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BIOCHEMISTRY QUICK REFERENCE GUIDE
Red text indicates cofactors
Taurine, Cysteine, Methionine, Glutathione, Acetylcholine Pathway
Taurine
Hypotaurine
3-SulfinoL-alanine
PEA, Dopamine, Norepinephrine, Epinephrine Pathway
L-Phenylalanine
Sulfate
Molybdenum
Sulfite
Glycine
Glutamate
Glutathione (GSH)
L-Cysteine
L- -Glutamylcysteine
B6
ATP
L-Cystathionine
L-Homocysteine
L-DOPA
B6
L-carnitine
Phosphatidylcholine
Acety-L-carnitine
Choline
Acetyl group
Histamine Pathway
Glutamine
Acetylcholine
(ACh)
Tyrosine
Hydroxylase
Phenylalanine
Tryptophan
Tryptophan
Hydroxylase
(rate limiting)
5-HTP
Tyrosine
Hydroxylase
Tyramine
Phenylethylamine
(PEA)
Tryptamine
Serotonin
Neurotransmitter
Norepinephrine
Octopamine
PNMT
Tyrosine
Dopamine
Dopamine beta-hydroxylase
(rate limiting)
Aromatic L-Amino Acid Decarboxylase
L-DOPA
Tyrosine
Hydroxylase
Epinephrine
Synephrine
• Substrates for Aromatic Amino Acid Decarboxylase
(AADC) are competitive (i.e., excess 5-HTP will reduce
Dopamine formation by competition with L-DOPA)
for AADC
• Tyramine and dopamine are competitive substrates for
Dopamine beta-hydroxylase
• Octopamine and norepinephrine are competitive
substrates for phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase
(PNMT)
Receptor Action
+/+/+/+/-
Epinephrine
Norepinephrine
Dopamine
Serotonin
-
GABA
Glycine
+
+
+
Glutamate
PEA
Histamine
+ = Stimulate the neuron to propogate the signal
- = Inhibit the neuron to terminate the signal
Biochemical Methods of Intervention
3
1.Selective reuptake inhibitors (e.g. SSRIs,
SNRIs) block the action of transporters that move
neurotransmitters from the synapse back into the
presynaptic neuron, thereby increasing synaptic levels
of the respective neurotransmitter.
4
2.Receptor agonists (e.g. Benzodiazepines) mimic or
enhance the effects of neurotransmitters on receptor
binding sites while antagonists (e.g. antihistamines)
inhibit the effects.
3.Neurotransmitter substrates (e.g. Amino Acids)
enhance the synthesis of neurotransmitters and
increase neurotransmitter stores.
DOPAC
Tryptophan
Tryptamine
B3
5-Hydroxytryptophan (5-HTP)
B6, Vitamin C
Serotonin
5-hydroxyindole
acetaldehyde
N-acetylserotonin
SAMe
5-HIAA
Melatonin
L-Glutamate
B6
GABA
Monoamine Competitive Substrate Synthesis
Tyramine
Serotonin/Melatonin Pathway
Glutamate/GABA Pathway
L-Histidine
B6
Histamine
Phenylethylamine
(PEA)
Dopamine
DOPAL
Vitamin C
Norepinephrine
SAMe
Epinephrine
Lysine
S-adenosyl Lmethionine (SAMe)
S-adenosyl
L-homocysteine
(SAH)
Phosphatidylethanolamine
B12
L-Methionine
L-Tyrosine
B6
Folate
B6
1
4
2
4.Enzyme modulators (e.g. Monoamine Oxidase
Inhibitors) alter the actions of specific enzymes thereby
influencing neurotransmitter levels.
©NeuroScience, Inc. 2010
INTERPRETATION QUICK REFERENCE GUIDE
Clinical Correlations
High levels: Anxiousness,
Sleep difficulties, Low immune
activity
DHEA: Produced by the adrenal
gland. Precursor to estrogens and
androgens.
High levels: Anxiousness
Low levels: Fatigue, Anxiousness
Low levels: Fatigue, Menopause
symptoms, Low sex hormone levels
Epinephrine: Important for
motivation, energy & mental focus
(aka adrenaline).
High levels: Anxiousness,
Sleep difficulties, Attention issues
Low levels: Fatigue, Low mood,
Lack of motivation
Norepinephrine: Important for
mental focus, emotional stability
and endocrine function (aka
noradrenaline).
High levels: Anxiousness,
Stress, Excessive energy, High
blood pressure
Low levels: Fatigue, Lack of focus,
Lack of motivation, Low mood, Sleep
difficulties, Hot flashes, Headaches
Dopamine: Responsible for
feelings of pleasure & satisfaction,
also muscle control, muscle
function, & GI issues.
High levels: Poor intestinal
function, Developmental delay,
Attention issues
Low levels: Urges, Impulsivity,
Cravings, Movement disorders
DOPAC: Primary metabolite of
dopamine involving monoamine
oxidase A (MAO-A) and aldehyde
dehydrogenase.
High levels: Excessive energy,
Focus issues, Developmental
delay, Upregulated MAO activity,
Stress
Low levels: No associated clinical
symptoms to date.
Serotonin: Plays important roles in
mood, sleep, and appetite.
High levels: SSRI
medications, Stress, Platelet
aggregation
Low levels: Low mood, Sleep
difficulties, Uncontrolled appetite,
Headaches, Hot flashes
5-HIAA: 5-Hydroxyindoleacetic
acid is the primary metabolite of
serotonin involving monoamine
oxidase A (MAO-A) and aldehyde
dehydrogenase.
High levels: Intestinal
complaints, Upregulated MAO
activity
Low levels: Impulsivity, Sleep
difficulties, Low mood, Cravings,
Urges
Early-stage Chronic Stress Response
+ = Stimulate
‑­­ = Inhibit
Serotonin
+
DR
+
- -
Norepin
ephrine
-
LC
+
+
Taurine: Important for proper
heart function, healthy sleep and
promoting calmness.
High levels: Excessive
energy, Anxiousness, Sleep
difficulties
Low levels: Uncontrolled excessive
energy, Uncontrolled anxiousness,
Uncontrolled sleep difficulties
GABA: Primary inhibitory
neurotransmitter in the brain,
necessary to feel calm and relaxed.
High levels: Excessive
energy, Anxiousness, Sleep
difficulties
Low levels: Uncontrolled excessive
energy, Uncontrolled anxiousness,
Uncontrolled sleep difficulties
Glutamate: Primary excitatory
neurotransmitter, necessary for
learning & memory.
High levels: Anxiousness,
Low mood, Activated immune
system
Low levels: Fatigue, Learning
difficulties
+ = Stimulate
‑­­ = Inhibit
PEA: Important for focus and
concentration.
High levels: Mind racing,
Sleep difficulties, Anxiousness
Histamine: Helps control
sleep-wake cycle, plus energy &
motivation.
High levels: Hypersensitivities,
Sleep difficulties
+
Serotonin
+
Norepin
ephrine
LC
­­‑
DR
+
+ = Stimulate
‑­­ = Inhibit
DR
dominance
ephrine
Norepinephrine
DHEA
Norepinephrine
Mid-stage Adrenal Fatigue Biomarker Levels
End-stage Adrenal Fatigue Biomarker Levels
DHEA
DHEA
Epinephrine
Norepinephrine
Serotonin
Serotonin
GABA/Glutamate Relationship
GABA
3
OPTIMAL
GABA
GABA increases in
an attempt to
establish balance
* In some cases, the
GABA response is
not sufficient
enough and may
require support
even if levels are
above optimal.
Effect of Chronic Stress
GABA
Glutamate
OPTIMAL
Encounter with
stressor
Level
2
1
­­‑
DHEA
Norepinephrine
Optimal
LC
DR
Cortisol
Norepinephrine
100727-GEN-Z1041
Norepin
Epinephrine
Cortisol
Glutamate
+
Desensitized
Cortisol
receptors
Epinephrine
If balance is achieved,
both neurotransmitter
systems will decrease
(normalize)
+
Desensitized
Cortisol receptors
Cortisol
O
Serotonin
-
Epinephrine
PTIMAL
Low levels: Fatigue, Delusions
Cortisol
Cortisol
Glutamate
Low levels: Difficulty paying
attention, Difficulty thinking clearly,
Low mood, Fatigue
End-stage Chronic Stress Response
Epinephrine
Early-stage Adrenal Fatigue Biomarker Levels
DHEA
Stress results in an
increase of glutamate
levels
Low levels: Fatigue, Low mood
Creatinine: A normalizing parameter used to calculate neurotransmitter levels. Produced by the kidneys at a
constant rate, therefore, by using creatinine as a constant factor, urinary measurements can be performed without
having to factor in the patient’s hydration state, possible renal disorders, or diuretic substances.
-
DHEA
Serotonin
Low levels: Mood disorders
High levels: Anxiousness
Mid-stage Chronic Stress Response
-
Cortisol
Norepinephrine
High levels: Anxiousness,
Low mood, Stress-related
symptoms, Inflammation
Aspartic Acid: Vital for energy and
brain function.
Inhibitory
Feedback via
Cortisol
Receptors
Epinephrine
Glycine: Like GABA, helps calm &
relax the body.
Glutamate
GABA
OPTIMAL
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Cortisol: Primary glucocorticoid.
Produced by the adrenal gland.
Regulates body’s stress response.
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