Download Chapter Six Russell on Superstitions and Taboo Morality

Chapter Six
Russell on Superstitions and Taboo Morality
In human society there are many ways of regulating the behaviour
of its members. There are objective sets of relationships between the
members as well as subjective sets of norms. If there was no normative
order, there could be no civilised human society. It is the norms that give
order, stabiHty, and predictability to social life. Consequently, these norms
are exceedingly important elements of the social structure
In all human thought there is an attempt to explain the source of
authority or power behind the norms
Ethical and religious notions are
themselves a part of the normative order of society. There are different
types of norms in society with a wide variety of sanctions applied. There
are customs, folkways, mores, totems, taboos, rites, rituals, conventions,
rules, and laws which broadly form part of the value systems of every
society.
Taboos have come to be used by anthropologists to describe
intricate social phenomena. The English word tahoo is derived from the
Polynesian word tahu. The meaning of tahoo diverges in two contrary
directions.
According to Sigmund Freud it means, "on the one hand,
'sacred', 'consecrated', and on the other 'uncanny', 'dangerous',
'forbidden', 'unclean'. The converse of 'taboo' in Polynesian is '^nod',
which means 'common' or 'generally accessible'. Thus 'taboo' has about
it a sense of something unapproachable, and it is principally expressed in
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prohibitions and restrictions Our collocation of 'holy dread' would often
coincide in meaning with 'taboo'."'
It is generally believed that taboos date back to a period before any
kind of religion existed and prevailed as the oldest human unwritten code
of laws. "Taboo restrictions", claims Sigmund Freud, "are distinct from
religious or moral prohibitions
They are not based upon any divine
ordinance, but may be said to impose themselves on their own account
They differ from moral prohibitions in that they fall into no system that
declares quite generally that certain abstinences must be observed and
gives reasons for that necessity. Though they are unintelligible to us, to
those who are dominated by them they are taken as a matter of course."^
When religion first came into existence among primitive people,
taboos further developed. In early times a man's religion consisted largely
of the religious acts which he performed rather than in the beliefs which he
held. In order to maintain religion intact, certain acts were forbidden and
particular objects became taboo. Taboos were enforced by invoking fear
The wrath of the gods would come down upon the offender, and
punishment would strike him down. Thus, along with taboo came the
appeal to fear and the concept of punishment. Religion thus furnished
society with one of its earliest tools of control.
Robert Bierstedt says that in every society there are both
"prescriptive and prescriptive norms, that is, the norms both prescribe, or
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require, certain actions and proscribe, or prohibit, certain other actions.'"
He says that the prescriptions frequently come in pairs and that
"proscriptive norms, when they are not legal prohibitions, are known as
taboos.""
A close analysis of the prevalent taboos at various periods of
their existence reveals the objectives of such prohibitions
They aim to
protect important persons and things against harm, to safeguard the weak
in the society from the powerful, to guard the chief acts of life- birth,
initiation, marriage and sexual functions against interference and to secure
against thieves the property and belongings of an individual.^ When ideas
of gods and spirits developed and with whom taboo became closely
associated, the penalty for the violation of a taboo was expected to follow
from the divine power. Freud says that "the eariiest human penal systems
may be traced back to taboo."*
Emory S. Bogardus claims that in civilised societies social control
is often exercised through "a modem form of taboo, which includes both
threat and penalty, although the latter is inflicted directly rather than by
invisible powers."^ The taboos exercise a dual control influence They are
forceful because they are either sacred or else unclean.
respect and fear.
They keep people from acting
They arouse
They inhibit. They
control the behaviour of people by their appeal, not to reason, but to their
deep-seated sentiments.
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Russell's enquiry into the sources of ethical beliefs leads him to the
conclusion that in primitive communities there is a preponderance of
purely superstitious beliefs, and that one of the chief sources of primitive
morality is taboo.^ If the taboos are infringed, they are liable to bring
disaster upon the guilty, and indeed upon the whole community, unless
appropriate purificatory ceremonies are performed.
Russell gives an
example from the Old Testament to prove that there is no justice in the
punishment of an act forbidden by a taboo.
"When David was
transporting the Ark on a cart, it jolted over a rough threshing floor, and
Uzzah, who was in charge, thinking it would fall, stretched up his hand to
steady it. For this impiety, in spite of his laudable motive, he was struck
dead [II Samuel, vi, 6-7]."'
Russell is of the view that the prevalence of morality based on
taboo in a civilised society is much more than some realise. He cites
examples from different cultures and religions. In Bertrand Russell Speaks
His Mind he says that the Hindus shudder at the thought of eating beef, the
Mohammedans and orthodox Jews regard the flesh of the pig as unclean, ^'^
social groups have rules prohibiting various forms of endogamy and all
these are defended solely on the ground of ancient taboo.
Taboo morality is defined by Russell as "the sort of morality that
consists in giving a set of rules mainly as to things you must not do,
without giving any reasons for those rules."'" In some cases, such reasons
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cannot be found, and even if they are found, they are considered absolute
because no one should go against a taboo.
Russell thinks that superstition has a strong influence on the
morality of the day. "Current morality is a curious blend of utilitarianism
and superstition," says Russell, "but the superstitious part has the stronger
hold, as is natural, since superstition is the origin of moral rules."" He
defines a belief as superstitious if "its sole basis is traditional or
emotional."'^
The terms 'superstition' and 'taboo' in connection with
morality are so closely connected that Russell makes no clear distinction
between the two.
The former is a comprehensive term with wider
implications than the latter.
Russell sees fear as the cause for the existence of superstitions
Fear sometimes operates directly by imagining objects of terror, such as
ghosts. Sometimes it operates indirectly by creating belief in something
comforting, such as the elixir of life or heaven for ourselves and hell for
our enemies. Russell observes that 'Tear has many forms - fear of death,
fear of the dark, fear of the unknown, fear of the herd, and that vague
generalized fear that comes to those who conceal fi^om themselves their
more specific terrors. . . . Fear is the main source of superstition, and one
of the main sources of cruelty.
To conquer fear is the beginning of
wisdom, in the pursuit of truth as in the endeavour after a worthy manner
of life."'^
Russell gives examples from history to substantiate his point
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that under the influence of great fear, almost everybody becomes
superstitious. In the Old Testament, the sailors threw Jonah overboard
because they believed that his presence was the cause of the storm that
threatened to wreck their ship. At the time of the Tokyo earthquake, the
Japanese took to massacring Koreans and Liberals, thinking that they were
the cause of their misfortune.'*
In his essay 'An Outline of Intellectual
Rubbish' Russell says: 'Tear generates impulses of cruelty, and therefore
promotes such superstitious beliefs as seem to justify cruelty. Neither a
man nor a crowd nor a nation can be trusted to act humanely or to think
sanely under the influence of a great fear."'^
Fear blots out the light of
day from human lives and makes them cruel Thus, Russell underlines the
great harm fear and superstition do to the individual and society.
Russell tries to analyse the evolution of morality since human
beings began to live together as a community.
In his essay 'The Harm
that Good Men Do' Russell says: 'Primitive morality seems to have
developed out of the notion of taboo; that is to say, it was originally purely
superstitious, and forbade certain perfectly harmless acts (such as eating
out of the chiefs dish) on the supposed ground that they produced disaster
by magical means.
In this way there came to be prohibitions, which
continued to have authority over people's feelings when the supposed
reasons for them were forgotten."'* Thus, by the passage of time the
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supposed reasons behind the superstitious beliefs were forgotten and they
became taboos.
There are many factors that surround the development of the
ethical systems of a society. In his essay 'Superstitious Ethics' Russell
says: "The word 'ethics', and still more the adjective 'unethical',
commonly implies some mysterious and inexplicable quality which an act is
known to possess in virtue either of a traditional tabu or of some
supernatural revelation. This point of view governs the ethical judgements
of most people and deeply affects criminal law,"*^ Russell calls this point
of view 'Superstitious ethics'.
He tries to analyse the reasons behind
some of the propositions which he considers to be superstitious in his
essay 'Superstitious Ethics':
It is wicked to eat pork;
it is wicked to eat beef;
it is wicked for a widow to evade
suttee,
it is wicked to work on Saturdays,
it is wicked to play on Sundays,
it is wicked for two godparents of the
same child to marry,
it is wicked to marry one's own deceased
wife's sister, or one's deceased
husband's brother;
it is wicked to fornicate;
it is wicked to have sexual relations
with a member of one's own sex;
it is wicked to commit suicide.'*
Russell is not concerned with whether these actions are wicked or not, but
with the reasons given for supposing them to be so
He says :"The
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reasons are derived in some cases from a tradition having a pre-historic
origin, but in most cases they are derived from some sacred book which is
considered so authoritative that its dicta must never be questioned."*^
The above propositions are considered taboo in society, but Russell labels
them under 'superstitious ethics' which for him is an all comprehensive
term.
His argument against superstitious ethics is that they have come
down from less civilised times and embody a harshness from which man
should try to escape.
According to superstitious ethics, people who do certain things are
sinners and they deserve to suffer; even acts which do no harm are apt to
be severely blamed. Russell is of the view that there could be provisions
for punishment for wrong-doings as and when required; but insists that
when punishment is justifiable, it should be treated as regrettable necessity
and not something to rejoice at as a just retribution. He claims that some
people cling to certain ethical principle, irrespective of its validity or
otherwise, because it affords them "an outlet for some not very noble
passion,
more especially cruelty, envy, and pleasure in
feeling
superiority."^" Russell believes that superstitious ethics often springs from
such undesirable sources that it is worthwhile to combat it.
Russell finds in our current modem morality a curious mixture of
rationalism and superstition.
In his essay 'An Outline of Intellectual
Rubbish' Russell says: "Modern morals are a mixture of two elements: on
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the one hand, rational precepts as to how to live together peaceably in a
society, and on the other hand traditional taboos derived originally from
some ancient superstition, but proximately from sacred books. Christian,
Mohammedan, Hindu, or Buddhist."^'
There are certain morals where
reason and scriptures agree whereas certain others are only supported by
scriptures
Prohibition of murder and theft are accepted by both but the
prohibition of pork or beef has only scriptural authority.
Russell shows the difference in the effect of an ethic supported by
rationalism and superstition, and the effect of a modern crime viewed only
rationally.
Murder is an ancient crime, and we view it with horror,
forgery is a modern crime, and we view it rationally.
Though we punish
forgers, we do not consider them strange beings set apart, as we do
murderers.^^
This is because the origin of the prohibition of murder is
purely superstitious.
As Russell says, "It was thought that the murdered
man's blood (or, later, his ghost) demanded vengeance, and might punish
not only the guilty man, but any one who showed him kindness
The
superstitious character of the prohibition of murder is shown by the fact
that it was possible to be purified from blood guiltiness by certain ritual
ceremonies, which were apparently designed, originally, to disguise the
murderer so that the ghost would not recognize him."^^ A rational ethic
will also show us the criminality of murder, but our view of murder is
formed as a result of a mixture of elements of rationalism and superstition,
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and the latter being the predominant element. It is different from a crime
like forgery which is viewed rationally. The impact of these two crimes on
the individual and the society is different, the difference is due to the
element of superstition.
There have been many superstitious beliefs about blood from the
beginning of human history.
In 'An Outline of Intellectual Rubbish'
Russell says: "Superstitions about blood have many forms that have
nothing to do with race. The objection to homicide seems to have been,
originally, based on the ritual pollution caused by the blood of the victim.
God said to Cain: 'The voice of thy brother's blood crieth unto me from
the ground.' According to some anthropologists, the mark of Cain was a
disguise to prevent Abel's blood from finding him, this appears also to be
the original reason for wearing mourning. In many ancient communities
no difference was made between murder and accidential homicide; in either
case equally ritual ablution was necessary."'^'' When we speak of ritual
ablution to wash out guilt, we are using a metaphor derived from the fact
that long ago actual washing was used to remove blood-stains. Russell
thinks that a rational ethic in the case of murder will be concerned with
prevention and cure rather than with guilt, punishment and expiation.
There have always been beliefs about 'race' and 'blood' in one
form or another.
These beliefs are as old as civilisation, their forms
change, but their essence remains. During the Second World War the
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American Red Cross decreed that no Negro blood should be used for
blood transfusion. Similarly, in Germany, the Aryan soldier who needed
blood transfusion was carefully protected from the contamination of
Jewish blood.
Superstitions, taboos and social customs have been the source of
order among uncivilised tribes, and they remain the source of order
through successive stages of culture. Russell thinks that it is the 'sceptical
intellect'^' that could show the absurdity of these taboos, beliefs and
customs and move man towards evolving a more rational morality
He
speaks of innumerable instances of superstitious morals which inflict
preventable suffering and how, with the work of the sceptical intellect
through centuries, gradual progress towards a more rational morality is
being made. However, Russell was not happy with the existing conditions
of his time, as is evident from the relentless attack he made at the various
superstitious morals of his time.
Russell accepts the authority of reason rather than that of scripture.
The clergy had been fighting a losing battle against science ever since
science began to grow and influence human life. People believed that their
"sins were punished by pestilence and famine, by earthquake, flood, and
fire."^* When the lightning-rod was invented, the clergy condemned it as
an attempt to defeat the will of God. It was believed that lightning was
sent by God to punish impiety and any other grave sin, and that the
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virtuous were never struck by lightning. Russell says: "When, at one time,
there were several bad earthquakes in India, Mahatma Gandhi solemnly
warned his compatriots that these disasters had been sent as a punishment
for their sins."^^
Until the end of the eighteenth century, people believed that
insanity was due to possession by devils
Russell says; "It was inferred
that any pain suffered by the patient is also suffered by the devils, so that
the best cure is to make the patient suffer so much that the devils will
decide to abandon him. The insane, in accordance with this theory, were
savagely beaten "^* During the Ages of Faith many thousands of witches
were burnt at the stake. Russell says: "When anaesthetics were discovered
pious people considered them an attempt to evade the will of God. It was
pointed out, however, that when God extracted Adam's rib He put him
into sleep. This proved that anaesthetics are all right for men; women,
however, ought to suffer, because of the curse of Eve."^^
Russell sees the adverse effect of superstitions in various fields,
notably in the field of politics and economics.
He sees the spirit of
nationalism, which insists on duty to one's own state and to no other, as a
superstition.
In order to promote the spirit of nationalism, holders of
power desire their subjects to be emotional rather than rational. The spirit
of nationalism which is spread as a form of mass-hysteria to which men are
unfortunately liable is one of the most dangerous vices of our time.
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Education is used as a means to inculcate superstitious beliefs about one's
own country. It glorifies war and justifies cruelties that it perpetuates in
the name of love of one's own country and hatred towards others.
According to Russell, the whole philosophy of economic
nationalism, which is now universal throughout the world, is based upon
the false belief that the economic interest of one nation is necessarily
opposed to that of another. This false belief, by producing international
hatreds and rivalries, is a cause of war. False beliefs are inculcated by
appealing to human emotions
Being emotional rather than rational
renders it easier to make those who are victims of an unjust social system
content with their lot. It also makes one feel self-righteous with regard to
his views towards his neighbours. Superstition, thus, becomes the natural
ally of injustice.
Russell says that there are superstitions even in the sphere of
economics. He thinks that people value gold and precious stones not
because of their rarity but because they were valued originally on account
of their magical properties. He even attributes the great depression to the
"surviving belief in the magical properties of gold."^''
Though this
superstition now seems to be dead, Russell thinks that others will replace it
in due course.
It is in the field of sexual morality that there are innumerable
superstitions and taboos connected with its origins. Russell, in Marriage
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and Morals says that historically sexual morality, "as it exists in civilised
societies, has been derived from two different sources; on the one hand
desire for certainty as to fatherhood, on the other an ascetic belief that sex
is wicked, except in so far as it is necessary for propagation."^' Reticence
about sexual facts has had its origin in the motive to keep women ignorant
so as to help towards masculine domination. "Gradually, however, women
acquiesced in the view that ignorance is essential to virtue, and partly
through their influence it came to be thought that children and young
people, whether male or female, should be as ignorant as possible on
sexual subjects. At this stage the motive ceased to be one of domination
and passed into the region of irrational taboo.'"^
Sexual morality affects
childhood, adolescence, and even old age, in all kinds of ways.
Conventional morality begins its operations by the imposition of taboos in
childhood which, in turn, develop a profound sense of guilt and terror
which is associated with sexual matters.
According to the Bible and Sigmund Freud, the capacity for guilt
has characterised the human race as we know it. Reszek Kolakowski
defines guilt as "an act of questioning one's own status in the cosmic
order;. . . it is not a fear of revenge but a feeling of awe in the face of one's
own action which has disturbed the world-harmony, an anxiety following
the transgression not of a law but of a tahoo"^^ Russell thinks that the
influence of superstitions and taboos about the facts of sex in education is
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disastrous. The main physiological facts need to be taught quite simply
and naturally at a time when they are not exciting, and the elements of an
unsuperstitious sexual morality ought to be taught at puberty.
It is by
such education that a healthy sexual morality can be developed rather than
by evasive answers to inconvenient questions or by punishment.
Russell is of the view that almost every adult in a Christian
community is more or less guilt ridden as a result of the taboo on sex
knowledge when he or she was young. And the sense of sin which is
artificially implanted causes cruelty, timidity and stupidity in later life
"There is no rational ground", says Russell, "of any sort or kind for
keeping a child ignorant of anything that he may wish to know, whether on
sex or any other matter."^''
Because of the taboo attached to sexual
matters "conventional Christians think an adulterer more wicked than a
politician who takes bribes, although the latter probably does a thousand
times as much harm"."
Russell illustrates the absurdity of Christian ethics through the
example of two men. One man has stamped out yellow fever throughout
some large region in the tropics, but has in the course of his labours had
occasional relations with women to whom he was not married. The other
has been lazy and shiftless, begetting a child a year until his wife died of
exhaustion, and taking so little care of his children that half of them died
from preventable causes, but has never indulged in illicit sexual
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intercourse. Every traditional Christian maintains that the second of these
men is more virtuous than the first. Such an attitude is, of course,
superstitious and totally contrary to reason. ^^
Such an absurdity is
inevitable so long as society considers that the avoidance of sin is more
important than positive merit.
In every human society, if a man abstains from adultery, murder,
theft and other evils he is conventionally held to deserve moral admiration
even if he has never done a single generous or useful action. This very
inadequate notion of virtue, according to Russell, is an outcome of taboo
morality, and has done untold harm.
Russell is of the view that sexual morality, freed from superstition,
is a simple matter.
All issues of assault, rape, sexual harassment or
seduction of persons under age are proper matters for criminal law. He
says in 'Styles in Ethics': "Relations between adults who are free agents
are a private matter, and should not be interfered with either by the law or
by public opinion, because no outsider can know whether they are good or
bad."" Though his view appears to be bold and liberal rational ethic will
not tolerate murder.
In society we view murder through a mist of age-
long horror which is the result of a taboo. This feeling of horror is a
deterrent and therefore prohibition of murder as a taboo serves some
useful purpose. "Superstitions", Russell tells us in his essay 'An Outline of
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Intellectual Rubbish', "are not always dark and cruel, often they add to the
gaiety of life."^'
It is clear that Russell does not consider seriously the benefits of
superstitious and taboo morality. He finds two different sorts of harm
done by 'the unthinking rules of taboo morality'.'"^ The first one is that
"they are usually ancient and come down fi"om a different sort of society
fi'om that in which we live, where really a different ethic was appropriate,
and very often they are not appropriate to modem times.'"" The second
one is that "taboo moralities tend to perpetuate ancient cruelties "^^
Russell thinks that the latter is more harmful, he illustrates this with many
examples. The Greeks, at a very early period in their history, wanted to
abolish human sacrifice which was prevalent among them The Oracle at
Delphi was against abolishing it because it made its living out of
superstition and supported human sacrifice long after the Greeks had given
it up. There is a very powerful taboo against birth control among certain
sections of the Christian community because it is considered a new
violation of nature which is calculated to do enormous harm. This, in turn,
promotes poverty and war making the solution of many social problems
impossible."*^
Russell therefore highlights the harm, rather than the
benefits, done by taboos to society.
Russell is hopeful that from the progress of reason and science, a
new morality will evolve In his essay 'The Harm That Good Men Do'
15&
Russell says: "We need a morality based upon love of life, upon pleasure in
growth and positive achievement, not upon repression and prohibition."**
In order to bring about such a change it is necessary "to instil a rational
attitude towards ethical questions, instead of the mixture of superstition
and oppression which still passes muster as 'virtue' among important
personages. The power of reason is thought small in these days, but I
remain an unrepentant rationalist. Reason may be a small force, but it is
constant, and works always in one direction, while the forces of unreason
destroy one another in futile strife."*" Russell is optimistic about the role
of science in evolving "a good life, by giving man knowledge, self-control
and characters productive of harmony rather than strife","** and instinctive
happiness rather than a sense of guilt and sin.
But the question that arises is whether it is possible to evolve a
morality devoid of superstition and taboo. The presence of taboo is the
immovable pillar of any viable moral system as distinct from a penal one in
a society.
Reszek Kolakowski believes that no matter how frequently
violated, taboos are alive as long as their violation produces the
phenomenon of guilt and that they have a substantial role to play in social
relationships. He says;
As long as moral motivations work at all in our patterns of
conduct, they work not because the corresponding value
judgements have been reliably inferred, to our satisfaction,
from empirical propositions, but because we are capable of
feeling guilty. The consciousness of guilt is the counterpart
of taboo, whereas the fear of punishment is related to the
\39
force of law; the two kinds of motivation and two kinds of
inhibition must not be confused, they differ in
psychological, as well as in anthropological, terms. This is
why there are no grounds to expect that in a society where
all taboos have been done away with, and consequently the
consciousness of guilt has evaporated (and both can
obviously continue to operate for a time, by the inertial
force of tradition, after religious beliefs have vanished from
people's minds), only legal coercion would remain to keep
the entire fabric of communal life from falling apart and all
non-coercive human bonds from dissolving. Such a society
has never existed in a perfect form.''^
If law is the only means to check and control human behaviour, man will
have no hesitation to break any rule or law. Even if one is caught breaking
a law, he feels no moral compunction, whereas any other minor thing to
which taboo or superstition is attached, he seldom breaks it. Russell is for
preserving those taboos which add gaiety to life. He admits that there are
things beyond reason in the realm of mystery. When the realm of mystery
is part of this universe, it would be worthwhile to preserve those things
beyond reason which add to life
In spite of the impressive progress that man has made over the
centuries, we still do not know for sure whether it would be viable to have
a society without superstitions and taboos. Conforming to the traditional
moral norms is considered more virtuous than doing any act of positive
virtue. But seeing the harm that taboos do to man and society, Russell, a
self-confessed unrepentant rationalist, feels the need of biiilding up a
rational morality which emphasises ends of life rather than rules of
conduct. Belief in the importance of rules of conduct is superstitious, what
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is important is to care for good ends. Once man is able to make such a
distinction and make a conscious decision to follow the good ends of life
rationally, the hold of superstitions and taboos will be reduced
considerably from society
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References
1
Sigmund Freud, Totem and Taboo ( New York: W.W.Norton &
Company Inc, 1950) 18.
2
Freud 18.
3
Robert Bierstedt, The Social Order fTSew Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill
Publishing Co, Ltd, 1970) 213.
4
Bierstedt 213.
5
Freud 19-20.
6
Freud 20.
7
Emory S. Bogardus, Sociology (New York: The Macmilian Company,
1954) 476.
8
Bertrand Russell, Human Society in Ethics and Fo//ftci(London:
George Allen & Unwin, 1971) 29.
9
Russell, Human Society in Ethics and Politics 29.
10 Bertrand Russell, Bertrand Russell Speaks His Mind
(New York: Bard Books, 1960) 51.
11 Bertrand Russell, "What I Believe", The Basic Writings of Bertrand
Russell: 1903-1959 ed. Robert E.Egner and Lester E.Denonn (London:
Routledge, 1992) 377.
12 Bertrand Russell, Education and the Social Order (London:
Routledge, 1993) 146.
162
13 Bertrand Russell, Unpopular Essays (London: George Allen
&Unwm, 1970) 100.
14 Russell, Unpopular Essays 102.
15 Russell, Unpopular Essays 102.
16 Bertrand Russell, Sceptical Essays (London:
Unwin Books, 1960) 81
17 Russell, Human Society in Ethics and Politics 138.
18 RusseW, Human Society in Ethics and Politics 138.
19 RusseW, Human Society in Ethics and Politics 139.
20 RusseW, Human Society in Ethics and Politics 143.
21 Russell, Unpopular Essays 11.
22 Russell, Sceptical Essays 82.
23 Russell, Sceptical Essays 82.
24 Russell, Unpopular Essays 86.
25 Russell, The Prospects of Industrial Civilization (London:
George Allen & Unwin, 1959) 18.
26 Russell, Unpopular Essays 71.
27 Russell, Unpopular Essays 73.
28 Russell, Unpopular Essays 83.
29 Russell, Unpopular Essays 84.
30 Russell, Unpopular Essays 87.
31 Betrand Russell, Marriage and Morals (London: George
Allen & Unwin, 1994)193
163
32 Betrand Russell, Marriage and Morals 67.
33 Reszek Kolakowski, Religion (Fontana Masterguides 1982) 193.
34 Bertrand Russell, "Has Religion Made Useful Contribution to Civilization",
Why I Am Not a Christian ed. P.Edwards ( George Allen &
1957) 22.
35 Russell, Why I Am Not a Christian 25.
36 Russell, Why I Am Not a Christian 35.
37 Russell, "Styles in Ethics", The Basic Writings of Bertrand
Russell 349.
38 Russell, Bertrand Russell Speaks His Mind 52.
39 Russell, Unpopular Essays 103.
40 Russell, Bertrand Russell Speaks His Mind 57.
41 Russell, Bertrand Russell Speaks His Mind 57.
42 Russell, Bertrand Russell Speaks His Mind 57.
43 Russell, Bertrand Russell Speaks His Mind 57.
44 Russell, Sceptical Essays 83.
45 Russell, Sceptical Essays 83.
46 Russell, "What I Believe", The Basic Writings of Bertrand
Russell 390.
47 Kolakowski, Religion 195-96.
Unwin,