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Allies to Enemies: Origins of the Cold War
During World War II, the United States and the Soviet Union had
been allies against Germany. However, they had many serious
ideological differences and often conflicting political agendas. In
particular, the United States had a democratic system of government,
while the Soviet Union had a communist government. Those
differences led to tension-filled conflicts and increasingly polarized
positions, as well as to opposing political and military initiatives.
Because those conflicts never heated up to the point of major military
action, the often intense struggle became known as the "cold war."
Eastern Europe
Despite an agreement to help European nations regain selfgovernment, the Soviet Union installed communist governments in
Eastern Europe in the years between 1945 and 1948. Soviet leader
Joseph Stalin justified his actions on the premise that those nations
provided a security buffer from European invasion. He also believed
that the United States had promised him this "sphere of influence" in
Eastern Europe as part of their wartime alliance. Perhaps most
important of all, Stalin wanted to spread communist ideology. To
further that aim, the Soviets imposed communication and travel
barriers to the West—known as the "iron curtain"—throughout its
sphere of influence. Angered and concerned by Soviet actions, the
United States and its allies took steps to fight the spread of
communism.
The Marshall Plan
The United States feared Soviet dominance throughout Europe—and
perhaps beyond. As a result, President Harry Truman committed the
United States to supporting democratic resistance in Europe. The
Truman Doctrine, and the containment policy it became, led to two
key prongs of cold war strategy. The first was economic aid to
Europe with the Marshall Plan (1947) as its cornerstone. Proposed
by Secretary of State George C. Marshall, the plan hoped to stabilize
Europe—thus protecting it against communist influences—by
repairing European economies and infrastructures. Between 1948
and 1952, 17 European nations received Marshall Plan funds. The
monies helped to restore industry, agriculture, and trade, while they
shored up financial institutions.
Berlin
Each action in the cold war prompted a reaction from the opposing
side, which raised tensions to new levels. In 1948, the western
allies—who had occupied portions of Germany and the city of
Berlin—decided to merge their zones into a new democratic German
nation (founded in 1949). Because Berlin sat inside the Sovietoccupied portion of Germany, its western zones became a single
isolated democratic island surrounded by communist territory. The
Soviet Union responded in June 1948 by blockading all routes to
West Berlin in an effort to push the western allies out. Only the Berlin
airlift, which supplied the city by airdrop, enabled the people there to
survive the 11-month blockade.
NATO
Incidents like the Berlin blockade further heightened tension and
increased U.S. concerns about Soviet expansion. They also
encouraged the second major prong of the U.S. containment plan:
military deterrence. The United States and its European allies
believed that a strong military and a united political front would deter
the Soviets from an attack. In 1949, they formed the North Atlantic
Treaty Organization (NATO), which rested on the core idea that each
member nation would treat an attack on any other member as an
attack on itself. The United States, with its increasing store of nuclear
weapons, offered a formidable military threat at NATO's helm. In
response, the Soviet Union formed the Warsaw Pact among its allies.
As the Soviets developed nuclear weapons (testing began in 1949),
the race for military dominance began.
"Allies to Enemies: Origins of the Cold War (Overview)." American
History. ABC-CLIO, 2013. Web. 15 Feb. 2013.
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The Economy Booms
When World War II began, the United States was faltering under the
Great Depression. By the end of the war, the U.S. economy,
stimulated largely by defense spending, had almost entirely turned
around. Fueled by pent-up demand for products unavailable during
the war, industry took off at a furious pace. In particular, the
automobile industry, which had been making tanks and airplanes,
began turning out new cars. Such technological advances as
plastics, frozen foods, and jet engines spawned new industries, while
consumer devices like air conditioners, dishwashers, and especially
televisions were in great demand. Moreover, U.S. industry responded
not only to American consumer demand but also to demand around
the world. By 1952, the United States was supplying 65% of the
world's manufactured goods!
Moving Up in the World
The housing industry also exploded during the postwar years.
Government programs like the GI Bill offered low-cost housing and
education loans to returning servicemen, which brought college
education and home ownership to more Americans than ever before.
Builders like William Levitt responded creatively to the new market by
building inexpensive, mass-produced homes and creating the
American suburb.
Of course, the suburbs—which were outside the city and usually
beyond public transportation systems—further fueled demand for
automobiles, for businesses to serve the suburbs, and for better and
bigger highway systems. Federal programs like the Highway Act of
1956 poured massive funds into linking the country. In addition, such
devices as air conditioners made living in the hot Sun Belt regions of
the nation more and more appealing. As cities expanded or emerged
in places like Florida, Georgia, Arizona, and Texas, they created
additional consumer markets for manufactured goods.
People Changes
For many returning servicemen and their loved ones, picking up their
lives after the war meant marrying, settling down, and having
children. In the postwar period, the United States experienced a huge
population boom, with 28 million new Americans added between
1950 and 1960. In the prosperous economy, those added Americans
became additional consumers fueling the fires of U.S. industry.
In addition, changes in the law and in government regulations
increased wages for many workers. For many other workers, their
actual jobs even changed. Corporations began to consolidate during
the postwar period, creating huge conglomerates like International
Telephone and Telegraph. That meant an increase in office jobs,
often with valuable benefits. Demand for schools, shops, and retail
businesses meant an increase in service jobs. Many more Americans
joined the middle class as they obtained homes, education, and
disposable income. With more money to spend—and more goodies
on which to spend it—Americans began to buy. They created the
biggest period of retail spending the United States had yet seen.
The Goodies
In addition to houses (1 million built in 1952) and automobiles (4
million built in 1952), Americans bought a wide array of consumer
products during the postwar period. Technological advances had
allowed the creation of a plethora of goodies, and television
advertising made sure that consumers knew about every new "musthave" product. By 1949, Americans were buying 250,000 televisions
a month. And of course, they also bought frozen dinners, plastic
items, dishwashers, garbage disposals, washing machines,
automatic dryers, high fidelity record players, power lawn movers,
synthetic fiber clothing and fabrics, and much more. With the growth
of suburbia, businesses had relocated, and Americans could now
shop at the nearby mall or supermarket. However, because this
incredible prosperity left out many Americans—especially African
Americans—the seeds were sown for the social upheaval that would
soon follow.
"The Economy Booms, 1950-1959 (Overview)." American History.
ABC-CLIO, 2013. Web. 15 Feb. 2013.
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Boom-Time for Babies and Houses
Half a generation of young men came of age overseas during World
War II. When they returned to the United States, they were ready to
take the next step in their lives. There were 12 million of them.
Whole New Communities
One man had a notion that whole towns could be built for the homehungry young families that needed places to live. He borrowed the
war industries’ assembly line approach and applied it to home
construction. He put his houses up—all 17,447 of them—on a former
potato field on Long Island. His name was William Levitt. Originally
called Island Trees, the community became Levittown on the last day
of 1947.
At first, the homes rented for $60 a month. Later, Levitt sold them for
$7,990 each. A housing bill passed in 1948 made 30-year mortgages
available to new home buyers. In addition, the bill allowed veterans
to buy houses with no down payment. This gave thousands of
struggling new families a chance to own their own homes.
The Baby Boom
Meanwhile, those 12 million veterans were starting families.
Demographers recognize 1946 as the beginning of the post-World
War II baby boom. The boom continued until 1965, when birth rates
leveled off. Consider these birth statistics for the years before,
during, and after the baby boom years.
The Next Step
Many of these newly returned veterans went to college with the help
of the GI Bill. Many others went to work. Regardless of how these
young men chose to continue their careers, they had one thing in
common: a good many of them got married. This same phenomenon
had occurred after World War I as well. The number of marriages
and the birth rate increased for several years after the troops
returned from Europe.
Where to Put Them
There was plenty of work to do. The war industries were declining,
but the returning soldiers had to be clothed and fed. And these nowgrown young men, whether married or not, needed places to live.
The whole country experienced a severe housing shortage. Thus
began a housing boom. For example, in Michigan between 1954 and
1960, 1 million houses went up.
No Room in the City
All of this new building occurred on the fringes of towns and cities.
These areas, called suburbs, began to expand. Living in the suburbs
was made possible by the fact that more and more families could
afford automobiles. Owning an automobile meant workers could live
some distance from their workplaces. Dubbed the "crabgrass frontier"
in Kenneth Jackson's book Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization
of the United States, the suburbs became the ideal of American life.
A family, a house, a green yard, a nice street—all these elements
became the picture of the American dream.
Unfortunately, this dream was primarily available to white families.
Most minority families remained in the cities and were largely
unwelcome in the suburbs. Separate but equal was still the standard
in schools and public facilities, but separate was emphasized more
than equal. The burgeoning civil rights movement brought some of
these problems to light, and changes began to be made to attempt to
correct the inequalities. Still, crime, substandard housing, and race
riots afflicted the African Americans and other minorities who
remained in the cities, while white families lived more serene lives in
the suburbs.
Source: National Center for Health Statistics, National Vital Statistics
Reports, Table 1-1, Live Births, Birth Rates, and Fertility Rates, by
Race of Child: United States, 1909-80.
The Baby Boom Echo
The effects of the baby boom are still moving through our society.
When those children were of school age, public schools struggled
with record attendance levels. Later, those children all vied for jobs
during the 1970s and 1980s. And in the 21st century, the earliest
baby boomers are retiring. As they require increased health care and
begin drawing Social Security, their large numbers will mean new
changes in American society.
"Boom-Time for Babies and Houses, 1950-1959 (Overview)."
American History. ABC-CLIO, 2013. Web. 15 Feb. 2013.
Important Items about the Cold War and the Fifties
You need to begin familiarizing yourself with these terms. You will be having an identification quiz at
the halfway point of the Unit. Remember, the quiz has no word bank, you must know these terms.
Chapter 13
Sputnik
Satellite Nations
Space Race
Iron Curtain
_______________________________________
Chapter 14
Universal Declaration of Human Rights
Closed shop
Harry Truman
Right-To-Work Laws
Containment
Union Shop
Truman Doctrine
Dixiecrats
Marshall Plan
Fair Deal
Berlin Airlift
Dynamic Conservatism
NATO
Amendment 22
Korean War
Baby Boom
Douglas MacArthur
Franchise
House Un-American Activities Committee
Generation Gap
Joseph R. McCarthy
Rock’n’Roll
McCarthyism
Jonas Salk
Subversion
Mass Media
Loyalty Review Program
Beat Movement
Perjury
Poverty Line
Censure
Urban Renewal
Fallout
Termination Program
Brinkmanship
Juvenile Delinquency
Covert
Developing Nation
Military-Industrial Complex
The Cold War and the Fifties
1945-1960
A U.S. serviceman views television with his family at their home in Maine on July 1, 1954. Since the 1950s, the medium has become a
cultural phenomenon. Present in nearly every household in the United States, and on for an average of seven hours per day, television
plays a large role in the nation's communications network, culture, and economy. [AP/Wide World Photos]
Essential Questions (you should be able to answer these by the time we finish the Unit)
1. Explain the breakdown in relations between the U.S. and the Soviet Union after World War II.
2. How did the United States attempt to contain Soviet influence?
3. How did the Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan increase tension between the countries; including conflicts over
Germany?
4. What was the U.S. reaction to the Communists coming to power in China?
5. Summarize the events of the Korean War.
6. How did the government investigate the loyalty of U.S. citizens?
7. Describe the efforts of Senator Joseph McCarthy to investigate alleged Communist influence in the United States.
8. Describe the American and Soviet actions that caused the Cold War to spread around the world.
9. What impact did Sputnik have on the United States?
10. What economic and social challenges did the nation face after World War II? Explain the causes and effects.
11. Describe the suburban lifestyle of the 1950s.
12. Identify the causes and effects of the automobile industry boom.
13. Explain the increase in consumerism in the 1950s.
14. How did television in the 1950s reflect middle-class values?
15. Explain how the beat movement and rock-and-roll music clashed with middle class values.
16. How did African-American entertainers integrate the media in the 1950s?
17. How did the white migration to the cities create an urban crisis?
18. Describe the efforts of minorities to gain equal rights and fight poverty.