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FIFTY Questions AP PSYCHOLOGY 1. Ernst Weber introduced the notion of a) physiological zero; b) just noticeable difference c) motion parallax; d) subliminal processing. Just Noticeable difference. It’s the smallest difference between two stimuli that allows them to be perceived as distinct stimuli. – – Physiological zero is the temperature that is percieved as neither hot nor cold Motion parallax is one way in which depth perception are perceived (objects seem to pass in opposing direction) 2. Dichotic listening tasks are used to study: a) selective attention; b) echoic memory; c) habituation Dichotic listening requires subject to listen to and shadow what is heard in one ear and ignore distracting information that is heard in the other ear. When the subject is asked to repeat a message as she hears it, it’s called shadowing. Shadowing is used to study selective attention. 3. Which psychological approach would most likely say the following: “Give me a group of infants, and if I could control the world in which they are raised, I could predict which will become doctors and which will become sculptors.” Similar to a statement by BEHAVIORIST John B. Watson. Behaviorists emphasize the ENVIROMENT’s influence on a person’s observable behaviors. – – Freud/Psychoanalyisis would be concerned with unconscious Behaviorism shapes behavior through reward, punishment 4. If myelin degenerates from around the bodies of axons, what is likely to occur? Myelinization allows for faster nerve conduction times as the action potential jumps from node to node along the axon. So conduction would be SLOWED if myelin decreases. QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. 5. Once Pavlov’s dogs learned to salivate at the sound of the bell/tuning fork, the sound was an: Conditioned stimulus (one the dog learned to react to) – – UCS - food CS-sound UCR -salivate CR - salivate 6. The “blind spot” refers to the area of the retina where: a) there are rods, no cones; b) there are cones, no rods; c) there are no receptors and the optic nerve connects The blind spot refers to the area where the optic nerve connects to the retina. There are no rods and cones in this area, so no visual perception occurs. QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. 7. What is fundamental attribution error? When we attribute (blame) someone’s behaviors on their disposition (personality/character) rather than look at their situation. In this assessment, we can be incorrect because we tend to blame people’s inborn traits rather than look at the circumstances they face. 8. John loves to fish. He puts his line in the water and leaves it there until he feels a tug. What kind of reinforcement schedule is this? Variable interval – He does not know when the fish will bite and because he just leaves the line in the water, he is not really acting. Fly fishing (where the person casts and reels the line in IS DIFFERENT - it is variable ratio) 9. Chimps are given tokens to perform tricks. These tokens are used in a vending machine to get grapes. The token is what kind of reinforcer? Primary or secondary? SECONDARY - the chimp must learn that the token ultimately represents a primary reinforcer (grapes) 10. Viewing a certain color for an extended period of time results in an afterimage of a complementary color. This is consistent with which theory? a) Helmholtz’s trichromatic theory; b) opponent-process theory; c) place theory; d) frequency theory; e) gate theory Edward Hering’s opponent process theory for color vision posits that color is perceived through the action of three opponent processes: QuickTime™ and a – – – Red/green Blue/yellow Black/white TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. AFTERIMAGE appears after staring at a color for a long period of time and provides support for OPPONENT PROCESS THEORY PLACE (first, high…last, low) and FREQUENCY: EAR 11. What is a central tenant of GESTALT? QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompress are needed to see this picture. The Gestalt school of psychological thought focuses on PERCEPTION and the perception of wholes. – – – The LAW OF PRAGANZ (in Gestalt) is also known as the law of simplicity. We see the world in the simplest form possible. Closure and grouping are two parts of this law. Behviorists see the mind as meaningless because they only study what is observable Freud studies how the UNCONSCIOUS mind controls behavior QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. 12. The work of Paul Broca led him to believe that The area of the left, frontal lobe was associated with SPEECH PRODUCTION. He found that patients with aphasia (the inability to speak) tended to have damage to this area, now termed BROCA’s area. 13. Which best represents negative reinforcement? A) Teresa is scolded when she runs through the house yelling. B) Lina is not allowed to watch television until she has finished her HW C) Greg changes his math class, so he does not have to see his old girlfriend D) Aditya is praised for having the best essay in class E) Alex takes the wrong medicine and gets violently ill afterwards 14. The first official laboratory for psychology was founded in Leipzig in 1879 by Wilhelm Wundt - aka BIG POPPA and the founder of psychology. His studies used introspection to analyze the nature of consciousness. He was part of STRUCTURALISM. – William James was a functionalist who brought psychology out of Germany to the United States 15. If the mean IQ of Americans is 100 with a standard deviation of 16, what percentage of Americans would you expect to score 132 AND BELOW on an IQ test? a) 34%; b) 48%; c) 68%; d) 84%; e) 98% You need to memorize the percentages of students QuickTime™ and a who fall within one, two, and three standard deviations TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. from the mean. 68% of scores in a distribution fall within one standard deviation from the mean. That means that 34% of scores in a normal distribution fall between the mean and one standard deviation up and one standard deviation down. 28% of scores fall between one and two standard deviations from the mean (14% on each side), so 96% of scores fall between the mean and two standard deviations up or down. 4% of scores fall beyond two standard deviations from the mean (2% on each side). 132 is two standard deviations above the mean of 100, so 98% of scores would be at or below 132. 16. Though he has never seen a sparrow before, Jawarhi identifies the sparrow as a bird because it has wings, and birds have wings. This is an example of a: a) schema; b) algorithm; c) metacognition; d) functional fixedness Piaget refers to schema as organized patterns of behavior or thought. Jawarhi sees something new and attempts to incorporate that new instance into his existing schema ASSIMILATE – – – To accommodate, the new item CHANGES schema Algorithm is step-by-step mathematical technique to solve a problem Functional fixedness is the tendency in problem solving to view objects and tools as having a single fixed function or purpose 17. Jenny went to Memphis on three different weekends, and each time, it rained. Based on this information, Jenny determines that it is always raining in Memphis. This is an example of: a) divergent thinking; b) the availability heuristic; c) mental sets The availability heuristic refers to the tendency to make decisions based on available data. Because Jenny is relying on information she has available in her mind (rain) she fails to consider the weather in Memphis all the times she has not been there. Another ex: we think tornadoes kill more people than asthma when the latter causes 20x more deaths! – – Divergent thinking is creative and opposes functional fixedness Of all the potential solutions to solve problems, mental sets cause the person to approach problems in a similar way each time. 18. Which of the following measures is the MOST SENSITIVE to outlying observations? a) mean; b) median; c) mode; d) variance; e) standard deviation Always remember that the average or arithmetic mean is MOST sensitive to outlying observations and is least indicative of CENTRAL TENDANCY when dealing with a SKEWED DISTRIBUTION. For example, the median income is usually a better indicator of central tendency than the mean income. The central tendency should KEEP the 3ms even on a normal curve. But if one tail is longer than the other, then the graph is SKEWED. In a positive skew, there are more LOW scores, but a few POSITIVE scores skew the average. In this case, the MEAN is higher than the MEDIAN. In the negative skew, there are more HIGH scores, but a few NEGATIVE scores skew the average. In this case, the MEAN is lower than the median. QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncomp resse d) de com press or are nee ded to s ee this picture. QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. 19. The method of loci is an example of This is a classic mnemonic device or memory tool that associates terms with locations one is already familiar with. – An example might be when you forget what you were about to do, you go back to the spot where you started. This specific placement may help you remember what you were thinking. 20. Shaping is… Rewarding behaviors that get closer and closer to desired goal 21. A graphical representation of correlational data is called a a) skewed distribution; b) scatterplot; c) bell curve The slope of a scatterplot corresponds to the correlation coefficient. QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. 22. Which of the following correlation coefficients is the strongest? a) -0.88; b) 0.00; c) +0.15; d) +0.75; e) +1.05 -0.88 represents the strongest correlation. Correlation coefficients reflect the level to which variables change in direct relation to each other. A correlation coefficient of -1.00 represents a perfect negative correlation – – – a correlation of 0.00 represents no correlation A correlation of +1.00 represents a perfect positive correlation A negative correlation can be stronger than a positive one if it is numerically closer to one Harry Harlow’s experiments with wire and cloth surrogate mothers demonstrated the importance of a) insight learning; b) contact comfort; c) attachment 23. Harlow’s study of monkeys found that young monkeys preferred the contact comfort provided by cloth mother despite the fact that they could only get sustenance from wire mother. – Mary Aisworth showed attachment issues with kids QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. 24. AFFERENT pathways are involved in which of the following sensory system(s)? a) visual; b) tactile; c) auditory; d) kinesthetic; e) all of the above All four sensory systems that appear in this question involve the action of AFFERENT or SENSORY pathways. These neurons leave SENSES and ASCEND or ARRIVE to the QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. brain. – Efferent pathways EXIT the brain and are more involved in MOTOR skills and functioning 25. If an individual is facing the psychosocial crisis of identity versus role confusion, according to Erik Erickson’s model, that individual is most likely… An adolescent – – – – – – – – – First year: Trust vs. Mistrust 1-3 yrs: Autonomy vs. Shame and doubt 3-6 yrs: Initiative vs. guilt 6-12 yrs: Industry vs. inferiority Teen: Identity vs. Role Confusion Young adult: Intimacy vs. isolation Midlife: Generativity vs. stagnation Old age: Integrity vs. despair http://www.thepsychfiles.com/2007/07/09/episode-20eriksons-eight-stages-of-life/ 26. When people are deprived of REM sleep, they compensate by spending more time in REM sleep at a later time. This is commonly known as THE REM rebound effect QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. 27. According to Piaget, when do children understand the concept of conservation? QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. Subjects in the preoperational stage (2-7) were UNABLE to realize both beakers contained the same amount. Subjects in the CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE (7-11) did. 28. Which choice IS NOT OPERANT CONDITIONING? A) A rat learns to press a bar to get food B) A dog jumps over a hurdle to avoid electric shock C) A pigeon turns in circles for a reward. D) A dog flinches at the sight of a hand after years of abuse. E) Studying hard for good grades on tests D - is not operant 29.Latent learning is… Learning in the absence of rewards (rat in maze without reward utilizes cognitive map) 30. Carol Gilligan’s criticism of Kohlberg’s theories of moral development center around… Gender differences in orientations towards morality: While men are more likely to be concerned with rules and law, women were more concerned with relationships. Since Kohlberg interviewed men, Gilligan questioned his descriptions of morality. 31. The main advantage of a heuristic over an algorithm is that a heuristic: IS FASTER than an algorithm. A heuristic is a short cut or rule of thumb that may not always get you to the correct solution, but will get you to your solution more quickly than an algorithm. An algorithm is helpful in that it will always find the solution to a problem, but frequently, it will take longer than desired to get there. 32. When asked to recall the months of the year, young children often recall January and February and November and December better than the months in between. This is an example of…. Serial Position Effect or Primacy/Recency effect. This states that it is easier to remember items at the beginning (primacy) and end (recency) of a list. In this example, the early and late months are remembered better. Retroactive interference – Proactive interference – QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. 33. Jamel got very sick after eating some mushrooms on a pizza at his friends house. He didn’t know that he had a stomach virus at the time, blamed his illness on the mushrooms, and refused to eat them again. Which of the following is the unconditioned stimulus for his taste aversion to mushrooms? A) pizza B) stomach virus C) mushrooms D) headache E) aversion to mushrooms – ANS B 34. Which exemplifies RETROACTIVE INTERFERENCE? A) B) C) D) E) After suffering a blow to the head, Jean cannot form new memories Elle failed a Spanish test because she studied for her Italian test after studying Spanish. Lee cannot remember an important date on a history exam. Gene cannot remember his new locker combination, but remembers last year’s. Jodi remembers the first few items on her school supply list, but can’t remember the rest of them CHOICE B 35. Difference between INFORMATION PROCESSING MODEL and the Atkinson-Shiffrin process of memory? Encode, store, retrieve (info process) Sensory memory, STM/Working, LTM (3stage or Atkinson-Shiffrin) 36. Of the following, which are located exclusively in the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM? A) afferent neurons B) interneurons C) efferent neurons D) glial cells E) effectors – Ans. B 37. Which of the following refers to a disorder in which a person repeatedly stops breathing while sleeping? A) narcolepsy; b) epilepsy; c) sleep apnea; d) insomnia Sleep apnea is a disorder in which a person repeatedly stops breathing during sleep. It can be extremely dangerous. – – Narcolepsy: excessive daytime sleepiness Insomnia: persistent difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep 38. What are two types of long-term memory and where are they stored? Explicit memories *aka declarative* are stored in the HIPPOCAMPUS (brain structure that plays a key role transferring information from STM to LTM) Implicit memories *aka procedural* are stored in the CEREBELLUM (brain structure for balance, coordination, and muscle memory) 39. Define self-fulfilling prophecy and give an example. The tendency to behave according to one’s own expectations or the expectations of others. Events will transpire the way we believe they will (because of our expectations) – If a teacher tells students they will fail, there is no point studying – then they’ll fail. – If a coach says their team will WIN, the team will most likely take an that winning attitude. – A teacher believes a student is unable to learn, so he never calls on her and she fails. 40. Why is REM sleep PARADOXICAL? During REM sleep, brain waves look similar to alpha waves (which occur when we’re awake) even though muscle tone remains RELAXED. QuickTime™ and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture. 41. The pineal gland produces melatonin which helps… Regulate circadian rhythms/sleep The “tip-of-the-tongue” phenomenon is due to difficulty in a) encoding; b) storage; c) retrieval; d) working memory 42. The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon is where you feel like you’re on the verge of remembering something, but can’t quite do so. This is a problem with recovering information already in memory, or retrieval. – Most tip-of-the-tongue experiences occur when trying to recall material in long term memory, e.g. “What was the name of my third grade teacher?” 43. Who studied the effect of misleading questions on eyewitness testimony? Elizabeth Loftus found that what we remember about what we have seen can be altered by presenting new information or by asking misleading questions. 44. Iconic memory is a type of… Sensory Memory: iconic, echoic, haptic – – – – The three stages: Sensory, Working, Long Term The three processes: encoding, storage, retrieval Short Term or working memory: 5-7 items Long Term Memory: infinite – EXPLICIT: DECLARATIVE, Hippocampus – IMPLICIT: PROCEDURAL, cerebellum 45. Which neurotransmitter is inhibitory? a) dopamine; b) serotonin; c) acetylcholine; d) GABA e) glutamine GABA is the abbreviation for gamma-aminobutyric acid, produces inhibitory postsynaptic potentials. All the others are excitatory. When excitatory, there is more potenital for a neuron to FIRE! – – Glutamine: excitatory Acetylcholine: muscles, memory – Serotonin: mood – Too little (Alzheimer’s) Too little (depression) Dopamine: pleasure Too much (schizophrenia); too little (Parkinson) 46. A first grade child is given a test of cognitive abilities and scores at the first-grade level. The same child then retakes the test with help and guidance from a teacher and scores at the third grade level. This finding supports which theorist? Jean Piaget’s theory of conservation Lev Vygotsky’s theory of the zone of proximal development The child performs differently when given no help and when given help by an adult. This is the zone of proximal development. While Vygotsky saw development as CONTINUOUS, while Piaget saw development as DISCONTINUOUS (stages). 47. The regular pattern or “clock” of body temperature and other physiological markers that repeats consistently from day to night is called: a) circadian rhythm; b) sleep spindles; c) REM sleep Studies have shown that if humans are denied environment cues (I.e.- live in a cave) they begin to follow a 25-hour cycle which is slightly out of sync with a normal, 24 hour day. Irregular sleep patterns can cause significant disruptions in an individual’s circadian rhythms. 48. Hubel and Wiesel discovered FEATURE DETECTORS…describe what these are… Nerve cells in the RETINA and brain that respond to specific features of a stimulus such as shape, angle or movement (SAM) Basically, they discovered by cat experimentation that there are certain neurons made to get excited by certain shapes, angles, or movements. 49. What is the signal detection theory? It’s not enough to study the “point at which people detect stimuli at least 1/2 of the time” (absolute threshold) because perception of stimuli varies from person to person and according to the situation Sound HIT button because subject heard sound MISS - did not hit button even though there was sound No sound FALSE ALARM - hit button because subject thought there was sound, but there was only silence CORRECT REJECTION - did not hit button because there was no sound 50. Describe the functions of the middle and inner ear… Middle Ear H.A.S. 3 bones – Hammer (Malleus), Anvil (Incus), Stirrup (Stapes) Inner Ear is where transduction takes place. Sound travels into cochlea and into auditory nerve. – – Place theory: where sound hits basilar membrane; this is what creates high/low sounds (first hit=high; last hit=low) Frequency theory: the number of vibrations send appropriate message to auditory nerve Independent and dependent variables? Scary movies cause nightmares Isolation causes stress in development (Harlow) Authority figures cause an increase in obedience of subjects (Milgram) Split brain patients cannot speak words flashed into their left field of vision (Sperry) Ex: IV: Authority figure DV: Obedience; IV: Isolation; DV: Stress leves