Download Gross Anatomy

Overview of Anatomy and Physiology
Anatomy – the study of the structure of body parts
and their relationships to one another
Gross or macroscopic
Microscopic
Developmental
Physiology – the study of the function of the
body’s structural machinery
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Gross Anatomy (Macroscopic Anatomy)
The study of large body structures visible to the
naked eye, e.g. heart, lungs, kidneys, bones, etc…
Regional – all structures in one part of the body
(such as the abdomen or leg)
Systemic – gross anatomy of the body studied by
system
Surface – study of internal structures as they relate
to the overlying skin
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Microscopic Anatomy
The study of anatomical structures not visible to
the naked eye. Commonly, tissue slices are mounted
on slides and stained to be examined under the
Microscope.
Cytology – study of the cell
Histology – study of tissues
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Developmental Anatomy
Traces structural changes throughout life
Embryology – study of developmental changes of
the body before birth
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Specialized Branches of Anatomy
Pathological anatomy – study of structural changes
caused by disease
Radiographic anatomy – study of internal
structures visualized by specialized scanning
procedures such as X-ray, MRI, and CT scans
Molecular biology – study of anatomical structures
at a subcellular level (the study of molecules)
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Physiology
Considers the operation of specific organ systems
Renal – kidney function
Neurophysiology – workings of the nervous
system
Cardiovascular – operation of the heart and blood
vessels
Focuses on the functions of the body, often at the
cellular or molecular level
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Physiology
Understanding physiology also requires a
knowledge of physics, which explains
electrical currents
blood pressure
the way muscle uses bone for movement
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Principle of Complementarity
Function always reflects structure
What a structure can do depends on its specific
form
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Levels of Structural Organization
Chemical:
atoms
molecules
organelles
cells
Cellular – cells are made of molecules
Tissue – consists of similar types of cells that have a common function. 4 types of tissues:
i) Epithelium- covers body surface & lines cavities
ii) Muscle- provides movement
iii) Connective tissue- supports & protects body organs
iv) Nervous tissue- rapid internal communication via electrical
impulses
Organ – a discrete structure composed of at least two tissue types that
performs a specific function for the body (e.g. eye)
Organ system – different organs that work together to accomplish a common
purpose (e.g. cardiovascular system: heart, vessels, nerves
Organismal – sum total of all structural levels working together to permit life.
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Levels of Structural Organization
Smooth muscle cell
Molecules
2 Cellular level
Cells are made up of
molecules.
Atoms
1 Chemical level
Atoms combine to
form molecules.
3 Tissue level
Tissues consist of
similar types of cells.
Smooth
muscle
tissue
Heart
Cardiovascular
system
Blood
vessels
Epithelial
tissue
Smooth
muscle
tissue
Connective
tissue
4 Organ level
Organs are made up
of different types
of tissues.
Blood
vessel
(organ)
6 Organismal level
The human organism
is made up of many
organ systems.
5 Organ system level
Organ systems consist of
different organs that
work together closely.
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Figure 1.1
Integumentary System
Forms the external body
covering
Composed of the skin, sweat
glands, oil glands, hair, and
nails
Protects deep tissues from
injury and synthesizes vitamin
D
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Figure 1.3a
Skeletal System
Composed of bone, cartilage,
and ligaments
Protects and supports body
organs
Provides the framework for
muscles
Site of blood cell formation
Stores minerals
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Figure 1.3b
Muscular System
Composed of muscles and
tendons
Allows manipulation of the
environment, locomotion, and
facial expression
Maintains posture
Produces heat
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Figure 1.3c
Nervous System
Composed of the brain, spinal
column, and nerves
Is the fast-acting control
system of the body
Responds to stimuli by
activating muscles and glands
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Figure 1.3d
Cardiovascular System
Composed of the heart and
blood vessels
The heart pumps blood
The blood vessels transport
blood throughout the body
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Figure 1.3f
Lymphatic System
Composed of red bone
marrow, thymus, spleen,
lymph nodes, and lymphatic
vessels
Picks up fluid leaked from
blood vessels and returns it to
blood
Disposes of debris in the
lymphatic stream
Houses white blood cells
involved with immunity
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Figure 1.3g
Respiratory System
Composed of the nasal cavity,
pharynx, trachea, bronchi, and
lungs
Keeps blood supplied with
oxygen and removes carbon
dioxide
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Figure 1.3h
Digestive System
Composed of the oral cavity,
esophagus, stomach, small
intestine, large intestine,
rectum, anus, and liver
Breaks down food into
absorbable units that enter the
blood
Eliminates indigestible
foodstuffs as feces
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Figure 1.3i
Urinary System
Composed of kidneys, ureters,
urinary bladder, and urethra
Eliminates nitrogenous wastes
from the body
Regulates water, electrolyte,
and pH balance of the blood
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Figure 1.3j
Male Reproductive System
Composed of prostate gland,
penis, testes, scrotum, and
ductus deferens
Main function is the
production of offspring
Testes produce sperm and
male sex hormones
Ducts and glands deliver
sperm to the female
reproductive tract
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Figure 1.3k
Female Reproductive System
Composed of mammary glands,
ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, and
vagina
Main function is the production of
offspring
Ovaries produce eggs and female
sex hormones
Remaining structures serve as sites
for fertilization and development of
the fetus
Mammary glands produce milk to
nourish the newborn
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Figure 1.3l
Organ Systems Interrelationships
For Example
Nutrients and oxygen are
distributed by the blood
Metabolic wastes are
eliminated by the urinary
and respiratory systems
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Figure 1.2
Necessary Life Functions
Maintaining boundaries – the internal environment
remains distinct from the external environment
Cellular level – accomplished by plasma
membranes
Organismal level – accomplished by the skin
Movement – Physical interactions w/ our external
environment. Skeletal & muscular systems,
nervous systems provide this. Some systems
provide internal movement (e.g. GI tract). Even
occurs at the cellular level.
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Necessary Life Functions
Responsiveness – ability to sense changes in the
environment and respond to them (internal as well as
external)
Digestion – breakdown of food to simple molecules that
can then be absorbed by the blood
Metabolism – Involves the chemical reactions that occur in
the body. Food
Energy
Growth. Involves
digestive, respiratory, cardio-vascular, urinary systems and
is regulated by the endocrine system.
Excretion – removal of wastes from the body. Involves the
digestive & urinary systems (feces & urine) as well as the
respiratory system (CO2)
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Necessary Life Functions
Reproduction – Occurs at both the cellular and
organismal levels
Cellular – an original cell divides and produces two
identical daughter cells
Organismal – sperm and egg unite to make a whole
new person. The reproductive system is regulated
by the hormones of the endocrine system.
Growth – increase in size of a body part or of the
organism by increasing the size and/or number of
cells
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Survival Needs
Nutrients – needed for energy and cell building
Oxygen – necessary for metabolic reactions
Water – provides the necessary environment for
chemical reactions
Normal body temperature – necessary for chemical
reactions to occur at life-sustaining rates
Atmospheric pressure – required for proper
breathing and gas exchange in the lungs
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Homeostasis
Homeostasis – ability to maintain a relatively
stable internal environment in an ever-changing
outside world
All organs are involved and “communicate” with
one another by the nervous and endocrine systems
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Homeostatic Control Mechanisms
Variables produce a change in the body
The three interdependent components of control
mechanisms:
Receptor – monitors the environments and detects
changes (stimuli)
Control center – determines the set point at which
the variable is maintained
Effector – provides the means for the control
center’s response.
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Homeostatic Control Mechanisms
Variable (in homeostasis)
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Figure 1.4
Homeostatic Control Mechanisms
1
Stimulus:
Produces
change
in variable
Imb
ala
nce
Variable (in homeostasis)
Imb
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ala
nce
Figure 1.4
Homeostatic Control Mechanisms
Receptor (sensor)
2 Change
detected
by receptor
1
Stimulus:
Produces
change
in variable
Imb
ala
nce
Variable (in homeostasis)
Imb
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ala
nce
Figure 1.4
Homeostatic Control Mechanisms
3 Input:
Information
sent along
afferent
pathway to
Control
center
Receptor (sensor)
2 Change
detected
by receptor
1
Stimulus:
Produces
change
in variable
Imb
ala
nce
Variable (in homeostasis)
Imb
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ala
nce
Figure 1.4
Homeostatic Control Mechanisms
3 Input:
Information
sent along
afferent
pathway to
Control
center
4 Output:
Information sent
along efferent
pathway to
Receptor (sensor)
Effector
2 Change
detected
by receptor
1
Stimulus:
Produces
change
in variable
Imb
ala
nce
Variable (in homeostasis)
Imb
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ala
nce
Figure 1.4
Homeostatic Control Mechanisms
3 Input:
Information
sent along
afferent
pathway to
Control
center
Receptor (sensor)
4 Output:
Information sent
along efferent
pathway to
Effector
2 Change
detected
by receptor
5
1
Stimulus:
Produces
change
in variable
Variable (in homeostasis)
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Response of
effector feeds
back to
influence
magnitude of
stimulus and
returns variable
to homeostasis
Figure 1.4
Information flows from the control center to the
effector along the efferent pathway.
Results feedback to influence the stimulus, either
depressing it (negative feedback) resulting in
shutting off the control mechanism or enhancing it
(positive feedback) so that the reaction continues at
an even faster rate.
Approach
Control Center
( Afferent)
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Exit
(Efferent)
Negative Feedback (-f.b.)
In negative feedback systems, the output shuts off the
original stimulus or reduces its intensity
Most homeostatic control mechanisms are –f.b.
-f.b. mechanisms cause the variable to change in a
direction opposite to that of the initial change, returning it
to its ideal value.
Example: Regulation of room temperature via a
thermostat connected to a furnace (the thermostat is
analogous to the hypothalamus in the body)
Other mechanisms include blood volume, heart rate, blood
pressure, respiration rate and depth, blood levels of O2 &
CO2, etc…
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Balance
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Figure 1.5
Stimulus:
rising room
temperature
Imb
ala
nce
Balance
Imb
ala
nce
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Figure 1.5
Set
point
Receptor-sensor
(thermometer
In thermostat)
Stimulus:
rising room
temperature
Imb
ala
nce
Balance
Imb
ala
nce
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Figure 1.5
Control center
(thermostat)
Set
point
Receptor-sensor
(thermometer
In thermostat)
Stimulus:
rising room
temperature
Imb
ala
nce
Balance
Imb
ala
nce
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Figure 1.5
Signal
wire turns
heater off
Control center
(thermostat)
Set
point
Stimulus:
dropping room
temperature
Receptor-sensor
(thermometer
In thermostat)
Heater
off
Effector
(heater)
Stimulus:
rising room
temperature
Imb
ala
nce
Balance
Imb
ala
nce
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Figure 1.5
Signal
wire turns
heater off
Set
point
Control center
(thermostat)
Stimulus:
dropping room
temperature
Receptor-sensor
(thermometer
In thermostat)
Heater
off
Effector
(heater)
Stimulus:
rising room
temperature
Response;
temperature
drops
Balance
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Figure 1.5
Imb
ala
nce
Balance
Imb
ala
nce
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Stimulus:
dropping room
temperature
Figure 1.5
Imb
ala
nce
Balance
Imb
ala
nce
Stimulus:
dropping room
temperature
Set
point
Receptor-sensor
(thermometer in
Thermostat)
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Figure 1.5
Imb
ala
nce
Balance
Imb
ala
nce
Stimulus:
dropping room
temperature
Set
point
Receptor-sensor
(thermometer in
Thermostat)
Control center
(thermostat)
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Figure 1.5
Imb
ala
nce
Balance
Imb
ala
nce
Stimulus:
dropping room
temperature
Heater
on
Set
point
Effector
(heater)
Receptor-sensor
(thermometer in
Thermostat)
Signal
wire turns
heater on
Control center
(thermostat)
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Figure 1.5
Balance
Response;
temperature
rises
Stimulus:
dropping room
temperature
Heater
on
Set
point
Effector
(heater)
Receptor-sensor
(thermometer in
Thermostat)
Signal
wire turns
heater on
Control center
(thermostat)
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Figure 1.5
Signal
wire turns
heater off
Control center
(thermostat)
Set
point
Receptor-sensor
(thermometer in
Thermostat)
Stimulus:
rising room
temperature
Imb
ala
Heater
off
Effector
(heater)
Response;
temperature
drops
nce
Balance
Response;
temperature
rises
Imb
ala
nce
Stimulus:
dropping room
temperature
Heater
on
Set
point
Effector
(heater)
Receptor-sensor
(thermometer in
Thermostat)
Signal
wire turns
heater on
Control center
(thermostat)
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Cummings
Figure 1.5
Positive Feedback
In positive feedback systems, the output enhances
or exaggerates the original stimulus so that the
activity (output) is accelerated.
The change that occurs proceeds in the same
direction as the initial disturbance, causing the
variable to deviate further and further from its
original value.
Often referred to as cascades
Example: Labor contractions, blood clotting (next
semester)
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Figure 1.6
Language of Anatomy
Anatomical Position
Body erect, feet slightly
apart, palms facing
forward, thumbs point
away from body
Right, left, front, back,
top, bottom are the
subject’s (cadaver’s)
P.O.V. NOT the
observer’s.
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Figure 1.7a
Directional Terms
Superior and inferior – toward and away from the
head, respectively
Anterior and posterior – toward the front and back
of the body
Medial, lateral, and intermediate – toward the
midline, away from the midline, and between a
more medial and lateral structure
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Directional Terms
Proximal and distal – closer to and farther from the
origin of the body part
Superficial and deep – toward and away from the
body surface
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Directional Terms
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Table 1.1a
Directional Terms
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Table 1.1b
Regional Terms
The two fundamental divisions of our bodies are
its axial and appendicular parts.
Axial parts: head, neck, trunk
Appendicular parts: appendages (limbs) attached to
the axis (see Figure 1.7)
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Body Planes
A body plane is named for the plane along which it is cut
Sagittal – divides the body into right and left parts
Midsagittal or medial – sagittal plane that lies on the
midline
Frontal or coronal – divides the body into anterior and
posterior parts
Transverse or horizontal (cross section) – divides the body
into superior and inferior parts
Oblique section – cuts made diagonally
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Body Planes
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Figure 1.8
So what is this?
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Body Cavities
Dorsal cavity protects the nervous system, and is
divided into two subdivisions
Cranial cavity – within the skull; encases the brain
Vertebral cavity – runs within the vertebral
column; encases the spinal cord
Ventral cavity houses the internal organs (viscera),
and is divided into two subdivisions
Thoracic cavity
Abdominopelvic cavity
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Body Cavities
Cranial cavity
(contains brain)
Thoracic
cavity
(contains
heart
and lungs)
Dorsal
body
cavity
Diaphragm
Vertebral cavity
(contains spinal
cord)
Abdominal cavity
(contains digestive
viscera)
Key:
Pelvic cavity
(contains bladder,
reproductive organs,
and rectum)
Dorsal body cavity
Ventral body cavity
(a) Lateral view
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Figure 1.9a
Body Cavities
Key:
Cranial
cavity
Dorsal body cavity
Ventral body cavity
Vertebral
cavity
Thoracic
cavity
(contains
heart
and lungs)
Superior
mediastinum
Pleural
cavity
Pericardial
cavity within
the mediastinum
Diaphragm
Abdominal cavity
(contains digestive
viscera)
Abdominopelvic
cavity
Ventral
body cavity
(thoracic
and
abdominopelvic
cavities)
Pelvic cavity
(contains bladder,
reproductive organs,
and rectum)
(b) Anterior view
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Figure 1.9b
Body Cavities
Thoracic cavity is enclosed by the ribs & muscles of the
chest
Thoracic cavity is subdivided into two pleural cavities,
the medial mediastinum, and the pericardial cavity
Pleural cavities – each houses a lung
Mediastinum – contains the pericardial cavity;
surrounds the remaining thoracic organs
Pericardial cavity – encloses the heart
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Body Cavities
The abdominopelvic cavity (inferior to the thoracic
cavity) is separated from the superior thoracic
cavity by the diaphragm
It is composed of two subdivisions
Abdominal cavity (superior portion) – contains the
stomach, intestines, spleen, liver, and other organs
Pelvic cavity (inferior portion)– lies within the
pelvis and contains the bladder, reproductive
organs, and rectum
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Ventral Body Cavity Membranes
Serosa (serous membrane) is a thin double-layered
membrane that covers the walls of the ventral body
cavity and the outer surfaces of the organs
Parietal serosa lines cavity walls. It folds in on
itself to form the visceral serosa
Visceral serosa covers the internal organs
Serous fluid separates the serosae
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Serous Membrane Relationship
Fist (comparable to Heart)
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Figure 1.10a
Heart Serosae
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Figure 1.10b
Other Body Cavities
Oral and digestive – mouth and cavities of the
digestive organs
Nasal –located within and posterior to the nose
Orbital – house the eyes
Middle ear – contains bones (ossicles) that transmit
sound vibrations
Synovial – joint cavities
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Other Body Cavities
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Figure 1.13
Abdominopelvic Regions
from Greek, literally, the parts under the
cartilage (of the breastbone),
From hypo- + chondros cartilage
Epi – lying upon or over
Hypo – inferior
Hyper - superior
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Figure 1.11a
Organs of the Abdominopelvic Regions
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Figure 1.11b
Abdominopelvic Quadrants
Right upper
Left upper
Right lower
Left lower
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Figure 1.12
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