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Overview of Anatomy and Physiology Anatomy – the study of the structure of body parts and their relationships to one another Gross or macroscopic Microscopic Developmental Physiology – the study of the function of the body’s structural machinery Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Gross Anatomy (Macroscopic Anatomy) The study of large body structures visible to the naked eye, e.g. heart, lungs, kidneys, bones, etc… Regional – all structures in one part of the body (such as the abdomen or leg) Systemic – gross anatomy of the body studied by system Surface – study of internal structures as they relate to the overlying skin Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Microscopic Anatomy The study of anatomical structures not visible to the naked eye. Commonly, tissue slices are mounted on slides and stained to be examined under the Microscope. Cytology – study of the cell Histology – study of tissues Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Developmental Anatomy Traces structural changes throughout life Embryology – study of developmental changes of the body before birth Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Specialized Branches of Anatomy Pathological anatomy – study of structural changes caused by disease Radiographic anatomy – study of internal structures visualized by specialized scanning procedures such as X-ray, MRI, and CT scans Molecular biology – study of anatomical structures at a subcellular level (the study of molecules) Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Physiology Considers the operation of specific organ systems Renal – kidney function Neurophysiology – workings of the nervous system Cardiovascular – operation of the heart and blood vessels Focuses on the functions of the body, often at the cellular or molecular level Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Physiology Understanding physiology also requires a knowledge of physics, which explains electrical currents blood pressure the way muscle uses bone for movement Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Principle of Complementarity Function always reflects structure What a structure can do depends on its specific form Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Levels of Structural Organization Chemical: atoms molecules organelles cells Cellular – cells are made of molecules Tissue – consists of similar types of cells that have a common function. 4 types of tissues: i) Epithelium- covers body surface & lines cavities ii) Muscle- provides movement iii) Connective tissue- supports & protects body organs iv) Nervous tissue- rapid internal communication via electrical impulses Organ – a discrete structure composed of at least two tissue types that performs a specific function for the body (e.g. eye) Organ system – different organs that work together to accomplish a common purpose (e.g. cardiovascular system: heart, vessels, nerves Organismal – sum total of all structural levels working together to permit life. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Levels of Structural Organization Smooth muscle cell Molecules 2 Cellular level Cells are made up of molecules. Atoms 1 Chemical level Atoms combine to form molecules. 3 Tissue level Tissues consist of similar types of cells. Smooth muscle tissue Heart Cardiovascular system Blood vessels Epithelial tissue Smooth muscle tissue Connective tissue 4 Organ level Organs are made up of different types of tissues. Blood vessel (organ) 6 Organismal level The human organism is made up of many organ systems. 5 Organ system level Organ systems consist of different organs that work together closely. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 1.1 Integumentary System Forms the external body covering Composed of the skin, sweat glands, oil glands, hair, and nails Protects deep tissues from injury and synthesizes vitamin D Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 1.3a Skeletal System Composed of bone, cartilage, and ligaments Protects and supports body organs Provides the framework for muscles Site of blood cell formation Stores minerals Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 1.3b Muscular System Composed of muscles and tendons Allows manipulation of the environment, locomotion, and facial expression Maintains posture Produces heat Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 1.3c Nervous System Composed of the brain, spinal column, and nerves Is the fast-acting control system of the body Responds to stimuli by activating muscles and glands Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 1.3d Cardiovascular System Composed of the heart and blood vessels The heart pumps blood The blood vessels transport blood throughout the body Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 1.3f Lymphatic System Composed of red bone marrow, thymus, spleen, lymph nodes, and lymphatic vessels Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to blood Disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream Houses white blood cells involved with immunity Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 1.3g Respiratory System Composed of the nasal cavity, pharynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs Keeps blood supplied with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 1.3h Digestive System Composed of the oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, anus, and liver Breaks down food into absorbable units that enter the blood Eliminates indigestible foodstuffs as feces Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 1.3i Urinary System Composed of kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra Eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body Regulates water, electrolyte, and pH balance of the blood Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 1.3j Male Reproductive System Composed of prostate gland, penis, testes, scrotum, and ductus deferens Main function is the production of offspring Testes produce sperm and male sex hormones Ducts and glands deliver sperm to the female reproductive tract Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 1.3k Female Reproductive System Composed of mammary glands, ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, and vagina Main function is the production of offspring Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones Remaining structures serve as sites for fertilization and development of the fetus Mammary glands produce milk to nourish the newborn Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 1.3l Organ Systems Interrelationships For Example Nutrients and oxygen are distributed by the blood Metabolic wastes are eliminated by the urinary and respiratory systems Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 1.2 Necessary Life Functions Maintaining boundaries – the internal environment remains distinct from the external environment Cellular level – accomplished by plasma membranes Organismal level – accomplished by the skin Movement – Physical interactions w/ our external environment. Skeletal & muscular systems, nervous systems provide this. Some systems provide internal movement (e.g. GI tract). Even occurs at the cellular level. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Necessary Life Functions Responsiveness – ability to sense changes in the environment and respond to them (internal as well as external) Digestion – breakdown of food to simple molecules that can then be absorbed by the blood Metabolism – Involves the chemical reactions that occur in the body. Food Energy Growth. Involves digestive, respiratory, cardio-vascular, urinary systems and is regulated by the endocrine system. Excretion – removal of wastes from the body. Involves the digestive & urinary systems (feces & urine) as well as the respiratory system (CO2) Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Necessary Life Functions Reproduction – Occurs at both the cellular and organismal levels Cellular – an original cell divides and produces two identical daughter cells Organismal – sperm and egg unite to make a whole new person. The reproductive system is regulated by the hormones of the endocrine system. Growth – increase in size of a body part or of the organism by increasing the size and/or number of cells Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Survival Needs Nutrients – needed for energy and cell building Oxygen – necessary for metabolic reactions Water – provides the necessary environment for chemical reactions Normal body temperature – necessary for chemical reactions to occur at life-sustaining rates Atmospheric pressure – required for proper breathing and gas exchange in the lungs Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Homeostasis Homeostasis – ability to maintain a relatively stable internal environment in an ever-changing outside world All organs are involved and “communicate” with one another by the nervous and endocrine systems Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Homeostatic Control Mechanisms Variables produce a change in the body The three interdependent components of control mechanisms: Receptor – monitors the environments and detects changes (stimuli) Control center – determines the set point at which the variable is maintained Effector – provides the means for the control center’s response. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Homeostatic Control Mechanisms Variable (in homeostasis) Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 1.4 Homeostatic Control Mechanisms 1 Stimulus: Produces change in variable Imb ala nce Variable (in homeostasis) Imb Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings ala nce Figure 1.4 Homeostatic Control Mechanisms Receptor (sensor) 2 Change detected by receptor 1 Stimulus: Produces change in variable Imb ala nce Variable (in homeostasis) Imb Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings ala nce Figure 1.4 Homeostatic Control Mechanisms 3 Input: Information sent along afferent pathway to Control center Receptor (sensor) 2 Change detected by receptor 1 Stimulus: Produces change in variable Imb ala nce Variable (in homeostasis) Imb Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings ala nce Figure 1.4 Homeostatic Control Mechanisms 3 Input: Information sent along afferent pathway to Control center 4 Output: Information sent along efferent pathway to Receptor (sensor) Effector 2 Change detected by receptor 1 Stimulus: Produces change in variable Imb ala nce Variable (in homeostasis) Imb Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings ala nce Figure 1.4 Homeostatic Control Mechanisms 3 Input: Information sent along afferent pathway to Control center Receptor (sensor) 4 Output: Information sent along efferent pathway to Effector 2 Change detected by receptor 5 1 Stimulus: Produces change in variable Variable (in homeostasis) Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Response of effector feeds back to influence magnitude of stimulus and returns variable to homeostasis Figure 1.4 Information flows from the control center to the effector along the efferent pathway. Results feedback to influence the stimulus, either depressing it (negative feedback) resulting in shutting off the control mechanism or enhancing it (positive feedback) so that the reaction continues at an even faster rate. Approach Control Center ( Afferent) Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Exit (Efferent) Negative Feedback (-f.b.) In negative feedback systems, the output shuts off the original stimulus or reduces its intensity Most homeostatic control mechanisms are –f.b. -f.b. mechanisms cause the variable to change in a direction opposite to that of the initial change, returning it to its ideal value. Example: Regulation of room temperature via a thermostat connected to a furnace (the thermostat is analogous to the hypothalamus in the body) Other mechanisms include blood volume, heart rate, blood pressure, respiration rate and depth, blood levels of O2 & CO2, etc… Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Balance Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 1.5 Stimulus: rising room temperature Imb ala nce Balance Imb ala nce Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 1.5 Set point Receptor-sensor (thermometer In thermostat) Stimulus: rising room temperature Imb ala nce Balance Imb ala nce Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 1.5 Control center (thermostat) Set point Receptor-sensor (thermometer In thermostat) Stimulus: rising room temperature Imb ala nce Balance Imb ala nce Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 1.5 Signal wire turns heater off Control center (thermostat) Set point Stimulus: dropping room temperature Receptor-sensor (thermometer In thermostat) Heater off Effector (heater) Stimulus: rising room temperature Imb ala nce Balance Imb ala nce Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 1.5 Signal wire turns heater off Set point Control center (thermostat) Stimulus: dropping room temperature Receptor-sensor (thermometer In thermostat) Heater off Effector (heater) Stimulus: rising room temperature Response; temperature drops Balance Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 1.5 Imb ala nce Balance Imb ala nce Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Stimulus: dropping room temperature Figure 1.5 Imb ala nce Balance Imb ala nce Stimulus: dropping room temperature Set point Receptor-sensor (thermometer in Thermostat) Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 1.5 Imb ala nce Balance Imb ala nce Stimulus: dropping room temperature Set point Receptor-sensor (thermometer in Thermostat) Control center (thermostat) Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 1.5 Imb ala nce Balance Imb ala nce Stimulus: dropping room temperature Heater on Set point Effector (heater) Receptor-sensor (thermometer in Thermostat) Signal wire turns heater on Control center (thermostat) Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 1.5 Balance Response; temperature rises Stimulus: dropping room temperature Heater on Set point Effector (heater) Receptor-sensor (thermometer in Thermostat) Signal wire turns heater on Control center (thermostat) Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 1.5 Signal wire turns heater off Control center (thermostat) Set point Receptor-sensor (thermometer in Thermostat) Stimulus: rising room temperature Imb ala Heater off Effector (heater) Response; temperature drops nce Balance Response; temperature rises Imb ala nce Stimulus: dropping room temperature Heater on Set point Effector (heater) Receptor-sensor (thermometer in Thermostat) Signal wire turns heater on Control center (thermostat) Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 1.5 Positive Feedback In positive feedback systems, the output enhances or exaggerates the original stimulus so that the activity (output) is accelerated. The change that occurs proceeds in the same direction as the initial disturbance, causing the variable to deviate further and further from its original value. Often referred to as cascades Example: Labor contractions, blood clotting (next semester) Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 1.6 Language of Anatomy Anatomical Position Body erect, feet slightly apart, palms facing forward, thumbs point away from body Right, left, front, back, top, bottom are the subject’s (cadaver’s) P.O.V. NOT the observer’s. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 1.7a Directional Terms Superior and inferior – toward and away from the head, respectively Anterior and posterior – toward the front and back of the body Medial, lateral, and intermediate – toward the midline, away from the midline, and between a more medial and lateral structure Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Directional Terms Proximal and distal – closer to and farther from the origin of the body part Superficial and deep – toward and away from the body surface Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Directional Terms Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Table 1.1a Directional Terms Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Table 1.1b Regional Terms The two fundamental divisions of our bodies are its axial and appendicular parts. Axial parts: head, neck, trunk Appendicular parts: appendages (limbs) attached to the axis (see Figure 1.7) Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Body Planes A body plane is named for the plane along which it is cut Sagittal – divides the body into right and left parts Midsagittal or medial – sagittal plane that lies on the midline Frontal or coronal – divides the body into anterior and posterior parts Transverse or horizontal (cross section) – divides the body into superior and inferior parts Oblique section – cuts made diagonally Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Body Planes Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 1.8 So what is this? Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Body Cavities Dorsal cavity protects the nervous system, and is divided into two subdivisions Cranial cavity – within the skull; encases the brain Vertebral cavity – runs within the vertebral column; encases the spinal cord Ventral cavity houses the internal organs (viscera), and is divided into two subdivisions Thoracic cavity Abdominopelvic cavity Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Body Cavities Cranial cavity (contains brain) Thoracic cavity (contains heart and lungs) Dorsal body cavity Diaphragm Vertebral cavity (contains spinal cord) Abdominal cavity (contains digestive viscera) Key: Pelvic cavity (contains bladder, reproductive organs, and rectum) Dorsal body cavity Ventral body cavity (a) Lateral view Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 1.9a Body Cavities Key: Cranial cavity Dorsal body cavity Ventral body cavity Vertebral cavity Thoracic cavity (contains heart and lungs) Superior mediastinum Pleural cavity Pericardial cavity within the mediastinum Diaphragm Abdominal cavity (contains digestive viscera) Abdominopelvic cavity Ventral body cavity (thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities) Pelvic cavity (contains bladder, reproductive organs, and rectum) (b) Anterior view Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 1.9b Body Cavities Thoracic cavity is enclosed by the ribs & muscles of the chest Thoracic cavity is subdivided into two pleural cavities, the medial mediastinum, and the pericardial cavity Pleural cavities – each houses a lung Mediastinum – contains the pericardial cavity; surrounds the remaining thoracic organs Pericardial cavity – encloses the heart Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Body Cavities The abdominopelvic cavity (inferior to the thoracic cavity) is separated from the superior thoracic cavity by the diaphragm It is composed of two subdivisions Abdominal cavity (superior portion) – contains the stomach, intestines, spleen, liver, and other organs Pelvic cavity (inferior portion)– lies within the pelvis and contains the bladder, reproductive organs, and rectum Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Ventral Body Cavity Membranes Serosa (serous membrane) is a thin double-layered membrane that covers the walls of the ventral body cavity and the outer surfaces of the organs Parietal serosa lines cavity walls. It folds in on itself to form the visceral serosa Visceral serosa covers the internal organs Serous fluid separates the serosae Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Serous Membrane Relationship Fist (comparable to Heart) Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 1.10a Heart Serosae Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 1.10b Other Body Cavities Oral and digestive – mouth and cavities of the digestive organs Nasal –located within and posterior to the nose Orbital – house the eyes Middle ear – contains bones (ossicles) that transmit sound vibrations Synovial – joint cavities Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Other Body Cavities Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 1.13 Abdominopelvic Regions from Greek, literally, the parts under the cartilage (of the breastbone), From hypo- + chondros cartilage Epi – lying upon or over Hypo – inferior Hyper - superior Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 1.11a Organs of the Abdominopelvic Regions Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 1.11b Abdominopelvic Quadrants Right upper Left upper Right lower Left lower Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 1.12 KU Game Day!! Wed. 7:30 pm Fri. 4 pm Sat. 11 am Sat. 1 pm. Sat. 7 pm. Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings