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AP Biology Review Session
Additional Information
PLANTS:
Plant Hormones 
- Abscisic Acid = makes sure seeds do not germinate too early, inhibits cell growth,
stimulates the closing of the stomata to make sure the plant doesn’t lose too
much water
- Auxin = many functions; leads to the elongation of stems, plays a role in
phototropism and gravitropism
- Cytokinins = promotes cell division and leaf enlargement; slows down the aging of
leaves (note: some grocery stores use artificial cytokinins to keep produce fresh!)
- Ethylene = associated with aging; initiates fruit ripening and causes flowers and
leaves to drop from trees
- Gibberellins = stem elongation; think GROW; induces growth of dormant seeds,
buds and flowers
Plant Tropisms 
- Gravitropism = plants growth response to gravitational force; two hormones are
involved: auxin and gibberellins
- Phototropism = plants growth response to light; auxin (hormone) is in charge
here – works in the zone of elongation; auxin focuses on the part of the plant that
is getting less light…and is overactive there…so those cells grow faster…thus it
looks like the plant is growing towards the light
- Thigmotropism = plants growth response to contact; ex. Vines
Other new things about Plants 
- Coleoptile = protective structure that surrounds grass seedlings
- Photoperiodism = response by a plant to the change in the length of day
- Florigen = plant hormone that assists in the blooming of flowers
- Phytochrome = important pigment to the process of flowering; produces florigen
TAXONOMY AND CLASSIFICATION:
Basic Information 
- 5 Kingdoms:
o Monera, Protist, Plantae, Fungi, Animalia
o Sometimes its stated as a 6-Kingom system b/c Monera is divided into
Eubacteria and Archaebacteria
- Endosymbiotic Theory = eukaryotic cells originated from a symbiotic partnership
with prokaryotic cells; mitochondria and chloroplasts may have been separate
cells at one time
o Archezoa = eukaryotic organism that scientists believe most closely
resembles prokaryotes (no mitochondria!)
Kingdom Monera 
- Prokaryotes, single-celled, no nucleus or membrane bound organelles
- Can be classified several different ways:
o Nutritional Class
 Autotrophs  photoautotrophs (photosynthesis = produce energy
from light) or chemoautotrophs (chemosynthesis = produce energy
from inorganic substances)
 Heterotrophs
 Saprobes = feed of dead organisms; decay
o Reactivity with Oxygen
 Obligate aerobes = need oxygen to survive
 Obligate anaerobes = cannot have oxygen; need to be in an
environment that lacks oxygen
 Facultative anaerobes = can either have oxygen, or live without it
o Archaebacteria vs. Eubacteria
 Archaebacteria
 Tend to live in extreme environments; resemble earliest cells on
earth
o Extreme halophiles = “salt-lovers”
o Methanogens = produce methane as a by-product
o Thermoacidophiles = love hot, acidic environments
 Eubacteria
 Categorized according to their mode of acquiring nutrients,
mechanisms of movement, shape, etc
 3 basic shapes of bacteria:
o Rod-shaped bacteria (bacilli)
o Spiral shaped (spirilla)
o Sphere shaped (cocci)
Kingdom Protista 
- Evolved from prokaryotes; around before fungi, plants, or animals
- 3 major types:
o Plant-like Protists (algae)
o Animal-like Protists (protozoa)
o Fungus-like Protists (absorptive protists)
- Animal-Like Protists
o Called Protozoa
o Ingest food
o Several types:
 Rhizopoda = unicellular, asexual, eat by phagocytosis, move by using
pseudopods; called amoebas
 Foraminifera = marine protists, have calcium carbonate shells full of
holes; get nutrients from algae that do photosynthesis that live in their
shells
 Actinooda = move by pseudopodia; includes heliozoans and
radiozoans
 Apicomplexa = formerly known as sporozoans; spread from place to
place in a small infectious form called sporozoite; have both sexual
and asexual stages; life cycle requires two different host species (ex.
Plasmodium (causes malaria) uses mosquitos and then humans)
 Zooflagellates = heterotrophic, have flagella, eat by phagocytosis,
can be parasitic or mutualistic with hosts; ex. Trypanosome – African
Sleeping Sickness
 Ciliophora = use cilia to travel, live in water, two types of nuclei –
macronucleus (normal one) and many micronuclei (function in
conjugation); ex. Paramecium
- Fungus-Like Protists
o Called slime molds and water molds
o Resemble fungi
o Several types:
 Myxomycota = heterotrophic, include plasmodial slime molds; not
photosynthetic; eat and grow as a single celled mass called a
Notice they all
plasmodium; the mass ingests food by phagocytosis
end in -mycota
 Acrasiomycota = called cellular slime molds; when there is a lot of
food, they eat individually; when food is scarce, they clump together
as one and work as a unit
 Oomycota = water molds; can be parasites or saprobes; cell walls
made of cellulose (not chitin, which is what fungi cell walls are made
up of)
- Plant-like Protists
o Called algae
o Mostly do photosynthesis, contain chlorophyll a
o Several types:
 Dinoflagellata = two flagella that are perpendicular to each other and
causes them to swim in a funny motion; unicellular; important in many
aquatic food chains
 Golden algae = also called chrysophyta; use flagella
 Diatoms = mostly reproduce asexually; have walls made of silica to
protect them; main component of plankton
 Green algae = also called chlorophyta; live in freshwater; can be
found in the algae that are part of the mutalistic lichens; have both
sexual and asexual reproductive stages; considered to be the
ancestors of plants
 Brown algae = also called phaeophyta; multicellular; marine
environments; ex. Kelp and seaweed
 Red algae = also called rhodophyta; multicellular; produce gametes
without flagella
Kingdom Fungi 
- Multicellular; cell walls made of chitin; life cycle predominantly HAPLOID (only
time is diploid is in 2n zygote)
- Built from filaments called hyphae, which branch together to form a mesh of
mycelium which acts like a mouth for the fungus (absorbs food)
- Septae = most fungi have this, it divides the hyphae filaments into different
compartments
- Coenocytic fungi = do not contain septae
- Examples:
o Zygomycota = bread mold; coenocytic and land-dwelling; reproduce
sexually
o Basiodiomycota = mushrooms and rust; club-shaped fungi; haploid
basiodiospores; love decomposing wood
o Ascomycota = saprobic fungi (feed on dead things); live as part of lichens
(see below), produce sexual asxospores, mildews
o Lichens = symbiotic relationship between photosynthetic organisms and
fungi; algae member provides food (photosynthesis), fungus provides
protection and drink
o Molds = asexual; quick growing; ex. Deuteromycota (found in fridge on old
food!)
o Yeasts = unicellular fungi; sexual or asexual
ENDOCRINES:
Anterior Pituitary Hormones
- FSH: follicle stimulating hormone; stimulates ovaries and testes
- LH: luteinizing hormone; stimulation ovulation, increased estrogen/progesterone
release
- TSH: thyroid-stimulating hormone; increased release of thyroid hormone
- STH: somatotropic hormone (also called human growth hormone); stimulates
protein synthesis and increased growth
- ACTH: increased secretion of adrenal hormones which help with maintaining
electrolytic homeostasis in the body
- Prolactin: controls lactogenesis (production of milk by the breasts); inhibits
ovulation
Pancreatic hormones
- Insulin: increased glycogen formation; released after eating when blood glucose
levels are high – STORES glucose in form of glycogen
- Glucagon: increased glycogen breakdown; released after you haven’t eaten in a
while and blood glucose levels are low – RELEASES glucose into the blood to
raise the level
Parathyroid hormone (PTH): increased Ca2+ involved in bone maintenance
Posterior Pituitary Hormones
- ADH: stimulates H2O reabsorption by the nephron
- Oxytocin: stimulates uterine contraction and milk ejection for breastfeeding
Adrenal gland hormones
- Aldosterone: regulates sodium concentration of body
- Cortisol: stress hormone
- Epinephrine: raises blood glucose level; increases metabolic activity “fight or
flight”; also called adrenaline
Sex hormones:
- Progesterone: involved in menstrual cycle and pregnancy
- Estrogen: made in ovaries; increased release of LH
- Testosterone: (testes): develops male sex characteristics
Thyroid Hormones:
- Calcitonin: lowers blood calcium; works antagonistically with PTH (which
releases calcium levels)
- Thyroxine: stimulates metabolic activities
HUMAN REPRODUCTION:
Primary Sex Characteristics: internal structures that assist in reproduction
Secondary Sex Characteristics: physical characteristics that differ between males and
females
Male Anatomy:
- Two testes are enclosed in the scrotum – this is the site of sperm production,
which occurs in the seminiferous tubules
- Interstitial Cells – produce hormones that are involved in male reproduction
- Epididymis – a coiled region where sperm completes maturation
- Vas deferens – a tunnel that connect epididymis to urethra, where sperm and
urine are ejected
- Prostate gland – a gland that adds basic liquid to neutralize urine acidity so that
sperm don’t die on the way out
- Seminal Vesicles – dump fluid into vas deferens to send with sperm, which helps
sperm in many ways (adds energy, power, help with swimming)
Female Anatomy:
- Ovary: site of egg production; eggs move from here through the fallopian tube
(oviduct) to the uterus, which is where a fertilized egg attaches (called an
endometrium)
- Cervix: narrowed opening that connects the uterus and vagina
Formation of Gametes:
- Oogenesis: formation of eggs; stars in embryonic development and doesn’t finish
for each egg until that egg matures during a menstrual cycle (hence, an egg could
wait 40 years to finish maturation)
- Meiosis II: oocytes undergo this process only after fertilization by a sperm in the
oviduct
- Spermatogenesis: one primary spermatocyte produces 4 spermatids, which
mature in the epididymis
Embryology:
- This is the study of embryonic development
- Cleavage Divisions: mitotic divisions that occur as soon as zygote is formed;
these divisions don’t increase the overall size of the embryo; cytoplasm
distributed unevenly, genetic information distributed evenly
- Morula: what we call the embryo when it has become 16 cells; solid mass of cells
- Blastula/ Blastocyst: what we call the embryo when it has become 32 cells – by
this time it has implanted in the endometrial wall; hollow
- Gastrulation: cells separate into 3 germ layers, which give rise to different adult
tissues
o Endoderm – inner layer, lining of gut and digestive system, liver, lungs
o Mesoderm – intermediate layer; muscle, circulation, bones, reproductive
system
o Ectoderm – outer layer; nervous system, skin, hair, nails, teeth
Factors in Cellular Differentiation:
- Cytoplasmic distribution: different amounts of cytoplasm signal different
structures
- Induction: ability of one group of cells to influence another
- Homeotic genes: regulate or direct the body plan of organisms
Hormones:
- FSH: creates follicle that surrounds the primary oocyte during development
- LH: surge in this hormone triggers ovulation (release of secondary oocyte from
ovary)
- GnRH: causes pituitary to release LH and FSH
- Progesterone and estrogen: female sex hormones involved in reproduction
- Testosterone: male sex hormone involved in reproduction
The following stuff is NOT new…but you should recall:
Regions of Growth (in plant roots!)
Root Cap: protective structure that keeps roots from being damaged during push through
soil
Zone of Cell Division: section of root where cells are actively dividing
Zone of Elongation: next section up along the root, where cells absorb H20 and increase in
length to make the plant taller
Zone of maturation: section of root past the zone of elongation where the cells differentiate
to their finalized form (phloem, xylem, parenchyma, epidermal, etc)
Kingdom Animalia (Not included in 2012 revised curriculum but still important)
Important characteristics: no cell walls, 2n is dominant, mobile, multicellular, heterotrophic,
gastrulation
Common ancestor: choanoflagellate
Divisions: Eumetazoa/parazoa  radiate/bilateria 
acoelomates/coelomates/pseudocoeleomates  protostomes/ deuterostomes
Important members (in order of split from phylogenic tree): sponges (parazoa), jellyfish
(radiata), flatworms (acoelomates), roundworms (pseudocoelomate nematodes),
arthropods (protostomes), humans (chordates)
Kingdom Plantae
Chlorophytes: green algae that are the common ancestor of land plants (charophyceans)
Bryophytes: first land plants; two important adaptations  waxy cuticle (stop water loss),
gametangia:
- Gametangia: protective structures to aid survival of gametes on land
- Mosses: important bryophyte, dominant life cycle generation is a haploid
gametophyte
Pteridophytes: Seedless vascular plants; came after bryophytes; two important changes:
- Switch from haploid gametophyte to diploid sporophyte as dominant generation
- Development of branched sporophytes
- Ferns: important member; homosporous (bisexual gametophytes)
Gymnosperms: came after seedless vascular plants and has 3 evolutionary adaptations:
- Further increase in dominance of sporophyte generation
- Birth of pollination
- Evolution of seed
- Conifers: plants whose reproductive structure is a cone
Angiosperms: flowering plants that came after gymnosperms divided into monocots and
dicots
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Defense Mechanisms
Cryptic coloration: coloring scheme that allows organism to blend into colors of envt
Deceptive markings: patterns that cause an animal to appear larger or more dangerous
than it really is
Aposematic coloration: warning coloration adopted by animals that possess a chemical
defense mechanism
Batesian mimicry: animal that is harmless copies the appearance of an animal that is
dangerous
Mullerian Mimicry: Two aposemetrically colored species have a similar coloration
pattern
Biomes: The Special Facts
Desert: driest land biome
Taiga: lengthy cold, wet winters; lots of conifers
Temperate grasslands: most fertile soil of all
Tundra: permafrost, cold winters, short shrubs
Savanna: grasslands, home to herbivores
Deciduous forest: cold winters/ warm summers
Tropical forest: greatest diversity of species
Water biomes: freshwater and marine biomes of earth
Forms of Species Interaction
Parasitism: one organism benefits at another’s expense (tapeworms and humans)
Commensalism: one organism benefits while the other is unaffected (cattle egret and
cattle)
Mutualism: both organisms reap benefits from the interaction (acacia trees and ants,
lichen)
Competition: both species are harmed by the interaction
Predation: one species, the predator, hunts the other (prey)
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Types of Animal Learning
Fixed-action pattern: preprogrammed response to a stimulus
Habituation: loss of responsiveness to unimportant stimuli or stimuli that provide no
feedback
Imprinting: innate behavior learned during critical period early in life (baby ducks
imprint to mama ducks)
Associative learning: one stimulus is associated with the another (classical conditioning
– Pavlov and dogs salivating)
Operant conditioning: trial-and-error learning
Insight learning: ability to reason through a problem the 1st time through w/ no prior
experience
Observational learning: learning by watching someone else do it first
Types of Animal Movement
- Kinesis: change in the speed of movement in response to a stimulus. Organisms will
move faster in bad environments and slower in good environments
- Migration: cyclic movement of animals over long distances according to time of year
- Taxis: reflex movement toward or away from a stimulus
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Animal Behaviors
Agonistic behavior: conflict behavior over access to a resource. Often a matter of
which animal can mount the most threatening display and scare the other into
submission
Dominance hierarchies: ranking of power amongst the members of a group; subject to
change. Since members of the group know the order, less energy is wasted in conflicts
over food and resources.
Territoriality: defense of territory to keep others out
Altruistic behavior: action in which an organism helps another at its own expense
Reciprocal altruism: animals behave altruistically toward others who are NOT relatives,
hoping the favor will be returned sometime in the future
Foraging: feeding behavior of an individual. Animal have a search image that direct
them to food
Optimal foraging: natural selection favors those who choose foraging strategies that
maximize the differential between costs and benefits. If the effort involved in obtaining
food outweighs the nutritive value of the food, forget about it.
Inclusive fitness: the ability of the individuals to pass their genes not only through the
production of their own offspring, but also by providing aid to enable closely related
individuals to produce offspring
Coefficient of relatedness: statistic that represents the average proportion of genes two
individuals have in common. The higher the value, the more likely they would be to
altruistically aid one another