Download Vicarious Learning. You might begin the class by briefly lecturing on

Chapter 9
Conditioning and Learning Processes
AUTHORS' OVERVIEW OF THE CHAPTER
In this chapter, we discuss two major theoretical approaches to behavior modification--classical and operant
conditioning. These are sometimes referred to as respondent and instrumental conditioning, respectively. The
procedures involved in both are used by marketers to design marketing strategies to change or maintain consumers'
behaviors.
We also discuss vicarious learning, sometimes called modeling or imitation learning. In vicarious learning,
consumers observe another person engaging in a particular behavior (looking at the seafood display in the
supermarket) or set of behaviors (shopping for groceries), and they also observe the consequences of those behaviors
(brands purchased, amount of money spent, affective states produced, exposure to environmental factors). In
addition to its emphasis on changing overt behavior, vicarious learning can be analyzed in terms of the cognitive
processes of attention, comprehension, and integration.
Classical Conditioning. Classical conditioning refers to the process by which a neutral stimulus (such as a brand
name like Starbucks) may come to elicit a simple response (such as a favorable evaluative reaction). This occurs
through the process of classical conditioning in which the neutral stimulus (the conditioned stimulus) is paired with
another stimulus (the unconditioned stimulus) that naturally elicits the desired response. After repeated pairings, the
originally neutral stimulus comes to elicit the same (or a similar) response (the conditioned response). Exhibit 9.1
summarizes the relationships between these variables.
In classical conditioning the response is under the control of a stimulus that precedes it. The classic example of
classical conditioning, of course, is Pavlov's original experiments in which he conditioned a dog to salivate (the
conditioned response) to the sound of a bell (the conditioned stimulus) by repeatedly pairing the tone with meat
powder (the unconditioned stimulus that naturally elicited salivation). After several trials, the dog would salivate
when only the tone sounded (no meat powder). The salivation response had been conditioned (learned).
Classical conditioning works especially well for simple, "smooth muscle" responses such as glandular responses
(salivation), physiological responses (heart rate), and for very simple behaviors such as those associated with
attention (blinking the eye). Affective responses (emotions, feelings, and moods) can also be classically
conditioned. In the text, we describe several examples of classical conditioning in marketing (see Exhibit 9.2).
Operant Conditioning. Next, we describe the basic assumptions and procedures underlying operant conditioning. In
classical conditioning, behaviors are influenced by stimuli that precede the response (the stimulus "elicits" the
response). In contrast, behaviors in operant conditioning are influenced by the stimuli that follow the behaviors. In
other words, the behavior is instrumental in obtaining the reinforcing stimulus.
Several types of variables are important in understanding operant conditioning.

Positive reinforcers are stimuli that tend to increase the probability that the behavior/response which
preceded it will be repeated.
For instance, an instant cash rebate given at the cash register after buying a new frozen entree is a
positive reinforcer if it increases the probability that you will buy that brand again.

Negative reinforcers are stimuli that increase the probability of a response by removing a negative,
aversive stimulus that usually follows it.
For instance, consider that valet parking at a downtown restaurant removes the hassle of trying to
find a parking place when going out to dinner. Valet parking is a negative reinforcer if it increases
the probability of going to that restaurant again.
Students sometimes are confused by the concept of negative reinforcement. A negative reinforcer
is actually desirable to the person behaving, because it removes an aversive stimulus (hassle) that
normally follows the behavior.

Punishers are negative stimuli that follow a response and decrease the probability of that response.
The bad taste of a new brand of chewing gum is a punisher if it reduces the probability that you
will buy it again.
Another important factor in operant conditioning is extinction. Extinction occurs when the probability of the
response decreases, eventually to a very low level. Usually, extinction occurs by removing a reinforcer that was
once associated with the behavioral response.
If a brand that was always offered at a special price deal begins to be sold at "full price," the purchase
behavior may be extinguished.
Next, we describe several important aspects of operant conditioning. We begin with a discussion of the influence of
reinforcement schedules, how frequently the reinforcing stimulus occurs after the response. We distinguish between
continuous reinforcement (the reinforcer occurs after every response) and ratio schedules (not every response is
followed by a reinforcer). We discuss how fixed and variable ratio schedules of reinforcement lead to differing
strengths of behaviors.
Then, we discuss shaping, a process by which a particular behavior (usually a complex behavior) is learned by
selectively reinforcing similar, related behaviors that gradually come to approximate the desired behavior.
We also discuss discriminative stimuli which, by their very presence or absence, act to change the probability of a
behavior. For instance, the word "free" usually operates as a strong discriminative stimulus.
We conclude by describing some consumer research on operant conditioning.
KEY CONCEPTS AND ISSUES
 Classical or respondent conditioning
 Operant or instrumental conditioning
 Positive and negative reinforcement
 Punishment
 Extinction
 Effects on behavior of fixed and variable reinforcement schedules
 Shaping behavior
 Discriminative stimuli versus reinforcing stimuli
 The modeling process
 Factors affecting modeling effectiveness—including characteristics of the model, the consumer, the
modeled behavior, and the modeled consequences of the behavior
OUTLINE OF CHAPTER TOPICS
Chapter 9. CONDITIONING AND LEARNING PROCESSES
A. Lottery Games: Powerball and Mega Millions
B. Classical Conditioning
1. Consumer research on classical conditioning
2. Marketing implications
C. Operant conditioning
1. Reinforcement schedules
2. Shaping
3. Discriminative stimuli
4. Marketing implications
D. Vicarious Learning
1. Uses of Vicarious Learning in Marketing Strategy
a. Developing new responses
b. Inhibiting undesired responses
c. Response facilitation
2. Factors influencing modeling effectiveness
a. Model and modeled behavior characteristics
b. Characteristics of observers
c. Characteristics of modeled consequences
3. Marketing Implications
E. Back to ….. Lottery Games: Powerball and Mega Millions
TEACHING OBJECTIVES
After completing this chapter, students should be able to:
 describe the process of classical conditioning and the factors that affect it.
 understand the differences between conditioned and unconditioned stimuli and conditioned and
unconditioned responses.
 describe the process of operant conditioning and the factors that affect it.
 identify the key differences between classical and operant conditioning.
 understand the differences between positive and negative reinforcement.
 understand the differences between extinction and punishment.
 describe the different effects of fixed and variable ratios of reinforcement.
 describe shaping.
 discuss the differences between discriminative and reinforcing stimuli.
 identify different types of modeling strategies used by marketers.
 identify and discuss the various factors that influence the effectiveness of a modeling strategy and
discuss how these factors work.
TEACHING IDEAS AND SUGGESTIONS
Overview. This chapter is best treated in a straightforward manner. Class time can be spent briefly reviewing the
concepts covered in the book and presenting or asking for examples from the marketing environment. Examples of
marketing strategies that illustrate both classical conditioning and operant conditioning are easy to find in the
business press or in your local community. A basic teaching approach might be to:

Briefly describe a concept such as variable ratio reinforcement.

Ask students to identify examples of the variable ratio reinforcement concept from their own
experience.
For example, consider that gambling (slot machines, blackjack), playing a state lottery, and
contests in stores (a chance to win 20 percent off your purchases at the checkout counter) all "pay
off" on a variable ratio schedule. That is, not every response is reinforced and the reinforcements
occur essentially on a random basis.

Ask students to describe how these examples "work" to be sure that students understand the concepts.

Ask students to consider how these examples could be improved to develop even more effective
marketing strategies.
Improvement will not always be possible, but the challenge of trying to develop more effective
schedules of reinforcement will help students understand the concepts.
In-Class Exercise: Classical Conditioning. Another approach is to look for examples of classical conditioning
being used in the everyday world.

Ask students to provide examples of classical conditioning used in marketing strategies.

Be sure students identify the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli and responses in each example.
An easy example is symbols used by companies in their advertising and public relations--the bull
by Merrill-Lynch, the bald eagle by US Postal Service, kittens to connote softness in many
products, etc. Companies are trying to condition some of the affective responses and meanings
associated with such symbols to their company or brand.
Once students get the hang of this, they can generate many examples of classical conditioning,
including uses of association by political candidates, local retail stores, and friends and
acquaintances.

Another approach is to ask students to bring classical conditioning examples to class in the form of ads
or other evidence as a simple, "informal" class assignment.
Some students will identify unusual and interesting marketing uses of classical conditioning which
can be the basis for a lively class discussion.
Alternatively, this assignment could be a "larger," more formal project to be written up and
handed in (see example below).
In-Class Exercise: Operant Conditioning. You can use the same types of exercises as above to illustrate operant
conditioning principles.

Ask students to provide examples of operant conditioning used in marketing strategies.

Force students to identify the key operant conditioning concepts that are operating in each example.
Examples of positive and negative reinforcement, extinction, punishment, reinforcement
schedules, shaping, and discriminative stimuli should be identified.

Ask students to relate each factor to its particular effect on behavior.
For example, did it increase or decrease the probability of behavior? Did it change the rate or
frequency of behavior? Or, did it influence the duration of behavior?
In-Class Exercise: Selecting Positive Reinforcers. Marketers who decide to use a marketing strategy based on
operant conditioning principles, often have the difficult problem of selecting which reinforcer to use.

Select a low priced product (say a detergent or a candy bar) and a high-priced product such as an
automobile.

Ask students to think about how they would reinforce a purchase behavior of the low-priced product
and a trial behavior (test drive) of the automobile. How could marketers develop a marketing strategy
based on this reinforcer?
Students might first come up with the idea of giving consumers money as reinforcement for the
desired behavior. Rebates are a common reinforcer for purchasing many types of products in the
U.S., from consumer package goods to cars.
For example, in 1986, Ralston Purina put real money (both foreign and U.S. currency--at
least a peso and as much as $500) in every box of their breakfast cereal, "Almond
Delight." Here, the reinforcement schedule was continuous since every buyer received
some reinforcement for buying the product, but the amount of reinforcement was variable
(there was about a 1-in-43 chance of winning U.S. money). Although the promotion had
the advantage of continuously reinforcing every purchase, most of the money was foreign
bills with very low actual value (as little as 1/4 cent). Getting a foreign bill also was a
"gentle" way of informing buyers that they didn't win the U.S. money.
Perhaps a student will question whether giving money is as good a reinforcement as some other
things of value. A study suggests that non-cash premiums are valued more highly by consumers'
than the equivalent amount of cash. In other words, consumers would rather get an object of value
(towels in a box of detergent) than cash. This research found that on average, consumers valued
premiums about 1/3 higher than its actual cash value. Certain objects were more highly valued-writing instruments, electronics, clothing, and mugs had the highest value relative to their cash
price.
This suggests that marketers could conduct research to determine what premiums would
be most valued by consumers before instituting a reinforcement strategy.

Ask students to think about what types of premiums would be good reinforcers for buying a new brand
of microwave snack food, or using a credit card to charge purchases, or going to a furniture showroom
to browse.
In-Class Exercise: Schedules of Reinforcement. How frequently a behavior is followed by a reinforcer is called
the schedule of reinforcement. Changing reinforcement schedules can have substantial effects on consumers'
behaviors. The text reviews several types of reinforcement schedules (see pages 224-225).
Many marketing strategies provide reinforcers. Therefore, the schedule by which those reinforcers are delivered is
an important aspect of the strategy. Delay of reinforcement, although not covered in the text, can also have an
influence (see discussion below).

Ask students to describe the different types of reinforcement schedules.

Then, have students identify marketing examples that use each of the different reinforcement schedules.
Students should mention a continuous reinforcement schedule in which every behavior is
reinforced.

Examples include a retailer who gives a small gift (e.g., a peppermint mint) to
customers each time they buy something in the store. The Discover credit card
provides a financial reinforcer for every purchase in the form of cash rebates.

A very common example of continuous reinforcement is the awards programs that
began with the airlines' frequent flyer programs. Airline travelers who are enrolled in
the program are given mileage credits for each trip they take. After a certain number
of miles have been accumulated (ex. 20,000), the traveler can redeem the miles for a
free round-trip ticket on the airline. These reinforcement programs have become so
popular that hotels are also offering their own programs. Apparently, these programs
do influence purchase behaviors.
In a ratio reinforcement schedule only some of the behaviors are followed by reinforcement. In a
fixed ratio schedule, the reinforcer is given after a fixed number of behaviors (every second or
third behavior).

One example is a promotion often used by bakers and donut shops. If you buy 12
dozen donuts, you get the 13th dozen free (the reinforcer). To keep track of where
they are in the reinforcement schedule, consumers carry cards that are punched each
time they buy (the punch might be considered as a mild continuous reinforcer).
In a variable ratio schedule reinforcers follow after a random (and changing) number of behaviors
have been performed.

If your state is one of the 30 or so that has a functioning lottery, your students should
recognize that the state lottery is based on a variable ratio reinforcement schedule.
(See Highlight 9.1 on Pepsi in the text).

An interesting and fun example of variable reinforcement that students can relate to is
the use of Gold Tickets in the Willy Wonka movie. The bearers of the tickets were
granted a tour of the “Chocolate Factory”. This example shows that effectiveness of
variable reinforcement, as some of the children go to great lengths to buy as many
candy bars as possible with the hope of winning a ticket.

A final example is several promotions run by Procter & Gamble in which they placed
almost $70 million in gems into packages of Spic and Span cleaner, Bounce fabric
softener, and Camay and Safeguard soap. In 1985, P&G celebrated the 60th
anniversary of Spic and Span by putting 2.25 million cubic zirconias (manmade
diamonds worth about $5) into boxes of Spic and Span. In about 500 boxes, P&G
placed real diamonds. The schedule of reinforcement here is variable. A consumer
might get a reinforcer for three boxes in a row or none at all in five purchases. By the
way, the promotion boosted sales and increased brand awareness, and P&G felt that it
was a success.
Possible Mini-Lecture: Delay of Reinforcement. Although not discussed in the text, reinforcement tends to
decrease in effectiveness the longer it is delayed. This is relevant for many marketing strategies in that they involve
delayed reinforcement. We know that reinforcement is most effective in changing the probabilities of behavior if it
follows the behavior immediately.
For instance, the frequent flyer programs give consumers mileage awards for every flight they take, but
they must save up at least 25,000 miles to qualify for a free trip. This delays the actual tangible
reinforcement for some time (months, perhaps years).
Most state lotteries have instituted instant winner games to provide this immediate reinforcement to lottery
ticket buyers. Having the purchase of a lottery ticket immediately followed by the cash award ($5 to $50 or
so) can have a strong impact on the behavior.
Various incentive plans have been tried by marketers which are intended to reinforce consumers for buying
a particular brand, but most of them also delay the reinforcement, perhaps for a very long time. For
example, a manufacturer of kitty litter offered round-trip tickets between LA and NYC; the catch was the
consumer had to buy 34,426 pounds of kitty litter first. This could take a long time, indeed.
Shaping. Shaping is an important behavior modification technique that has some interesting marketing
applications. Shaping involves successively reinforcing behaviors that approximate the desired behavior. In this
way, the person gradually comes to perform the desired behavior.

Ask students to describe an example of shaping as part of a marketing strategy.
For instance, malls often schedule events in the open or common areas of the mall. This has the
effect of getting consumers closer to the shops in the mall. This is a kind of shaping strategy-getting people to perform behaviors that are closer to the ultimate behavior of interest (entering a
store).

Alternatively, ask students to provide examples from their own experiences in which their behaviors
were shaped.
Salespeople sometimes ask the consumer relatively innocuous questions that can be answered
affirmatively. Then when the salesperson asks customers to buy, they may be more likely to say
"yes."
Motor skills often are taught by shaping processes. For instance, learning to ski by first learning
the pizza wedge or snowplow position is an example of a behavior that roughly approximates the
skilled skiing behavior that is desired, but is too difficult to learn directly. As one progresses, one
learns successively more sophisticated behaviors that increasingly approximate the final goal of
parallel skiing behavior.

Ask students to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each shaping strategy in as much detail as
they can.
In-Class Exercise: Discriminative Stimuli. The concept of discriminative stimuli may be a bit difficult for
students to grasp. Not all stimuli serve as reinforcers; some stimuli are discriminative. Discriminative stimuli
change the probability of behavior simply by being present or absent, although they do not have any reinforcing
properties per se.

Ask your class to brainstorm examples of strong discriminative stimuli.
Probably they will come up with things such as the McDonald's arches or a sign stating "SALE!"
The word "FREE" or "DISCOUNT" operates as a strong discriminative stimulus in most Western
cultures.

If your class contains persons from different cultures, ask them about analogous discriminative stimuli
in those cultures.

Or, ask students to identify stimuli that are discriminative for them, personally, in different contexts
such as shopping for groceries versus shopping for clothes.
Bright colored shelf signs or special product displays might be discriminative. Students should
discuss whether such stimuli are likely to be generally discriminative and therefore broadly
influential on consumers' behavior, or are more likely to be discriminative only in certain contexts.

Encourage students to discuss the specific effects of discriminative stimuli on consumers' behaviors.
What specific behaviors are more likely to be performed in the presence of these stimuli? It may
not always be a purchase behavior. Perhaps the goal is just to get the consumer to pick up a
product and look at it.
Ask students to discuss the types of meanings that discriminative stimuli may activate.
These could be symbolic meanings and/or affective responses such as feelings. Although many
behaviorists are not concerned with cognitive meanings, this exercise can illustrate the value of
combining the behavioral and cognitive approaches.
Vicarious Learning. You might begin the class by briefly lecturing on modeling. You could describe the process
of modeling as shown in Exhibit 9.5. Then you can devote most of the class time to discussing and analyzing actual
modeling strategies.

Find actual examples of marketing strategies that use modeling and describe them in class.
Many marketing promotions involve the modeling of product consumption behaviors. Simple
examples of overt modeling abound in advertisements. For instance, the long-running ad
campaign for Subway featuring Jared shows how much weight one can lose by eating sub
sandwiches. Ads for sports equipment (jogging, biking, bowling, skiing rollerblading) often show
people using the equipment.
Some TV commercials show people in stores picking the product up off the shelf, thus modeling
important purchase behaviors. Retail stores use modeling strategies when they have in-store
demonstrations of a product either in person or on videotape, thus modeling product use. Home
Depot and other home improvement stores frequently use this tactic with weekend demonstrations
for do-it-yourselfers.
Public service promotions often use modeling strategies. Some of these ads aim to reduce the
probability of undesirable behaviors. In one memorable ad, a parent tossed some litter from the
front seat of a car, whereupon their kids in the back seat piped up with a chorus of criticism
(punishment).

Or, ask students to describe examples of modeling in marketing strategies that they have
encountered in their own lives (also see the project below).
Students can be counted on to produce interesting examples of modeling strategies from their own
experience. However, you should have at least one good example on hand to start the discussion
flowing.

Ask students to analyze one or two of these examples in detail.
Students should identify the reason for the effectiveness (or lack thereof) of the vicarious learning
attempt. They should identify and discuss they key characteristics of the behavior being modeled,
the model, and the target consumer.
Students should clearly identify the behaviors (as well as the affect and cognitions) that the
modeling strategy is likely to influence.

Ask students to explain how each example “works.”
Each example of modeling provides an opportunity to discuss the alternative theoretical
explanations for how modeling influences consumers’ behaviors.
For instance, the effects of modeling could be explained in simple behavioral terms: the
modeled behavior serves as discriminative stimulus that enhances the probability of the
desired behavior.
Alternatively, a cognitive learning explanation would focus on how consumers’ beliefs or
expectations about the consequences of a modeled behavior influence their choice of
behaviors.
You might point out how expectations about the consequences stemming from a behavior
can be considered as means-end cognitive structures.
PROJECT
An interesting written project can be developed by asking students to describe and analyze an example of a
marketing strategy based on operant (instrumental) or classical (respondent) conditioning. Students usually write
better descriptions of strategies that they have encountered personally.
Conditioning Examples

From your personal experience, select a marketing strategy that is based on principles of classical or
instrumental conditioning.

Describe the strategy in one or two pages. Also include an analysis of the key factors that were
operating in that situation to affect consumers' behaviors.

Critically evaluate the marketing strategy and make suggestions for improvement.
PROJECT
Assigning a project is an effective way to get students to think about vicarious learning and how modeling can affect
consumers’ behaviors. We have heard interesting examples in our classes, ranging from a wok cooking
demonstration in a department store, to a demonstration of product use by a friend (someone shows you how a
software program works on a PC), to a serendipitous exposure to other people using a product (seeing people using
rollerblades)
Vicarious Learning/Modeling

Describe a marketing strategy you have experienced that made use of modeling

What factors were most relevant in the success (or failure) of this modeling attempt?

Provide a theoretical explanation for how this modeling strategy worked to influence behaviors in
this situation.

Write these descriptions in a page or two and hand them in to the instructor (or present them to the
class as a basis for discussion).
NOTES AND ANSWERS TO REVIEW AND DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. Describe classical conditioning and identify three responses in your own behaviors that are the result of classical
conditioning.
This general review question is straightforward and should be easy for students. Exhibit 9.1 summarizes
the concepts and their interrelationships.
Classical conditioning is a (basically “non-conscious”) process in which a previously neutral stimulus is
repeatedly paired with an unconditioned (or a previously conditioned) stimulus that elicits a desired
response. After a number of repetitions, a similar (but not necessarily identical) response, the conditioned
response, is elicited by the previously neutral stimulus, which is now called the conditioned stimulus.
For instance, responses to many food smells are probably classically conditioned. Some people
salivate to smells that others do not like. The text gives the example of music paired with emotion
generating situations, patriotic symbols, and other sounds. The use of the song “Like a Rock” by
Chevy trucks is a very good example.
2. Under what conditions would the use of classical conditioning be likely produce positive results as part of
marketing strategy?
Students should recognize that classical conditioning is not effective for every type of response. The
relevant material is discussed in the text. Students may find it useful to refer to Exhibit 9.2.
The key to using classical conditioning in marketing strategies is recognizing automatic responses to
environmental stimuli. Students should recognize that only fairly simple responses can be classically
conditioned. Involuntary responses that are "elicited" automatically upon exposure to a stimulus are the
best candidates.
An example is the affective feelings that are elicited by the American flag or playing the National
Anthem for many people. A classical conditioning strategy might try to associate these affective
states with a product (buy Chrysler).
3. What are the major differences between classical and operant conditioning?
Classical conditioning and operant conditioning are two very different ways in which consumers can learn
behaviors. Students should know how they differ.
Classically conditioned responses are simple responses of the autonomic nervous system. Usually
classically conditioned responses are involuntary, often automatic. These responses are elicited by
a stimulus which occurs prior to the behavior. Classical conditioning proceeds essentially
automatically without much conscious processing.
In contrast, operant conditioning increases the probability that a voluntary (and usually relatively
complex) behavior will be emitted. In operant conditioning, behaviors are influenced by
consequences which occur after the behavior. Although consumers might form some beliefs or
expectations about the reinforcements, these cognitions are not a necessary part of the behavioral
account of operant conditioning.
4. Describe operant conditioning and identify three responses in your own behaviors which are the result of
operant conditioning.
Operant conditioning is described in the text. Operant conditioning changes the frequency or likelihood of
controlled, voluntary behaviors by altering the consequences of the behavior (with stimuli that follow the
behavior).
Students might develop many possible examples. Some easy ones include attending classes close
to exam times because in the past attendance has been rewarded with information about the exam.
Students might reduce their speed in some locations due to previous police radar checks in the
area. Some consumers shop at the end of the month due to more frequent sales during those
periods. Some consumers choose dairy products from the back of the dairy case because they
found fresher products there on previous occasions.
5.
Review each of the four types of manipulations of consequences that can be used to change the probabilities of
a behavior under operant conditioning methods. Give marketing examples for each.
The answer to this review question is summarized in Exhibit 9.3 which presents each of the operant
conditioning methods.
Good product experiences, rebates, free extra product, in-pack prizes, in-pack coupons, and congratulatory
messages are all positive reinforcers. Fewer cavities, no ring around the collar, and no embarrassing spots
on glassware are negative reinforcers. Reduced advertising, lack of sales clerks, or neutral product
experiences could contribute to extinction. Follow-up sales calls, unpleasant experiences at the check-out
counter, unpleasant product performance or defective products could be viewed as punishments.
6. Why are variable ratio reinforcement schedules of greater interest to marketing managers than other types of
reinforcement schedules?
From a marketing perspective, ratio schedules have two key advantages. One advantage is the lower costs
of this option compared to continuous or fixed ratio schedules. A ratio schedule would allow the
marketing manager to consider more expensive rewards that might not be feasible with another type of
schedule. Prizes associated with purchase offer the clearest example of this in marketing practice. Only a
few purchases will be reinforced with a prize.
The other advantage for ratio schedules is that they tend to produce a high rate of behavior with strong
resistance to extinction. Gambling behavior (the lottery) is a clear example.
7. Define "shaping" and tell why it is an essential part of many marketing conditioning strategies.
Shaping is a conditioning technique which increases the probability of a behavior that, initially, is unlikely
to be performed. The desired behavior may be unusual, difficult, or highly specialized. Shaping works by
selectively rewarding easier or more common behaviors that approximate the desired response. Gradually,
the person must perform behaviors closer to the desired behavior in order to receive the reinforcement.
Shaping is a relevant concept for marketers because some desired consumer responses are complex or
unlikely to occur spontaneously in the desired form and sequence. Thus, it may be necessary to shape
consumers' behaviors.
8. Examine the marketing strategies used to sell fast-food hamburgers and automobiles. Identify specific examples
of classical conditioning, operant conditioning, shaping, and discriminative stimuli for each product type.
This is a general application question. Students might want to consult Exhibit 9.2, which summarizes
examples of classical conditioning in marketing. They also should examine Exhibit 9.3, which summarizes
operant conditioning principles. Students should be able to find concrete examples of all these concepts.
Examining fast food hamburgers and automobiles should suggest to students that these behavioral
conditioning techniques are generally applicable for highly different products.
9. Describe the steps in the modeling process necessary to change behavior.
This is a simple review question. The steps necessary for successful modeling are set out in Exhibit 9.5:
(1) the model performs the behavior and experiences the consequences
(2) the observer sees both the modeled behavior and consequences, and
(3) the observer’s behavior changes as a result of the observation.

You should highlight the need for the modeling strategy to clearly demonstrate the consequences so
they are appropriately understood by the consumer. These consequences should be relevant to the
consumer and should be seen as likely to occur.
10. What are the three major uses of modeling in marketing strategy?
This simple review question concerns three possible uses discussed in the text:
(1) to develop new behaviors,
(2) to decrease or inhibit undesired behaviors, and
(3) to facilitate responses which were previously learned.
Challenge students to give actual examples of marketing strategies intended to have each type of influence.
11. Why might a marketing organization use symbolic rather than live overt marketing? Give examples to illustrate
your points.
This application question forces students to consider the circumstances in which marketers might use these
two types of overt marketing strategies.
Live overt marketing is done on a personal, face-to-face basis, such as when a salesperson demonstrates a
product for a consumer or a group of consumers. In contrast, symbolic modeling uses an intervening
medium such as television or videotapes. Each has obvious advantages and disadvantages.
Symbolic overt modeling has the advantage of lower costs due to the economy-of-scale efficiencies that
electronic media provide. It also can be used to illustrate consequences which occur over a more extended
time period (how you feel after using vitamin Z for three months).
Symbolic modeling is also useful for portraying behaviors and consequences that are difficult to create or
simulate in person (a vacation to an exotic spot or using sports equipment in the store)
Symbolic modeling can work well for behaviors that have somewhat undesirable or embarrassing
consequences. Medical products or intimate social consequences would be good examples.
Live modeling has the great advantage of being interactive, in that the model can react to the observer,
showing behaviors that are not clear again and again. The modeling demonstration can be “tailor-made” to
the needs of the observing consumer.
NOTES TO DISCUSSION QUESTIONS FOR MARKETING STRATEGY IN ACTION—
Rollerblade Inc.
Overview. This case is designed to highlight the role of modeling in the diffusion of a product innovation and to
challenge students to apply modeling principles to the purchase and consumption of this product.
The case traces the development and marketing of Rollerblades, the in-line roller skate brand that pioneered the
sport of “blading.” The company was formed in 1980. By 1990, industry-wide wholesale sales of in-line skates
were over $50 million, almost as big as the conventional roller skate business. By 2002, in-line skating had become
the third most popular sport for children ages 6 to 17. While Rollerblade Inc. maintained a 66 percent market share,
several other companies were providing strong competition with strategies that included expansion into the
children’s market, improvements in product features, the use of celebrities in promotions, and expanded distribution
channels.
Suggested Answers to Discussion Questions.
1.
What role do you think modeling could have played in the diffusion of this innovation?(See Highlight 9.3)
Highlight 9.3 discusses diffusion of innovation as a modeling process. It suggests three stages in how ideas
and behaviors associated with an innovative product spread throughout a society, from one consumer to
another. These stages are listed below and explained in terms of how they could fit with the Rollerblade
case.
(1) New products and behaviors are introduced by prominent examples.
The first customers to use Rollerblades were athletes, especially professional hockey players in various
farm team cities, as well as other hockey players and skiers. While these professional athletes may not
have been nationally prominent, they probably were well-known and admired in their local areas,
particularly given the popularity of hockey in these geographic areas. Also, most of these players are
young and athletic-looking which makes them influential models for Rollerblades. Finally, consider
that these models are some of the best ice-skaters in the world and can make in-line skating look
effortless, exciting, and fun.
(2) The product/behavior is adopted at a rapidly accelerating rate.
It seems likely that both young ice-skaters and roller-skaters would rapidly adopt this product.
Junior ice-skaters might use them to train for hockey during the off-season, when rinks are less
available. Also, seeing the professionals use the skates would encourage this behavior since many
younger athletes might aspire to play hockey in college or professionally.
Roller skaters might see in-line skates at roller rinks and quickly recognize the advantages of them
for greater speed. As with ice skaters, it is likely that the best roller skaters will be among the first
to adopt. These people become good models.
Finally, alpine and cross-country skiers may adopt Rollerblades for skills training. Other
consumer concerned with aerobic fitness could use the skates for a fun workout. As more
consumers purchase and use Rollerblades, there is a greater opportunity for others to see people
using them and modeling the consumption behavior. This is a classic process by which
innovations are diffused in a society.
(3) Adoption either stabilizes or decreases, depending on the functional role of the product-related
behaviors.
At the time of the case (1990), Rollerblade sales were still climbing rapidly. Thus, the
product/behavior had not stabilized at the maturity stage or entered the decline stage. One factor
mentioned in the case which continued the life of the product was the expansion of the target
market to include a wider age group of males as well as females. More regular consumers were
using in-line skates for fun and casual fitness, not just serious training.
2.
How could you use modeling to teach a friend how to use Rollerblades?
Live modeling. Naturally, the first thing you would probably do is to skate on the Rollerblades yourself
while your friend watched. Here you would be modeling the desired behaviors. You might also identify
other competent “bladders” and point out to your friend the maneuvers they were performing.
Some students might suggest that you could draw pictures, have them watch a video, have them read the
product manual, or buy an instruction book. Point out that most of the examples will be some form of
modeling. This should emphasize to students how important modeling is in learning not only purchase
behaviors, but consumption and use behaviors as well.
3.
If you were designing a commercial for Rollerblades to be used for an in-store videotape demonstration, how
would you design the commercial to take advantage of your knowledge of modeling?
Students should have fun with this question, designing various commercials and arguing among themselves
about the details. You should have ample opportunity to point out key concepts from the text about
modeling and its effects.
Students might decide that since consumers will already be in the store when they see this commercial that
they are there to examine in-line skates or are at least interested enough to look at the video. Thus, our goal
is to get them to purchase Rollerblades rather than a competitive brand. This could influence how we
design the commercial in that we may wish to model not only how much fun and easy to use our skates are,
but that they are also superior to competitive brands.
Students could proceed by analyzing the three factors discussed in the text: (1) model and modeled
behavior characteristics, (2) characteristics of observers, (3) characteristics of the modeled consequences.
(1) Model and modeled behavior characteristics. A first issue concerns what type of model or models
should be used. Some students may want to get a celebrity, such as a professional hockey player or an
Olympic skater for a model. One problem with this, of course, is that competitors probably already
have signed the Gretzkys of the world. Another problem is this approach might make Rollerblade look
like a follower rather than a leader in the industry. In addition, celebrities are often very expensive to
hire for commercials. However, students can develop good approaches using various celebrities.
A second approach would be to use young, attractive male and female models blading along a sunny,
breezy California beach. They are having lots of fun, eating hot dogs and drinking soda, and are doing
various maneuvers on their Rollerblades. They are all tanned and wearing lycra shorts and tank tops,
or whatever clothes are considered stylish and athletic, with a California look.
(2) Characteristics of observers. Which of the approaches to use naturally depends strongly on what the
target market is considered to be. Using a professional hockey player may work well if the market is
primarily young male hockey players and fans. However, it seems that the blading sport has developed
to the point that it is no longer just for athletes, but a recreational activity for “everyone.” Thus the
consumers in this broader market are more likely to value the fun- and exercise-aspects of Rollerblades
more than the development of professional-level skills.
(3) Characteristics of the modeled consequences. One way to communicate the superiority of Rollerblades
involves the use of social reinforcement. Skaters wearing Rollerblades could be shown being
complimented, admired, or sought after by the most attractive members of the group, particularly
members of the opposite sex. Other skaters wearing competitive brands could be shown as not dressed
as well, not skating as well, and perhaps being ignored by members of the opposite sex. The
Rollerblade skaters could also be in better physical condition that the other skaters, suggesting health
benefits from using the product. Rollerblade skaters could be shown receiving positive reinforcements
and non-Rollerblade skaters could be shown being ignored or punished.