or judgements eg
the activists were seen creeping along the edge of the
forest; the doctors have been sympathising with the local
inhabitants.
If the issue involves different groups of people create a
table with the ‘participants’ of the text in the left hand
column. In the middle and right hand column the positive
and negative evaluative language is recorded.
Discuss how each of the participants in the text is
presented. In a positive light? In a negative light?
Discuss critical literacy and bias with students.
Show the shift from subjectivity to objectivity with
examples from Levels as per Appendix 6.
A third copy of Tangaroa’s gift at the end of
this resource (Appendix 4) has words in
purple that show graduation.
eg Conservation issue around logging of old growth
forest in South America
+ positive
words
Loggers
Provide jobs
Subsistence
farmers
Indigenous
people
friendly; just
trying to
survive
proud;
knowledgeable;
sustainable
practices
- negative
words
Destroying
heritage; money
grabbers.
Lacking
education/world
knowledge
Language
Discussion
Level
Level 13 – 14 For the SACE Personal Learning Plan
students are required to write an evaluation
Across the stages of their learning in literacy, numeracy,
of schooling this Community and work experience. The PLP is
is equivalent to often done in year 10 as part of pre-SACE.
end of Year 10
Supporting students through an
understanding of the type of language used
to evaluate their learning will greatly
enhance their reflective writing.
Learners will be tempted to write sentences
such as “I enjoyed doing my Personal
Learning Plan because I felt good about
what I learned and could see that I am quite
an intelligent student.” Here the student is
expressing their attitude about themselves,
in other words they are making language
choices from the Affect language category.
For a student to move to the ‘B’ or ‘A’ grade
they need to make language choices from
the Appreciation category of language, that
is the language that shows appreciation
(positive, neutral, negative) of the product.
The product in this case is the program and
process of their Personal Learning Plan.
It is also important for students to be able
to extend their evaluative statements/
sentences using causal or concession
clauses that reflect at a deeper level and
more objective tone eg This part of SACE
was challenging because the content had to
come from my own thinking and experience.
Even though there were no subject
reference books to use, it was valuable to
come up with my own ideas about my
learning.
Questions and examples
Possible questions around
the three aspects of
appreciation of ‘things’.
POSITIVE - language to model
NEGATIVE – language to model
Reaction to the PLP
I liked the Personal Learning Plan because it
made me think deeply about my learning. It
engaged me positively and I found it enjoyable.
(satisfying, absorbing, interesting)
Doing the PLP was confusing and did not
engage me in thinking about my learning.
I found it boring, (un-enjoyable, tiring,
stultifying).
What did I like about the
process of reflecting on
my learning in literacy?
What was it about the
program/process of
literacy learning that
engaged me?
Composition of the PLP
Was the program of
learning well put
together/constructed?
Was it easy to follow the
ideas that teachers were
giving me to help me
focus on my PLP?
Valuation of my PLP
What was worthwhile in
this program of
learning?
What was the value of
engaging in this
approach to my
learning?
Being made to think about learning in this way
was both exciting and engaging. It gave me a
new interest in learning.
Having to think about my learning in this
way did not interest me. It was not an
engaging process for me.
My PLP program was well constructed. There
were well organised questionnaires and
evaluation proformas to follow. Peer discussions
were guided appropriately There was a balanced
amount of discussion and writing. Each step of
the program was well supported and easy to
follow.
It was hard to follow the process and it
didn’t support my learning in my other
subjects. The materials we were given
were difficult to follow and poorly
presented. It was disjointed, confusing,
muddled.
The ideas and suggestions given were very
helpful, however the whole process of reflecting
on my learning was challenging at times but I
have found this part of my SACE very
worthwhile. My research methods were reliable
and my data was accurate and useful. It has
been a rewarding and constructive experience. I
felt the whole program was effective. This
innovative (valuable) program has had a big
impact and influence on my learning by
supporting and developing my capabilities. It has
made me very aware of learning challenges I will
face in tertiary education but has prepared me
for the opportunities.
This process has not been helpful and has
lacked depth and quality to further my
education and growth as a student. I was
not given support to solve and overcome
the issues I faced. It was shallow,
meaningless, outdated and irrelevant
process. It was repetitive, repetitious and
tedious. It was not stimulating. It failed to
meet my needs as a student.
Language
Level
Discussion
Level 13 – 14 English speaking students are
Cont’d
expected to reach Language Level 14
by the end of year 10 if they are high
Across the stages achieving learners. Level 14 is a highly
of schooling
sophisticated Language Level that
equivalent to
many students do not reach while
end of year 10
they are teenagers.
While students are developing their
language between Levels 11 and 14
they sometimes drop back to less
complex language and grammar. This
is because their ‘internal language
voice’ is seeking clarity which they
may feel is not evident in the higher
order language.
From Language Level 14 onwards a
student increases their specialised
topic vocabulary and uses lexically
dense language with increasing
confidence. Complex sentences and
grammatically simple but lexically
dense sentences become the norm in
their academic writing.
Activities
Deconstruct a higher order text to record the various
language items that express low to high modality.
Concentrate on modal clauses and phrases. See
Appendix 1.
Show the shift from subjectivity to objectivity with
examples from Levels. Expand on Appendix 6 with
your own examples.
Expansion
Appendix 1
Modal resources expressing certainty
Modal Finites (auxiliaries):
Will, must, could, might, may.
 That must be the milkman.
 It could be Jill.
Modal Adjuncts
perhaps, maybe, possibly, probably, surely, certainly,
definitely.
 It’s possibly the best in the world.
 It’s definitely the best in the world.
Mental and verbal processes
Subjective:
I know, I think, I believe,
Objective:
It indicates that.., It suggests that…, They say that….,
Scientists claim that..
 I think it’s the best.
 I believe you’re right.
 Scientists claim that the Universe is continuing to
expand.
Modal qualities
Certain, sure, positive, uncertain, impossible, possible.
 I am certain that it is the best
Modal nominals
Possibility, certainty, probability, risk, chance,
likelihood….
 There is a chance of rain.
 There is a strong possibility that the event will be
cancelled.
 The risk of damage is high.
Modal resources expressing usuality/frequency
Modal adjuncts
Always, usually, typically, often, sometimes, seldom,
rarely, never
 I always shop there.
 I never shop there.
Modal qualities
Frequent, common, usual, typical, infrequent, unusual,
rare.
 It’s a common sight.
 It’s an unusual sight.
Modal nominals
Tendency, frequency, rate.
 Fatal accidents have decreased in frequency recently.
Modal resources expressing obligation
Modal finites
Will, must, should, ought to, have to.
 I should go and help.
 We ought to think about that more carefully.
Modal adjuncts
Necessarily, compulsorily, at all cost
 It must be stopped at all costs.
Saying and relational processes
Demanded, commanded, compelled, required.
 They demanded we finish immediately.
 It required a change in procedure.
Modal qualities
Compulsory, obligatory, necessary.


It was a compulsory test.
Salt is a necessary ingredient.
Modal nominals
Obligation, requirement, expectation, demand.


There is an expectation that we will attend.
It is a requirement of the job.
Appendix 1 continued
Table of language items for expressing High to Low modality
Grammatical Resource
High Modality
Medium Modality
Low modality
Modal verbs and a few modal adverbs tend to be used in the lower Language Levels 5 to 7
Model verbs (auxiliaries)
Must; should; ought to;
has to.
Will; can; need to.
May; would; could;
might.
Model adverbs, adjectives and nouns are more typical of Language Levels 8 to 10
Modal adverbs
Certainly; definitely;
absolutely; surely; in fact
Probably; usually,
generally; likely.
Possibly; perhaps; maybe;
sometimes.
Modal Adjectives
Certain; definite;
absolute.
certainty
Probable; usual.
possible
probability
Possibility
Modal Nouns
The following modal language is more typical of highly written-like language at Levels 11 to 14. However
mental processes eg think; believe and rhetoric ‘in my opinion’ are taught at lower language levels.
Modal clauses and
phrases
I contend (that)
It is obvious/clear (that)
Everyone knows (that)
I am sure you will agree …
I think/believe (that)
In my opinion
It is/isn’t likely (that)
If………..then……
I guess (that)
It seems (that)
This suggests (that)
Rhetorical (expository)
questions
Does it have to be this
way?
Will science provide an
answer to global
warning?
Can literature save the
world?
Adapted from Humphries, Love, Droga (2011) Working Grammar, table 7.1 page 88
Appendix 2
Tangaroa’s Gift
Affect. Words in blue describe the emotions and feelings of the character.
Once, in the days of old, there lived a sad and lonely sea creature named Paua. In all the ocean, he could not
find a single solitary friend to play with. There were so few like him, for they had no means of protecting
themselves from hungry fish and because they moved so slowly they had trouble finding one another in the
myriad crevices and hiding places in the rocks.
So Paua huddled gloomily under the seaweed thinking sad thoughts and aching with loneliness.
Suddenly, a great surge of water plucked away his protective cover of weed. The sand swirled and danced
about him like a whirlwind, stinging his eyes and filling his mouth. As he wept and spluttered and spat out the
sand, he heard a booming voice, saying, “Paua, why are you so sad?”
Paua’s eyes were so gritty and blurred that he could not see, but he recognised immediately the booming
voice of Tangaroa, god of the sea.
“Oh, Tangaroa!” he cried forlornly. “I’m so very lonely”
“The snooty Snapper taunts me with his bright blue spots on his pretty pink skin as he flashes past.
The stealthy Stingray glides gracefully overhead, sleek and shiny and shimmering.
The swishing Seaweed bends and sways with the current, gently caressing the rocks and clothing them with all
manner of wonderful shapes.
The kinky Kina boasts of his sharp spikes and adorns himself with pretty beads and pebbles and shells.
Other creatures flaunt their delicate, intricate shells and laugh at my thick, black rubbery lips. I’m so ugly, so
slow, so defenceless.”
And he cried.
Tangoroa thought for a moment. Here was a steadfast, tenacious little creature who deserved something
special.
Something just for him.
So he said to Paua,
“I will take the coolest blues from my domain…….
….and I will ask of my brother Tane some of the freshest greens of the forest.
“From the dawn you shall have a tinge of violet……
….and from the sunset a blush of pink,
And over all, a shimmer of mother-of-pearl and the most intricate patterns, as fine as the finest Nautilus shell.”
And he fashioned for Paua a wonderful coat that sparkled and dazzled with its beauty.
Indeed, it was so beautiful that all the creatures of the sea came to gaze in wonder upon this new being that
sparkled in their midst.
The other sea creatures became envious of Paua and started to tease and ridicule him and made his life utterly
miserable.
Tangaroa heard him crying.
“I love this beautiful coat,” Paua sobbed, “but the other creatures despise me and are so jealous of me. I long
for peace and quiet but I can’t even hide from them now, I’m so conspicuous.”
Tangaroa was angry with all those who made Paua so miserable, and said
“From the rocks I take a drabness so that you may be as one with them,
and to you , and only you, I give the coolest blues of the ocean,
the freshest greens of the forest,
a tinge of violet from the dawn,
a bluish pink from the sunset,
and over all a shimmer of mother-of-pearl.
And it will be your life’s work to add, layer upon layer, the most intricate patterns, as fine as the finest nautilus
shell, each a different hue and blend.”
And so it was that Paua got his beautiful shell. He hugs the secret of its beauty to himself and only at the end
of his life, when his empty shell washes ashore, is his artistry revealed ….each layer a unique, multi-coloured
masterpiece.
Appendix 3
Tangaroa’s Gift
Judgement. Words in red used to describe people or living things.
Appreciation. Words in turquoise used to describe the attributes of things.
Once, in the days of old, there lived a sad and lonely sea creature named Paua. In all the ocean, he could not
find a single solitary friend to play with. There were so few like him, for they had no means of protecting
themselves from hungry fish and because they moved so slowly they had trouble finding one another in the
myriad crevices and hiding places in the rocks.
So Paua huddled gloomily under the seaweed thinking sad thoughts and aching with loneliness.
Suddenly, a great surge of water plucked away his protective cover of weed. The sand swirled and danced
about him like a whirlwind, stinging his eyes and filling his mouth. As he wept and spluttered and spat out the
sand, he heard a booming voice, saying, “Paua, why are you so sad?”
Paua’s eyes were so gritty and blurred that he could not see, but he recognised immediately the booming
voice of Tangaroa, god of the sea.
“Oh, Tangaroa!” he cried forlornly. “I’m so very lonely”
“The snooty Snapper taunts me with his bright blue spots on his pretty pink skin as he flashes past.
The stealthy Stingray glides gracefully overhead, sleek and shiny and shimmering.
The swishing Seaweed bends and sways with the current, gently caressing the rocks and clothing them with all
manner of wonderful shapes.
The kinky Kina boasts of his sharp spikes and adorns himself with pretty beads and pebbles and shells.
Other creatures flaunt their delicate, intricate shells and laugh at my thick, black rubbery lips. I’m so ugly, so
slow, so defenceless.”
And he cried.
Tangoroa thought for a moment. Here was a steadfast, tenacious little creature who deserved something
special.
Something just for him.
So he said to Paua,
“I will take the coolest blues from my domain…….
….and I will ask of my brother Tane some of the freshest greens of the forest.
“From the dawn you shall have a tinge of violet……
….and from the sunset a blush of pink,
And over all, a shimmer of mother-of-pearl and the most intricate patterns, as fine as the finest Nautilus shell.”
And he fashioned for Paua a wonderful coat that sparkled and dazzled with its beauty.
Indeed, it was so beautiful that all the creatures of the sea came to gaze in wonder upon this new being that
sparkled in their midst.
The other sea creatures became envious of Paua and started to tease and ridicule him and made his life utterly
miserable.
Tangaroa heard him crying.
“I love this beautiful coat,” Paua sobbed, “but the other creatures despise me and are so jealous of me. I long
for peace and quiet but I can’t even hide from them now, I’m so conspicuous.”
Tangaroa was angry with all those who made Paua so miserable, and said
“From the rocks I take a drabness so that you may be as one with them,
and to you , and only you, I give the coolest blues of the ocean,
the freshest greens of the forest,
a tinge of violet from the dawn,
a bluish pink from the sunset,
and over all a shimmer of mother-of-pearl.
And it will be your life’s work to add, layer upon layer, the most intricate patterns, as fine as the finest nautilus
shell, each a different hue and blend.”
And so it was that Paua got his beautiful shell. He hugs the secret of its beauty to himself and only at the end
of his life, when his empty shell washes ashore, is his artistry revealed ….each layer a unique, multi-coloured
masterpiece.
Appendix 4
Tangaroa’s Gift
Graduation. Words in pink are used
to sharpen or soften FOCUS
or
to raise or lower FORCE.
FORCE can also be quantified by number, mass or extent.
Once, in the days of old, there lived a sad and lonely sea creature named Paua. In all the ocean, he could not
find a single solitary friend to play with. There were so few like him, for they had no means of protecting
themselves from hungry fish and because they moved so slowly they had trouble finding one another in the
myriad crevices and hiding places in the rocks.
So Paua huddled gloomily under the seaweed thinking sad thoughts and aching with loneliness.
Suddenly, a great surge of water plucked away his protective cover of weed. The sand swirled and danced
about him like a whirlwind, stinging his eyes and filling his mouth. As he wept and spluttered and spat out the
sand, he heard a booming voice, saying, “Paua, why are you so sad?”
Paua’s eyes were so gritty and blurred that he could not see, but he recognised immediately the booming
voice of Tangaroa, god of the sea.
“Oh, Tangaroa!” he cried forlornly. “I’m so very lonely”
“The snooty Snapper taunts me with his bright blue spots on his pretty pink skin as he flashes past.
The stealthy Stingray glides gracefully overhead, sleek and shiny and shimmering.
The swishing Seaweed bends and sways with the current, gently caressing the rocks and clothing them with all
manner of wonderful shapes.
The kinky Kina boasts of his sharp spikes and adorns himself with pretty beads and pebbles and shells.
Other creatures flaunt their delicate, intricate shells and laugh at my thick, black rubbery lips. I’m so ugly, so
slow, so defenceless.”
And he cried.
Tangoroa thought for a moment. Here was a steadfast, tenacious little creature who deserved something
special.
Something just for him.
So he said to Paua,
“I will take the coolest blues from my domain…….
….and I will ask of my brother Tane some of the freshest greens of the forest.
“From the dawn you shall have a tinge of violet……
….and from the sunset a blush of pink,
And over all, a shimmer of mother-of-pearl and the most intricate patterns, as fine as the finest Nautilus shell.”
And he fashioned for Paua a wonderful coat that sparkled and dazzled with its beauty.
Indeed, it was so beautiful that all the creatures of the sea came to gaze in wonder upon this new being that
sparkled in their midst.
The other sea creatures became envious of Paua and started to tease and ridicule him and made his life utterly
miserable.
Tangaroa heard him crying.
“I love this beautiful coat,” Paua sobbed, “but the other creatures despise me and are so jealous of me. I long
for peace and quiet but I can’t even hide from them now, I’m so conspicuous.”
Tangaroa was angry with all those who made Paua so miserable, and said
“From the rocks I take a drabness so that you may be as one with them,
and to you , and only you, I give the coolest blues of the ocean,
the freshest greens of the forest,
a tinge of violet from the dawn,
a bluish pink from the sunset,
and over all a shimmer of mother-of-pearl.
And it will be your life’s work to add, layer upon layer, the most intricate patterns, as fine as the finest nautilus
shell, each a different hue and blend.”
And so it was that Paua got his beautiful shell. He hugs the secret of its beauty to himself and only at the end
of his life, when his empty shell washes ashore, is his artistry revealed ….each layer a unique, multi-coloured
masterpiece.
Appendix 5
CONVICT SHIPS
Blue bold - Intensity (intensifiers)
Purple – Evaluative language (feelings; judgement and appreciation)
Italics – Modality and rhetorical language.
__________________________________________________________________________________
This text shows good technical language but uses evaluative language from Levels 7 and 8
The big ships called hulks were floating gaols. The hulks were over-crowded and cramped; often there
wasn’t room to stand up. A hulk could be up to 65 metres long. On board each hulk there could be 300
convicts. There were many diseases on board and convicts died. Between 1776 and 1795 nearly 2000 out
of 6000 convicts held on hulks, died. The majority died from diseases such as typhoid and cholera.
The convicts were not fed well. The people in charge wanted to keep costs low. The daily diet was made up
of ox-cheek, either boiled or made into soup, pease (peas), bread or biscuits. The biscuits were often
mouldy. Tobacco was supplied as part of their ration and as a reward for good behaviour.
Convicts got up at sunrise and worked very hard for up to 10 hours a day. All convicts were sentenced to
hard labour as part of their punishment and could be forced to work at any manual task such as timber
cutting, brick making or stone cutting.
At higher Language Levels there is more extensive evaluative language, more intensity and modality.
The evaluative language in this text is at Levels 9 to 10
The huge ships, called hulks, were floating gaols. Conditions in these floating gaols were terrible. The hulks
were over-crowded and cramped. Often there wasn’t even room to stand up! A hulk could be up to 65
metres long. This is the same size as 6 buses placed end to end. On board each hulk, there could be up to
300 convicts. Can you imagine 50 people living in one bus, for many months? There were many diseases on
board. The stench was disgusting and the matter on the floors was indescribably awful. Between 1776 and
1795, nearly 2000 out of almost 6000 convicts held on hulks, died due to the appalling conditions. The
majority died from diseases such as typhoid and cholera.
The convicts were not fed very well - in fact – often they were not fed at all. The slightest misdemeanour
resulted in food being withdrawn for 24 hours or longer. The people in charge did not value the lives of
these poor convicts and wanted to keep costs low. The daily diet was often made up of ox-cheek, either
boiled or made into soup, pease (peas), bread or biscuits. The biscuits were either tasteless or mouldy.
Tobacco could be supplied as part of their ration as a reward for a job well done or for good behaviour.
Poor convicts often did hard physical work on board ship just to get a paltry measure of tobacco to pass the
time of day.
On arrival in Australia, convicts got up at sunrise and worked extremely hard for up to 10 hours a daysometimes more. All convicts were sentenced to hard labour as part of their punishment and could be
forced to work at just about any manual task such as timber cutting, brick making or stone cutting. Such
were the harsh conditions resulting from something as small as stealing a loaf of bread.
Appendix 6
Subjectivity and Objectivity
While subjectivity is about opinion, objectivity is about facts. The opinion can be a personal opinion or the
opinion of others eg I think; Many people say; Doctors tell us; Historians argue;
Objectivity requires reference to data eg These results show; Due to all the evidence previously stated;
Research tells us; Recent reports confirm that; Recent findings conclusively support…;
Highly Subjective
Highly Objective
Moving towards objectivity



I think that smoking is
really bad for your health.
There is much evidence that
shows us smoking is really bad for
our health.
Recent Reports indicate 89% of people
admitted to hospitals in 2009 – 2014
suffering from lung cancer had been
smokers at some point in their lives.
I found the PLP very
rewarding.
SACE Board believes the skills
learnt in the PLP improve
students’ ability to be
independent learners
At the end of 2012, all year 10 students
completed the SACE questionnaire which
showed that 74% agreed that the PLP was
rewarding
I liked doing Community
Service as I think it is a
really valuable thing to
do.
Many people say that we should
spend more time on voluntary
community service as it is so
valuable.
Of 825 students interviewed in December
2013 79.2% of them indicated that they
found the Community Service activities
valuable and 92.4% said they hoped to do
more in 2014.
Being overweight is a
huge health risk
Many doctors say that being
overweight is the major cause of
heart attack.
Recent findings from the World Health
Organisation (WHO) show that high
consumption of sugar rather than fat is the
cause of obesity and thus heart attack.
In my opinion. Global
warming is a real issue
Tim Flannery urges us the act
because global warming is a real
issue.
This research conclusively demonstrates
that the earth’s atmospheric temperature
is increasing.
My dad told me that life
came to earth on a
comet.
One of the many theories is that
life was brought to earth on a
comet.
Sankar Chatterjee (ASTROBIOLOGY
magazine Nov 6th 2013) Professor of
Geosciences and Curator of palaeontology
said “Thanks to heavy comet and meteorite
bombardment, the large craters left behind
not only contained water and basic building
blocks of life but also became the crucible
to concentrate and cook the chemicals to
form the first life”.
Teachers can use Appendix 6 as examples to model the shift across the continuum from subjectivity to
objectivity and/or create
 an ‘information gap’ sheet where facts are quoted in the right hand column and students fill in the left
hand and middle columns with more subjective spoken-like language
 a teaching/learning activity in which students analyse short texts and sort them according to where they
might fit on a continuum from subjectivity to objectivity. Students can then share and justifying their
decisions focussing on the vocabulary choices; the modality; and varying phrases used to express
subjective and objective perspectives.
NEXT RESOURCE FOLLOWS
Vocabulary
This resource is to support teachers who have set goals and targets, around Word Knowledge development, for their students’ texts using the Teaching and Learning
Goals and Language and Literacy Levels Targets proforma. This proforma is in the Language and Literacy Levels: Recording and Tracking for Learning document.
Vocabulary is vital for success with comprehension and fluency. It is also a key component of reading for meaning. It is learned directly through repeated exposure to
new words in conversations, listening to stories, by reading and through media exposure in meaningful contexts. Explicit teaching of vocabulary adds to the vocabulary
growth of all children. Teachers realise the importance of the role of vocabulary and how to directly support its development.
Most of the activities listed below could be adapted to suit a variety of year levels.
Language
Level
Level 1 – 4
Across the
years of
schooling
equivalent to
end of
Reception).
Discussion
Language development from birth to 5
is vital for a child’s future learning in
reading and writing. A learner’s use
and understanding of, is developed
through opportunities and
encouragement to speak, to
experiment with words and to
respond to or pose questions.
Teaching vocabulary in context of the
topic and focus genre is paramount.
Pre-teaching critical vocabulary and
discussing meanings and associated
concepts before reading a story aloud
or before students read new texts is
essential to ensure new words are in
the reader’s oral vocabulary.
Tiers of Vocabulary
See next page.
Activities
Label items in the classroom. Ask students to point
to/touch a nominated item.
Discuss the purpose of the item, what it is made of etc.
Have a large picture of a room, a farmyard scene, or a
shopping precinct that shows numerous objects. Ask
students to name particular items and explain what they
are and how they are used.
Ask questions which encourage complete answers and
include spatial terms: eg Where is the …….? It is on the…..
What is the name of the ‘thing’ under the table? It is a ……..
Read picture books. Print vocabulary is more extensive and
varied than oral language. Read a text several times as it
provides the repeated exposure students need to
internalise the new vocabulary.
Write words related to a theme or topic on cards and have
pictures to match those words on another set of cards.
Students can match the word with the picture.
Teach specific words that relate to a topic eg shopping:
create a list of the types of shops that the students know,
go to a shopping centre, take photos/write a list of the
shops. Compare lists.
Expansion
Tell stories that use elaborate language, use
audio books and model good language to also
support vocabulary development of all
students.
Fill a bag or box with a variety of objects,
students select an object (without looking at it
first) from the bag and describe it.
Have a box with items that have a
commonality eg kitchen utensils. Students
choose one and talk about it.
Language
Level
Discussion
Level 1 – 4
Tiers of Vocabulary
Cont’d
Tier 1 – basic and high frequency
words eg said, house, school used in
everyday conversation and learnt
reasonably quickly.
Across the
years of
schooling
equivalent to
end of
Reception).
Tier 2 – words used by more mature
users of a particular age group so will
differ depending on the age of the
children. Words appear more often in
texts but not so frequently in everyday
language. These words should be the
focus of direct instruction as they are
the most useful across multiple
contexts and words that children are
less likely to learn without help.
Tier 3 – words that relate to specific
fields of knowledge (subject specific
vocabulary) and are usually taught as
part of content area literacy.
Activities
Expansion
Match the name of the shop with what happens there eg
butcher – where we buy meat.
greengrocer – where fruit and vegetables are sold
newsagency – where we buy newspapers, cards, pens etc
Teach the names of the person in the shop eg butcher,
greengrocer, newsagent
Create a list of shopping items eg cash register, shelves,
counter, display cabinet, trading hours etc
Create a wall chart/word wall/class book of new words
with matching pictures to build vocabulary knowledge.
Collect a variety of pictures or objects eg animals; modes
of transport; flowers; foods and work with students to
sort them into categories. Discuss/explain the categories.
Develop further with hyponymy activity
Ask students for translations of key nouns in their
home/first language. eg if you are doing an information
report on frogs, ask what the word for frog is in
Vietnamese etc. Make a display using the English and
Vietnamese words with an accompanying picture.
Lead students in a hyponymy activity with
topics eg birds – and subsets of birds: crow,
budgie (budgerigar), parrot, kookaburra;
seagull etc.
Language
Level
Level 5 – 7
Across the
years of
schooling
equivalent to
the end of year
3.
Discussion
Activities
Expansion
Continue to introduce and
teach new vocabulary in
context of the focus genre
and topic matter.
Teach the correct use of words that have different meanings in learning area
contexts eg
Put it on the table; Write the results in the table.
Here is a phone message for you; The message of the story is …….
Continue to pre-teach
critical vocabulary and
discuss meanings and
associated concepts before
reading a text and before
students read new
Learning Area texts.
Explain key learning area vocabulary relevant to this language level
eg English:, fairy-tale, paragraph
Geography: stream, city, contour lines.
History: olden days, memorial, goldfields
Maths: half past, edges, fraction
Science: nest, seedling, investigation
Check for differing meaning in different Learning Areas.
Teach abbreviations and the full word eg phone –telephone, bike - bicycle,
Dan –Daniel
Students write these word in full
Nov _______________
temp ___________
Ltd _______________
Rd _____________
Km _______________
max ____________
vol ________________
Ave _____________
Students write down the full words for these letters
ACT
NT
SA
WA
QLD
VIC
NZ
Use real life objects when practical to assist in the explanation of words eg
wood, plastic, metal.
Make a list of different words which express ways of moving eg strolling,
ambulating, waddling, slithering etc. Match the word with the movement of
an animal. Which words describe how a person can move?
Repeat a hyponymy activity (see Expansion Level 1 – 4) with other topics eg
fruit; vegetables. Write topic words on cards with accompanying pictures.
Students group the cards and write a category name for each set of cards.
Label parts of a plant; an insect; a
map; a piece of technology or any
object relevant to the topic/L A
context.
Provide a topic related text which
describes an animal or object with a
picture of the animal or object.
Students label the picture using the
appropriate vocabulary from the text
eg a text about camels would have
coat, mouth, nostrils, eyelashes etc.
Write the words next to the correct
body part.
Explain why words are shortened.
Some words are shortened to make
them quicker to say. Some groups of
words are shortened so much that
only their first letter remains.
Students can place sticky notes next to
unknown or unfamiliar words. They
can work with a friend, re-read the
sentence or use a dictionary to find its
meaning.
Language
Level
Level 8 – 10
Discussion
Continue to teach
vocabulary in context of
the focus genre and
Across the years
topic matter.
of schooling
equivalent to the Continue to pre-teach
end of year 6.
critical vocabulary and
discuss meanings and
associated concepts
before students read
new Learning Area
texts.
Activities
Expansion
Provide opportunities for students to use subject specific vocabulary
during whole class two way information gap activities (barrier games).
Focus on the nouns in a selected text or paragraph. How specifically do
they define the subject of the text? Is it general or specific? Is the noun
general in the introduction and become more specific as the text goes on?
What words are used to make it specific? eg lagoon rather than lake;
convict rather than prisoner
Teach the appropriate choice of word for the purpose of the text and
audience eg chop up, cut, slice, dissect; move, turn, rotate, oscillate by
placing them on a cline from informal and everyday language to formal
and technical language
Teach abbreviations by matching the short words to the longer versions
and writing them in full:Christine
petroleum
exam
Maths
fridge
influenza
add
petrol
addition
examination
Chris
Geoffrey
Geoff
refrigerator
flu
mathematics
Introduce acronyms, see Appendix 1, and review abbreviations.
An acronym is a word formed from the first letters of other words and
pronounced as a word.
eg RAM - random access memory
DOS – disc operating system
Begin a class dictionary of polysemous words which are words that have
multiple meanings eg the word scale can mean to climb, a plant disease, a
measuring instrument or a feature of a fish. Students each add a word.
Introduce the process for dictogloss to develop learners’ confidence to use
topic and specific/technical Learning Area vocabulary. See Appendix 2.
In Maths a student could give instructions
to the whole class so they can draw the
same geometric shape eg “The circle’s
circumference is 30 cms” instead of “The
circle has an outside length of 30 cms”
Provide a topic related text which
describes parts of a system. Students label
the diagram using the appropriate
vocabulary from the text eg a text about
the skeleton. Write the words next to the
correct body part eg cranium, radius, ulna,
tibia, sternum, ribs, clavicle etc
Teach students to use clues in the text (eg
a dash is often used in front of a definition)
to help understand particular words eg
Sophie was bewildered- she didn’t
understand what was happening
Language
Level
Level 11 – 12
Across the
years of
schooling
equivalent to
the end of year
8.
Discussion
Continue teaching
vocabulary in the context
of the topic being
studied.
Activities
Teach students to use clues in the text to help understand particular
words. A dash is often used in front of a definition eg Sophie was
bewildered – she didn’t understand what was happening.
Model ways for students to learn new vocabulary eg underline, highlight or
place sticky notes next to unknown or unfamiliar words, find the meaning
using a glossary or a dictionary, have a guess, re-read the text, find it a
second time in the same text where its meaning is more obvious.
Reinforce specific vocabulary by labelling a visual (eg aerial photograph,
map, graph, schematic drawing) relevant to the topic.
By end of year
8 students use
a wide range of
new specialist
and topic
vocabulary to
contribute to
the specificity,
authority and
abstraction of
texts
Model using subject specific vocabulary to explain a graphic in a subject
text.
Reinforce specific vocabulary by labelling items in a practical Learning
Area.
Continue use of dictogloss, see Appendix 2. Where appropriate focus upon
hyponyms for example in a text about farm birds use poultry instead of
ducks, geese, chickens.
Model a process whereby students read a text and then, highlight key
words and suggest different terminology/word forms as possible headings,
before deciding upon the most appropriate ‘Heading’ for each section eg
Engines Locomotion Ground propulsion
There are various means of moving solid bodies along
the ground. This is most often for the purpose of
transporting people or cargo. The system used to
propel ground vehicles often combines of an engine, a
gearbox, axles and wheels.
Expansion
Language
Level
Discussion
Level 13 – 14 Teach vocabulary in context of the
focus genre and L A subject.
Across the
years of
schooling
equivalent to
the end of year
10.
Pre-teach critical vocabulary and
discuss meanings and associated
concepts before students read new
texts.
Activities
Discuss the likely reasons for particular terms being used
instead of their synonyms eg traffic police instead of
transport police /vehicle police.
Expansion
Deconstruct a text and consider vocabulary
choices in terms of purpose and audience.
Develop concept maps using subject specific vocabulary.
Use cloze exercises needing technical words to complete.
Explicitly teach words encountered in materials being read
in class. Some words and their meanings are more easily
understood through direct instruction.
See Appendix 3 for a suggested teaching sequence.
Increase the complexity and difficulty of the activities
mentioned in Levels 11-12.
Refer to Appendix 3 in ‘Sentences’ Teaching
Strategies in this document.
APPENDIX 1
Activity 1: Connect each acronym to its correct meaning.
personal identity number
AIDS
computer-aided design
really old men
ALP
apples labelled as pears
goods and services tax
CAD
read-only memory
Australian Labour Party
PIN
acquired immune deficiency syndrome
cats and dogs
GST
person in need
Any infectious disease symptoms
ROM
volume and tone
Activity 2: Find out the meanings of these acronyms.
UFO
CD
ABC
ie
ISBN
VIP
SCUBA
FIFO
AWOL
UNICEF
ANZAC
Activity 3: Investigate student knowledge of SMS text. Make up some acronyms to suit topic or student level.
APPENDIX 2
DICTOGLOSS*
A dictogloss is a writing activity in which students attempt to reconstruct a short piece of text which the teacher will have read aloud to them. On the first
reading they simply listen to the text. On the second reading they take down key words and phrases and then, with a partner try to reproduce the text
they have just heard. When they have done that, they compare their text to the original text. The idea is to get as close to the register of the original text
as possible.
The aim of the activity is to develop skills for writing in a particular register**. One of the strengths of the activity is that it gives students the opportunity
to negotiate meaning of a shared text with their peers. Another strength is that, in replicating the meanings of the original texts, students will have to use
equally complex nominal groups and a similar level of nominalisation.
How to do it
There are 4 stages in a dictogloss:
 preparing for listening
 listening to the text – the first time, just listening- the second time, jotting down words and phrases
 reconstructing the text
 comparing versions of the text
Preparation
If the students have not done a dictogloss before, give a very brief explanation of the main stages. The next step is to provide a context for the listening
task. This stage includes reviewing the field that is being studied in the unit of work, using a range of multimodal resources. Such preparation helps
students to anticipate what they are going to hear and thus, to listen more actively and effectively.
Listening to the text
Read the text aloud at normal speed. Students listen, in order to understand the passage as a whole.
The second time the text is read aloud, students jot down key words and phrases. Remind students that they won’t be able to write down the text in its
entirety or even to take notes in the normal sense. The task is to record words and phrases that will trigger their memory and allow them to reconstruct
the text with their partner.
Reconstruction of the text
Students work in pairs or small groups to reconstruct the text they have heard, using:
 key words and phrases they have jotted down individually
 their knowledge of the topic
 their collective understanding of how language works.
The text they create should:
 maintain the register of the original text as much as possible (ie same content and degree of technicality and abstraction (field), same degree of
objectivity or subjectivity and certainty (tenor), similar elements being foregrounded (mode))
 be “sound English text” – cohesive and as grammatically accurate as possible. To support students in note taking, the class as a whole, could share the
notes they have taken so they can discuss which were relevant for the reconstruction.
Comparison of versions of the text
Groups share and compare the text they have produced, including a comparison with the original text.
Follow this up with a discussion on the language choices they have made. You may decide to work through particular difficulties the students might be
having with any aspect of language, either with the whole group or with individual students.
Outcomes of the dictogloss
When doing a dictogloss with students, it is not crucial that they reproduce the text verbatim. The idea is to get as close as possible to the original text,
thus replicating the register of that text. For many EALD students, writing in these more formal written registers, often pressures them to plagiarise other
people’s texts.
An advantage of the dictogloss is that it has students actively reconstructing the meanings with their peers rather than just copying out of the text. EALD
students not only have the opportunity to contribute to the task, but they also benefit from listening and talking with their peers.
Another advantage, is that it works very well in helping students to remember the content and can be used at any stage of the curriculum cycle to
consolidate knowledge.
*Teaching ESL students in mainstream classrooms: language in learning across the curriculum pp 151- 153 2012 version
**A term used to refer to combined aspects of specific situations or contexts which influence language choices and meanings. The three aspects which
combine to form register are:
 what the subject matter is (field)
 who is taking part and their relative roles and relationships (tenor)
 how language is organised to create a cohesive text, the medium or channel of communication and whether language is used to accompany action
or as reflection (mode)
from Language and Literacy Levels across the Australian Curriculum: EALD students - Glossary
APPENDIX 3
i. Read aloud the sentence or mention where the students first met the word. Show students the word and ask them to say it aloud.
rudimentary
ii. Ask students to repeat it several times. Brainstorm possible meanings with the group. Point out any parts of the word that might help with meaning eg a
prefix or Latin or Greek root. Reread the sentence or refer to the context in which it was used to see if there are any contextual clues.
iii. Explain the meaning explicitly through a student-friendly definition and use of synonyms.
Rudimentary means simple or very basic.
iv. Provide examples, emphasising the target word.
Ben found the test easy because all the questions were quite rudimentary.
Bella speaks rudimentary German because she has only been learning it for three months.
The pilot’s final test was not rudimentary because it covered everything he had learned in three years of training.
v. Ask questions to determine if students understand the word.
Would a doctor have a rudimentary understanding of the human body? Why or why not?
Would a primary school teacher have a rudimentary understanding of the human body? Why or why not?
vi. Provide sentences that students can judge as being true or false.
The high court judge had a rudimentary knowledge of the law. True or False?
The first year apprentice had a rudimentary knowledge of how to build a house. True or False?
vii. Students then write their own sentences to be judged as true or false by other students.
viii. Consciously use the word throughout the day to reinforce the meaning and different ways in which it can be used.1
NEXT RESOURCE FOLLOWS
1
DECS June 2011 Research into practice paper - Understanding the reading process Series 1/1.4
Spelling
This resource is to support teachers who have set goals and targets, around Word Knowledge development, for their students’ texts using the Teaching and Learning
Goals and Language and Literacy Levels Targets proforma. This proforma is in the Language and Literacy Levels: Recording and Tracking for Learning document.
Types of Spelling Knowledge (See Appendix 1)
 phonological – how words sound
 visual – how words look
 morphemic – how words change form eg jump, jumps, jumped, jumping
 etymological – where words come from
Stages of Spelling Development. (See Appendix 2)
 emerging print concepts
 semi-phonetic – phonic activities eg onsets and rimes,
 phonetic- digraphs, silent letters, prefixes, suffixes
 transitional - spell by using rules/generalisation
 proficient – spell from memory
Language
Level
Level 1 - 4
Across the stages
of schooling
equivalent to the
end of reception
Discussion
Activities
This is the beginning stage of learning the
relationship between letters and the
sounds they represent. Students begin to
use this knowledge to recognise and read
words. They also build skills to blend
onsets and rimes (eg c-at) and segment
sounds (d/o/g) in words. Through this
they become familiar with the consonantvowel-consonant (CVC) pattern. These
aspects along with syllables are
components pf ‘Phonological Awareness’
(refer to Big 6)
Assess students’ prior knowledge of words and letter clusters.
Introduce selected/relevant letter/s and sound/s related to the
genre or topic being taught.
Teach each letter’s name and its sound.
Focus on letter formation instruction. It is
important to teach spelling in context.
Display items beginning with that/those letter/s.
Whole class or individual activity: Plan activities in different
learning areas (where practical) to reinforce recognition of
selected letters eg if the letter is “f”, jointly compose an
Information Report including the life cycle about frogs/fish,
draw frogs/fish, teach songs about frogs/fish, introduce topic
vocabulary related to frogs/fish, move like a frog/fish etc.
Read texts. Ask students to identify nominated sounds by
pointing, using post it notes or highlighting or circling on
photocopied pages.
Expansion
Students walk around school and
look for, draw or write items that
begin with that letter.
Have a ‘sound/s of the week.’
Language
Discussion
Level
Level 1-4 Cont’d Consider adapting teaching strategies
for New Arrival students (regardless of
their age) whose language system isn’t
alphabetical eg Chinese, Arabic.
The use of symbols as an introduction
may bridge the gap.
Activities
Expansion
Teach and make lists of words with the same pattern (CVC)
eg. word ending in ‘at’, ’en’, ‘it’, ‘ug’ etc
Teach recognition and spelling of high frequency words.
Encourage independent writing by focussing on letter-sound
relationship, listening to and saying beginning, middle and end
sounds and high frequency words.
Assess “spelling” by incidental testing
eg “Who can sound out mat?” “Who
can write sun?” “What does h-a-t
say?” Use the sounds of the letters,
not the name.
Say the word and re-read the sentence.
Design writing tasks which focus on writing the words which
start with a given letter.
Teach both capital letters/upper case and lower case. Use
that terminology.
Teach and model correct letter formation. Emphasise correct
starting point and direction. Talk about the shapes of the
letters. Trace over the letters.
Create a picture from the letter. eg write a big
a head, horns and a tail to create a monster.
‘m’ and add
Write a sentence with each word beginning with the target
letter such as ‘My monster moves‘ under the picture.
Draw a visual representation of words eg write the word ‘red’
in red; curly in ‘Curlz’ font –
curly;
‘hollow’ in font effects -
Go to www.decd.sa.gov.au/northernadelaide/pages/fsm/facilitatorsupport/?reFlag=1 for Spelling Rule Posters.
Make reference to when capital
letters are used.
Students can use alternative media to
write letters, eg writing in sand,
crayons, chalk on cement, paint, icing
sugar. (Consider teaching the
procedure genre to make the icing.)
Make patterns by repeating the letter
eg aaaaa and add antennae and legs
to create an ant
Language
Level
Level 5 - 7
Across the years of
schooling
equivalent to the
end of year 3.
Discussion
It is important to use
topic related words and
focus on the spelling.
Explain how some words
have different meanings
in different learning
areas. eg
cycle – a life cycle
(Science) or the verb to
cycle;
table – set the table or a
table of information.
Activities
Expansion
Teach consonant blends. Compose tongue twisters to encourage correct
spelling and to reinforce letter combination.
Demonstrate correct pronunciation of blends and then as part of the whole
word.
Continue teaching of high frequency words.
Introduce spelling rules eg ‘i’ before ‘e’ except after c or when sounding like
an ‘a’ as in neighbour or weigh.
Introduce mnemonics to help with spelling particular words and rules:
eg because’ big elephants can always understand small elephants.
Introduce suffixes through word building activities eg. add ‘s’; ‘ed’; ’ing’ to
verbs; and ’er’, ‘est’ to comparative and superlative adjectives.
Create tables for students to complete
word
look
talk
add ‘s’
looks
talks
add ‘ed’
looked
talked
add ‘ing’
looking
talking
Use in sentences to reinforce subject-verb agreement.
word
tall
wide
add ‘er’
taller
wider
add ‘est’
tallest
widest
Focus on
 words in which the last letter is doubled before adding ‘ing’, ‘er’, or
‘est’
 words that drop the ’e’ when adding ‘er’ or ‘est’ eg large – largest
 irregular verbs eg run – ran.
Incorporate into Literacy blocks or
Guided Reading blocks
“When two vowels go walking,
the first one does the talking”.
eg the ‘e’ in beat or the ‘a’ in main.
Language
Level
Level 5 – 7
Cont’d
Across the years of
schooling
equivalent to the
end of year 3.
By the end of year
2 students:
- spell topic
words, new
words with
regular letter
patterns and
some common
irregular words
- recognise
relationships
between words
such as ‘play’,
‘playing’ and
‘playground’.
Discussion
A blend is formed by
two sounds that can
be heard eg fl as in
flag.
A digraph is made up
of two sounds heard
as one eg ck as in
click.
A diphthong is a
combination of two
vowels making one
sound/syllable eg
coin, loud.
Teach the letter
groupings in context
whenever/whereever practical. Adapt
to suit the ability
levels of the
students.
Activities
Introduce and teach
 long vowel words eg name (magic ‘e’) park, feet
 consonant blends eg drop, clap,
 consonant digraphs eg shop, much, thin
 3 letter blends eg scr, thr, str
 diphthongs eg ay (play), ai (tail); ee (feel), ea (real)
 single syllable homophones eg right/write, saw/sore
 compound words eg toothbrush, handbag
 adding ‘s’ or ‘es’ for plurals
 topic words: have topic words on display, write their meaning next to the word, break them
into syllables.
 different letter/combination of letters that make the same sound: eg ey; ea; e; y; ie; f; ph.
Activity: circle the words in a given sentence or a text that have the wrong spelling. Rewrite the
sentences correctly eg The buoy with the long hare went to bye a new torch.
Use cloze exercises: students choose the correct word to complete sentences: eg
A ____________ (weak/week) has seven days
I’m going to ___________ (read/reed) my book.
Use a jumbled letter words activity to emphasise the sound or letter groupings being taught. Ask
students to write the letters of that sound first, they can be highlighted on the board, and then ask
students to put the remaining letters in order to create the words.
Teach and model the change in the vowel sound by adding an ‘e’ at the end of the word: cat/Cate;
cap/cape; car/care; cut/cute; pin/pine; din/dine; bin/line; Tim/time; pan/pane; tub/tube; hug/huge;
mutt/mute; tap/tape; sit/site; at/ate; rid/ride; gap/gate; hop/hope; etc.
Use these words in poems, or sentences to create a humorous story.
NB adding an ‘e’ in the word also lengthens the vowel: ten/teen; pen/seen etc.
Create ‘Find-a word’ games using the newly spelt words and vocabulary. Use appropriate websites for
word search games eg http://www.gamehouse.com/word-games
Expansion
Language Level
Level 8 – 10
Discussion
It is important to teach
spelling in context of the
Across the years of
focus genre and topic
schooling equivalent to matter whenever possible.
the end of year 6.
Activities
Expansion
Jointly compile a list of topic words and their meanings.
Add prefixes and/or suffixes and use them in sentences
etc.
Examine the origin of words from other languages eg
‘jodhpurs’ from Hindi
‘smorgasbord’ from Swedish
Demonstrate how prefixes when added to a word
modify or change the meaning of the word eg tie –
untie; act - counteract
Suffixes form a new word or alter the grammatical
function of the original word. eg read is a verb but
when ‘er’ is added it becomes a noun (reader)
The following aspects of
spelling are those
mentioned in the Language Research the meanings of prefixes eg in, un, inter, semi,
Word
Noun
Verb
Adjective
Adverb
trans etc.
and Literacy Levels
rectangle rectangle
rectangular
Complete a table by choosing an appropriate suffix and
 topic words
slow
slow
slowly
 frequently used regular writing the new word in the correct boxes.
and irregular words
collect
collect collectable
Teach prefixes and suffixes by grouping words that have
 word families and
the same prefixes and suffixes eg words ending in ‘ity’.
consonant clusters eg
Highlight any changes in spelling and have students say
C
E
L
L
A
R
str, thr, scr
the word and using it in a sentence.
H
R
U
O
H
U
 diphthongs
U
C
A
Y
O
O
Consolidate homophones by focusing on the difference
 silent beginnings eg kn, in meaning of each pair of words.
T
F
H
T
E
T
wr
E
T
I
R
W
E
Use a word search that includes homophones for listed
 homophones eg to,
words. Join the two words together.
Some rules about silent letters before or after certain
two, too; knew, new
SELLER
ROOT
SHOOT
YEW
letters.
 prefixes and suffixes
HALL
RIGHT
OUR
and rules
silent ‘k’ before ‘n’
knock, knee
o eg doubling when
Teach silent letters by:
silent ‘w’ before ‘r’ wrist, wrong
adding a suffix – get/

distinguishing
between
homophones
eg
be/bee;
getting
silent ‘g’ before ’n’ gnash, gnaw
know/no; whole/hole
o dropping ‘e’ when
 working out the meaning of the word and change
silent’ p’ before ‘s’
psychic, psalm
adding a suffix
the pronunciation of the word eg sin/sign
silent ‘l’ before ‘k’
folk, talk
Some aspects have been
 showing the origins and history (etymology) of a
introduced in an earlier
word. eg Plumber from plumbum (Latin for lead)
silent ‘b’ after ‘m’
plumber, lamb
Level but the complexity of
NB As appropriate highlight the old English prefix/suffix
silent ‘n’ after ‘m’
column,
the spelling rules and the
of
en/em
eg
enforce;
empower;
strengthen;
lengthen;
generalisations has
silent ‘t’ after ‘s’
listen, whistle
brighten; enlighten etc.
increased.
Language
Level
Level 11 – 12
Discussion
It is important to teach spelling in
context of the focus genre and
topic matter whenever possible.
Across the years
of schooling
equivalent to the Students show greater spelling
end of year 8.
accuracy over
 multi-syllabic words
 difficult homophones eg
practice/practise
 difficult subject and topic
specific words
 subject specific words with
Greek and Latin roots
Activities
Explicitly teach the spelling of topic words and include
the spelling of key topic words to topic assessment
criteria.
Assign a key multi-syllabic word or a difficult subject
specific word to each student so they can learn it and
then teach others using a spelling strategy that worked
for them.
Research the origins of words (etymomlgy) eg Latin and
Greek origins. Use dictionaries or websites to
investigate their meanings.
eg sub = under as in subsoil, submarine;
kilo = thousand as in kilogram, kilometre
Develop word walls to promote vocabulary and spelling
proficiency.
Promote the use of student glossaries.
Use cloze exercise and crosswords using selected
words, and close exercises using extracts from the
texts.
May use spelling creatively for
effect
Read news report headlines that include puns and
explain their humour.
Expansion
“Campaign is easily spelt by breaking it into its
syllables. Cam and then pain, but don’t forget to
include silent ‘g’ before the ‘n’ like in sign and
align.”
“Permission is a nominalisation so it is no surprise
that it has that shun sound as the suffix, but in this
case you drop the t and add ssion instead of just
ion.”
Spelling strategies:
Spell it like it sounds – breaking words into sounds
and writing the sounds they hear
Spell it by pattern – diphthongs, diagraphs,
suffixes, prefixes, silent letters, compound words.
Spell it by rule or generalisation – eg drop the ‘y’
before adding ‘er’ or ‘est’.
Spell it by chunking – break words into syllables eg
in-ter-net
Spell it from memory – automaticity
Spell it using mnemonics – using ‘tricks’ to
remember how to spell words eg “parallel” has two
parallel lines (double letter l) in the middle of the
word
Cele-brat is about the birthday celebration of a
young misbehaving celebrity
Language
Level
Level 13 – 14
Discussion
It is important to teach spelling in
context of the focus genre and
topic matter.
Across the years
of schooling
At this level students continue to
equivalent to the
spell most words correctly and
end of year 10.
.
apply their understanding of
spelling to spell difficult topic or
subject specific/technical words,
and unusual words.
May use spelling creatively for
effect.
Activities
Refer to Levels 11-12.
Expansion
Use required or chosen texts as the basis for
teaching and learning activities.
Align the acquisition of spelling with the
understanding of the word in context.
Appendix 1
Spelling: from beginnings to proficiency - DECD 2011.
Appendix 2
Spelling: from beginnings to proficiency Chapter 6 - Teaching and learning activities page 55