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Bio 3 Semester Exam Review Chapter 12 12–1 DNA Key Concepts • Vocabulary Watson and Crick's model of DNA was a double helix, in which two bacteriophage strands were wound around each other. nucleotide base pairing 12–2 Chromosomes and DNA Replication Key Concept Vocabulary • chromatin histone replication DNA polymerase During DNA replication, the DNA molecule separates into two strands, then produces two new complementary strands following the rules of base pairing. Each strand of the double helix of DNA serves as a template, or model, for the new strand. 12–3 RNA and Protein Synthesis Key Concepts • • • Vocabulary There are three main types of RNA: messenger RNA, ribosomal RNA, and transfer RNA. gene messenger RNA (mRNA) ribosomal RNA (rRNA) transfer RNA (tRNA) During transcription, RNA polymerase binds to DNA and separates the DNA strands. RNA polymerase then uses one transcription RNA polymerase strand of DNA as a template from which nucleotides are promoter assembled into a strand of RNA. intron During translation, the cell uses information from messenger exon codon RNA to produce proteins. translation anticodon 12–4 Mutations Key Concept • Vocabulary Mutations are changes in genetic material. Gene mutations mutation result from changes in a single gene. Chromosomal mutations point mutation involve changes in whole chromosomes. frameshift mutation polyploidy 1. Describe Watson and Crick's model of the DNA molecule. 2. What are the four kinds of bases found in DNA? 3. Did Watson and Crick's model account for the equal amounts of thymine and adenine in DNA? Explain. 4. Explain how DNA is replicated. 5. Where and in what form is eukaryotic DNA found? 6. How are the long DNA molecules found in eukaryotes packed into short chromosomes? 7. How are histones related to nucleosomes? Bio 3 Semester Exam Review 8. What is the role of DNA polymerase in DNA replication? 9. List the three main types of RNA. 10. What happens during transcription? 11. What happens during translation? 12. Describe the three main differences between RNA and DNA. 13. What is a mutation? 14. What is the significance of mutations to living things? 15. What are two kinds of frameshift mutations? 16. What are four types of chromosomal mutations? Chapter 13 13–1 Changing the Living World Key Concepts Vocabulary • Humans use selective breeding, which takes advantage of naturally selective breeding occurring genetic variation in plants, animals, and other organisms, hybridization inbreeding to pass desired traits on to the next generation of organisms. • Breeders can increase the genetic variation in a population by inducing mutations, which are the ultimate source of genetic variability. 13–2 Manipulating DNA Key Concept Vocabulary • genetic engineering restriction enzyme gel electrophoresis recombinant DNA polymerase chain reaction (PCR) Scientists use their knowledge of the structure of DNA and its chemical properties to study and change DNA molecules. Different techniques are used to extract DNA from cells, to cut DNA into smaller pieces, to identify the sequence of bases in a DNA molecule, and to make unlimited copies of DNA. 13–3 Cell Transformation Key Concepts Vocabulary • During transformation, a cell takes in DNA from outside the cell. plasmid This external DNA becomes a component of the cell's DNA. genetic marker • If transformation is successful, the recombinant DNA is integrated into one of the chromosomes of the cell. 13–4 Applications of Genetic Engineering Key Concept Vocabulary • transgenic clone Genetic engineering has spurred the growth of biotechnology, which is a new industry that is changing the way we interact with the living world. Bio 3 Semester Exam Review 1. Give one example of selective breeding. 2. Relate genetic variation and mutations to each other. 3. How might a breeder induce mutations? 4. What is polyploidy? 5. Describe the process scientists use to manipulate DNA. 6. Why might a scientist want to know the sequence of a DNA molecule? 7. How does gel electrophoresis work? 8. Which technique can be used to make multiple copies of a gene? What are the basic steps in this procedure? 9. Describe the process scientists use to manipulate DNA. 10. Why might a scientist want to know the sequence of a DNA molecule? 11. How does gel electrophoresis work? 12. Which technique can be used to make multiple copies of a gene? What are the basic steps in this procedure? 13. What is transformation? 14. How can you tell if a transformation experiment has been successful? 15. How are genetic markers related to transformation? 16. What are two features that make plasmids useful for transforming cells? Chapter 14 14–3 Human Molecular Genetics Key Concepts Vocabulary • DNA fingerprinting The Human Genome Project is an ongoing effort to analyze the human DNA sequence. • • In gene therapy, an absent or faulty gene is replaced by a normal, working gene. 1. Describe the process of DNA fingerprinting 2. Describe what is meant by the term rapid sequencing 3. Name two common uses for DNA testing. 4. What is the Human Genome Project? 5. Describe how gene therapy works. 6. Describe how molecular biologists identify genes in sequences of DNA. Bio 3 Semester Exam Review Chapter 22 22–1 Introduction to Plants Key Concepts Vocabulary • Plants are multicellular eukaryotes that have cell walls made of cellulose. They develop from multicellular embryos and carry out photosynthesis using the green pigments chlorophyll a and b. sporophyte gametophyte • The lives of plants revolve around the need for sunlight, water and minerals, gas exchange, and the movement of water and nutrients throughout the plant body. 22–3 Seedless Vascular Plants Key Concepts Vocabulary • vascular tissue tracheid xylem phloem root leaf vein stem Both forms of vascular tissue—xylem and phloem—can move fluids throughout the plant body, even against the force of gravity. 22–4 Seed Plants Key Concepts • Vocabulary Adaptations that allow seed plants to reproduce in areas without gymnosperm water include flowers or cones, the transfer of sperm by angiosperm pollination, and the protection of embryos in seeds. cone flower pollen grain pollination seed embryo seed coat 22–5 Angiosperms—Flowering Plants Key Concepts • • • • Angiosperms develop unique reproductive organs known as flowers. Flowers contain ovaries, which surround and protect the seeds. Vocabulary fruit monocot dicot cotyledon Monocots and dicots are named for the number of seed leaves, or annual cotyledons, in the plant embryo. Monocots have one seed leaf, biennial perennial and dicots have two. There are three categories of plant life spans: annual, biennial, Bio 3 Semester Exam Review and perennial. 1. Identify the characteristics of the plant kingdom. 2. To live successfully on land, what substances must plants obtain from their environment? 3. What are the two types of vascular tissue? Describe the function of each. 4. What reproductive structures are unique to angiosperms? Briefly describe the function of each. 5. What are monocots and dicots? 6. How do annuals, biennials, and perennials differ? 7. What reproductive structures are unique to angiosperms? Briefly describe the function of each. 8. What are monocots and dicots? 9. How do annuals, biennials, and perennials differ? 10. Compare the growth forms of plants with woody stems and those with herbaceous stems. Chapter 23 23–1 Specialized Tissues in Plants Key Concepts • • • • Vocabulary Three of the principal organs of seed plants are roots, stems, and leaves. epidermal cell cuticle trichome Plants consist of three tissue systems: dermal tissue, vascular tissue, vessel element sieve tube and ground tissue. element Vascular tissue contains several different cell types. Xylem consists of companion cell parenchyma tracheids and vessel elements, and phloem consists of sieve tube collenchyma elements and companion cells. sclerenchyma Meristematic tissue is the only plant tissue that produces new cells by meristem meristematic mitosis. tissue apical meristem 23–2 Roots Key Concepts • • • The two main types of roots are taproots, found mainly in dicots, and fibrous roots, found mainly in monocots. Vocabulary taproot fibrous root root hair A mature root has an outside layer of epidermal cells and a central cortex endodermis cylinder of vascular tissue separated by a large area of ground vascular cylinder tissue called the cortex. root cap Roots anchor a plant in the ground and absorb water and dissolved Casparian strip nutrients from the soil. Bio 3 Semester Exam Review 23–3 Stems Key Concepts • • • • Vocabulary Stems have three important functions: They produce leaves, branches, and flowers; they hold leaves up in the sunlight; and they transport various substances between roots and leaves. node internode bud vascular bundle In monocots, vascular bundles are scattered throughout the stem. pith In dicots and most gymnosperms, vascular bundles are arranged in primary growth secondary growth a cylinder. vascular cambium cork cambium In all seed plants, primary growth of stems is produced by cell heartwood divisions in the apical meristem. sapwood bark In conifers and dicots, secondary growth takes place in lateral meristematic tissues called the vascular cambium and cork cambium. 23–4 Leaves Key Concepts • • Vocabulary The structure of a leaf is optimized for absorbing light and carrying out photosynthesis. blade petiole mesophyll Plants keep their stomata open just enough to allow photosynthesis palisade mesophyll to take place but not so much that they lose an excessive amount spongy mesophyll stoma of water. guard cell transpiration 1. What are the three main organs of seed plants? Describe the structure of each. 2. List the three tissue systems of plants. Describe how each tissue is distributed in stems, tissues, and leaves. 3. What two cell types make up xylem? Phloem? 4. What is the function of meristematic tissue in a plant? 5. Compare a taproot and a fibrous root. 6. How are tissues distributed in a plant root? 7. Describe the two main functions of roots. 8. How is osmosis involved in the absorption of water and nutrients? 9. How do the functions of a stem relate to the roots and leaves of a plant? 10. Describe how the arrangement of vascular bundles differs between monocot and dicot stems. 11. Define primary and secondary growth. Which involves divisions of the apical meristem? 12. How do heartwood and sapwood differ? 13. Describe how the structure of a leaf is optimized for light absorption. 14. What factors regulate the opening and closing of guard cells? 15. Are stomata more likely to be open or closed on a hot day? Explain your answer. 16. Describe the cell types found within a typical leaf. Bio 3 Semester Exam Review Chapter 24 24–1 Reproduction With Cones and Flowers Key Concepts • • • • Vocabulary Reproduction in gymnosperms takes place in cones, which are produced by a mature sporophyte plant. pollen cone seed cone ovule Flowers are reproductive organs that are composed of four kinds pollen tube sepal of specialized leaves: sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels. petal stamen Reproduction in angiosperms takes place within the flower. Following pollination and fertilization, the seeds develop inside filament anther protective structures called fruits. carpel Most gymnosperms are wind pollinated, whereas most flowering ovary style plants are pollinated by animals. stigma embryo sac endosperm double fertilization 24–2 Seed Development and Germination Key Concepts Vocabulary • As angiosperm seeds mature, the ovary walls thicken to form a fruit that encloses the developing seeds. dormancy germination • Seeds dispersed by animals are typically contained in fleshy, nutritious fruits. Seeds dispersed by wind or water are typically lightweight, allowing them to be carried in the air or to float on the surface of the water. • • Environmental factors such as temperature and moisture can cause a seed to end dormancy and germinate. 1. What are the reproductive structures of gymnosperms? 2. Describe the flower and how it is involved in reproduction. 3. Are angiosperms typically wind pollinated or animal pollinated? How does this process occur? 4. What is endosperm? Where does it form in a flowering plant? 5. Describe what happens as fertilized angiosperm seeds mature. 6. Compare the typical structure of seeds that are dispersed by animals to those dispersed by wind and water. 7. Why is it adaptive for some seeds to remain dormant before they germinate? Bio 3 Semester Exam Review Chapter 35 35–1 Human Body Systems Key Concepts • • Vocabulary The levels of organization in a multicellular organism include cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems. specialized cell epithelial tissue connective tissue Homeostasis is the process by which organisms keep internal nervous tissue muscle tissue conditions relatively constant despite changes in external homeostasis environments. feedback inhibition 35–2 The Nervous System Key Concepts • • • Vocabulary The nervous system controls and coordinates functions throughout the body and responds to internal and external stimuli. neuron cell body dendrite axon The basic structural units of the nervous system are neurons. myelin sheath resting potential action potential A nerve impulse begins when a neuron is stimulated by threshold another neuron or by its environment. synapse neurotransmitter 35–3 Divisions of the Nervous System Key Concepts • • Vocabulary The central nervous system relays messages, processes information, and analyzes information. The central nervous system consists of the brain and the spinal cord. meninges cerebrospinal fluid cerebrum cerebellum brain stem The peripheral nervous system can be divided into the thalamus sensory division and the motor division. The sensory division transmits impulses from sense organs to the central hypothalamus nervous system. The motor division transmits impulses from reflex reflex arc the central nervous system to the muscles or glands. 35–4 The Senses Key Concept Vocabulary • sensory receptor retina rod cone cochlea semicircular canal There are five general categories of sensory receptors: pain receptors, thermoreceptors, mechanoreceptors, chemoreceptors, and photoreceptors. Bio 3 Semester Exam Review 35–5 Drugs and the Nervous System Key Concepts Vocabulary • drug stimulant depressant fetal alcohol syndrome drug abuse addiction • • • • Stimulants increase heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing rate. In addition, stimulants increase the release of neurotransmitters at some synapses in the brain. Depressants slow down heart rate and breathing rate, lower blood pressure, relax muscles, and relieve tension. Cocaine causes the sudden release of a neurotransmitter in the brain called dopamine. Opiates mimic natural chemicals in the brain known as endorphins, which normally help to overcome sensations of pain. Alcohol is a depressant that slows down the rate at which the central nervous system functions. 1. Sequence the following terms from simplest to most complex: organ system, tissue, organ, organism, cell. 2. Why is it important for an organism to maintain homeostasis? 3. Describe the structure and function of a neuron. 4. What changes occur in the neuron during the resting potential? During an action potential? 5. How does the all-or-none principle relate to the transmission of a nerve impulse? 6. Describe the structure and function of the cerebrum. 7. Describe the advantage of a reflex response in the survival of an organism. 8. List the divisions of the autonomic nervous system and give the function of each. 9. Trace the path of light through the eye. 10. What are the functions of rods and cones? 11. Trace the path of sound through the ear. 12. Explain why a pregnant woman should avoid drinking alcohol. 13. What happens when a neuron is stimulated by another neuron? 14. Name and describe the three types of neurons. Chapter 37 37–1 The Circulatory System Key Concepts • • Vocabulary atrium The human circulatory system consists of the heart, a series of ventricle pulmonary circulation blood vessels, and the blood that flows through them. systemic circulation pacemaker As the blood flows through the circulatory system, it moves through three types of blood vessels—arteries, capillaries, and aorta artery veins. capillary vein Bio 3 Semester Exam Review 37–2 Blood and the Lymphatic System Key Concepts Vocabulary • • plasma hemoglobin phagocyte lymphocyte platelet lymph • • Red blood cells transport oxygen. White blood cells guard against infection, fight parasites, and attack bacteria. Blood clotting is made possible by plasma proteins and cell fragments called platelets. A network of vessels, nodes, and organs called the lymphatic system collects the fluid that is lost by the blood and returns it to the circulatory system. 37–3 The Respiratory System Key Concepts • • Vocabulary The basic function of the human respiratory system is to bring about pharynx the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood, the trachea air, and tissues. larynx bronchus Smoking can cause such respiratory diseases as chronic bronchitis, alveolus diaphragm emphysema, and lung cancer. nicotine emphysema 1. What is a closed circulatory system 2. Compare pulmonary circulation and systemic circulation. 3. Trace the flow of blood through the heart. 4. What is the major function of a valve in the heart? Where else in the circulatory system are valves found? 5. Describe the function of the pacemaker. 6. How are impulses transmitted through the heart? 7. Compare the wall thickness and diameter of the three different types of blood vessels. 8. Distinguish between systolic pressure and diastolic pressure. 9. How does exercise help to prevent circulatory system disorders? 10. What are the major components of blood? List the functions of each component. 11. Explain why people with hemophilia need to avoid injury. 12. What are the primary functions of the lymphatic system? 13. What part of the brain controls involuntary breathing? 14. What are three of the most dangerous substances in tobacco smoke? Describe how each affects the body. 15. How does emphysema affect the respiratory system? Bio 3 Semester Exam Review Chapter 38 38–1 Food and Nutrition Key Concepts Vocabulary • Calorie carbohydrate fat protein vitamin mineral • The nutrients that the body needs are water, carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, and minerals. Every cell in the human body needs water because many of the body's processes, including chemical reactions, take place in water. 38–2 The Process of Digestion Key Concepts Vocabulary • The digestive system includes the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. Several accessory structures, including the salivary glands, the pancreas, and the liver, add secretions to the digestive system. • The function of the digestive system is to help convert foods into simpler molecules that can be absorbed and used by the cells of the body. amylase esophagus peristalsis chyme small intestine pancreas liver villus large intestine 38–3 The Excretory System Key Concepts Vocabulary • The kidneys play an important role in maintaining homeostasis. They regulate the water content of the blood and, therefore, blood volume; maintain blood pH; and remove waste products from the blood. • As blood enters a nephron through the arteriole, impurities are filtered out and emptied into the collecting duct. The purified blood exits the nephron through the venule. kidney ureter urinary bladder nephron filtration glomerulus Bowman's capsule reabsorption loop of Henle urethra 1. What are the two primary functions of food in the body? 2. Which nutrients provide the body with energy? 3. What three ways are proteins important to the body? 4. What information is given in the new Food Pyramid? 5. Describe the functions of hydrochloric acid and pepsin in the stomach. 6. What role do enzymes play during digestion? 7. What is the primary function of the large intestine? 8. How is the activity of the kidney controlled? 9. What materials are filtered from the blood in the kidney? What materials remain in the blood?