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The/KeipCratory Sy^em/
Chapter 23
Objectives
• Describe the primary functions ofthe respiratory system.
•
^
Explain how the delicate respiratory exchange surfaces are protected from pathogens,
debris, and other hazards.
•
•
•
•
Identify the organs of the upper respiratory system, and describe their functions.
Describe the structure of the larynx, and discuss its role in normal breathing and in the
production of sound.
Discuss the structure of the extrapulmonary airways.
Describe the superficial anatomy of the lungs, the structure of a pulmonary lobule, and
the functional anatomy of the alveoli.
•
•
•
•
Define and compare the processes of external respiration and intemal respiration.
Describe the major steps involved in external respiration.
Summarize the physical principles governing the movement of air into the lungs.
Describe the origins and actions of the respiratory muscles responsible for respiratory
movements.
•
Summarize the physical principles governing the diffusion of gases into and out of the
•
•
Explain the important structural features of the respiratory membrane.
Describe the partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the alveolar air, blood, and
blood.
systemic circuit.
•
Describe how oxygen is picked up, transported, and released in the blood.
•
•
•
Discuss the structure and function of hemoglobin.
Describe how carbon dioxide is transported in the blood.
Describe the factors that influence the respiration rate.
•
Identify and discuss reflex respiratory activity and the brain centers involved in the
control of respiration
Sequence:
This unit will be divided into the following areas:
Part A: The Upper Respiratory System
1. Nasal cavity, pharynx and larynx structure and function
2. Sound production
Part B: The Lower Respiratory System
1.
The trachea structure and function
2. The primary bronchi
Part C: The Lungs
1. Gross lung anatomy
2. Blood supply
3.
Movement of air
4. Measuring lung volumes and capacities
Part D: Gas Exchange
1.
Gas laws
2. Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide transport
Nasal cavity Sphenoidal sinus Internal nares
UPPER
RESPIRATORY
SYSTEM
LOWER
RESPIRATORY
SYSTEM
Pharyr
Esophagus
1%
RIGHT
LUNG
LEFT
LUNG
Anatomy and Physiology
Chapter 23: Respiratory System
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1. List and describe the five basic functions of the respiratory system:
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2. Describe in detail the relationship between the cardiovascular system and the respiratory
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3. List the function of the upper respiratory system and, using the diagram on page 828, list
all of the structures of the upper respiratory system
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4. List the function of the lower respiratory system and, using the diagram on page 828, list
all of the structures of the lower respiratory system
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)winR parts of the respiratorv
nose:
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Anatomy and Physiology: Chapter 23
Conditions of the Respiratory System
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,>^^Jse your textbook and the power point found in Home Access Center to answer the following questions
1. What provides the force needed behind a sneeze (particles can travel up to 15 feet)?
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2. Whatisapnea?
3. Describe what happens during hyperventilation. How is Carbon Dioxide involved?
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6. What is emphysema and what causes it?
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10. List 4 things that are found in cigarettes that are toxic.
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11.What does smoking do to your respiratory passages?
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12. How does lung cancer compare to the numbers of deaths from other cancers?
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13. Distinguish between the 3 main types of lung cancer and listany treatments avai lable
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CAPACITY
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TOTAL
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LUNG CAPACITIES
chapter 23
Volum£/KelcitlX>Vl&hCpy
Name
Define the following pulmonary volumes:
1. Resting Tidal Volume (TV):
2. Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV):
3. Residual Volume (RV):
4. Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV):
5. Inspiratory Capacity (IC):
6. Functional Residual Capacity (PRC):
7. Vital Capacity (VC):
8. Total Lung Capacity (TLC):
Respiratory Anatomy Quiz
Chapter 23
Jse the following list to label the picture below:
a. External Nares
b. Internal Nares
d. Nasal Concha
ac. Nasopharynx
e. Laryngopharynx
ad. Oropharynx
c.Esophagus
ab. Larynx
ae. Epiglottis
be. Glottis
bd. Trachea
be. Nasal Vestibule
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Follow the flow of air into the lungs. Match the labels to the appropriate location:
a. Secondary Bronchi
b. Oropharynx
c. Trachea
d. Terminal Bronchioles
e. Nasal Concha
ab. Nasopharynx
ac. Alveoli
ad. Tertiary Bronchi
ae. Alveolar Duct
Nasal Vestibule^
9
Larynx->
-^Primary Bronchi->
12
Respiratory Bronchioles-^
Internal Nares-^
16
10
13
11
->
14
laryngopharynx
->Bronchioles->
17
Label the following on the lungs below:
18. Which lung is the right lung?
19. Which lung would contain 3 lobar bronchi?
20. Which lung contains a cardiac notch?
21. Boyle's Law states that gas volume is
a. Directly proportional to pressure
b. Directly proportional to temperature
c. Inversely proportional to pressure
d. Inversely proportional to temperature
22. In quiet breathing...
a. Inspiration and expiration involve muscular contractions
b. Inspiration is passive and expiration involves ab muscle contractions
c. Inspiration involves muscularcontractionsand expiration is passive
d. None of the above
23. Each of the following muscles elevates the ribs except...
a. Stemocleidomastoid
b. External obliques
c. Scalenes
d. External intercostals
24. When the diaphragm and external intercostals contract (choose 2)
a. The ribcage expands
b. The ribcage contracts
c. Inhalation occurs
d. Exhalation occurs
15
->
25. Whichof the following muscles contract in deep inhalation (choose all that apply)?
a. Stemocleidomastoid
b. Internal Intercostals
c. Scalenes
d. External Intercostals
26. Which of the following muscles contract in quiet exhalation?
a. Internal intercostals
b. External intercostals
c. Diaphragm
d. None of the above
Match the following terms to the descriptions below:
a. external respiration
b. pulmonary ventilation
c. internal respiration
27. the movement of oxygen from the capillaries into muscle tissue
28. inhalation
29. exhalation
30. the movement of carbon dioxide from the capillary to alveoli
Exercise 2S
If you are dissecting a cat or fetal pig to observe respira
tory system structures, refer to the appropriate accompa
nying dissection manual.
The respiratory system organs of a cat or fetal pig are
similar to those of the human. This dissection will illus
trate the structure of the larynx and trachea, the relation
ship of respiratory organs to other organs in the mediasti
num, and the connective tissues surrounding these organs.
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE
SYSTEM
Respiratory System SUucture and Fuflctlon
547
is inversely proportional to the volume of the container.
Therefore, when lung volume increases, the pressure of the
air inside decreases and air flows into the lungs. When lung
volume decreases, the pressure of the air inside increases
and air flows out of the lungs.
1. Changing Thoracic and Lung Voiumes
When the diaphragm and other respiratory muscles con
tract or relax, they change the size of the thorax which in
turn changes lung volume. Normal inhalation is caused
mainly by contraction of the diaphragm. The diaphragm
is dome-shaped when relaxed and flattens when contracted.
When the diaphragm flattens, the length of the thoracic
cavity and its volume increase. During forced inhalation,
contraction of the external intercostals further increases
The respiratory system supplies oxygen needed by body
cells to produce ATP for metabolism and removes the car
bon dioxide produced by metabolic reactions. Respiration
involves three steps and requires the cardiovascular system
to transport oxygen and carbon dioxide throughout the
body.
1. Pulmonary ventilation, or breathing, is the move
ment of air between the atmosphere and the lungs
that occurs when we inhale (inspiration) and exhale
(expiration).
2. External respiration is the movement of oxygen
from the alveoli into the pulmonary capillaries and
carbon dioxide from the pulmonary capillaries to the
the width of the thoracic cage by raising the ribs. Con
traction of the stemocleidomastoid, scalenes, and pectoralis minor muscles cause a greater increase in thoracic
volume by elevating the rib cage and sternum, resulting in
a greater volume of air inhaled.
Normal exhalation is a passive process involving relax
ation of the diaphragm and elastic recoil of the chest wall
and lungs. The diaphragm becomes dome-shaped and de
creases the length of the thoracic cavity and thoracic vol
ume. In forced exhalation, contraction of the internal in
tercostals depresses the rib cage. Contraction <f the
abdominal muscles (external oblique, internal oblique,
transverse abdominis, and rectus abdominis) pushes the
diaphragm superiorly, further decreasing thoracic volume
and resulting in a greater volume of exhaled air.
alveoli.
3. Internal respiration is the movement of oxygen from
the capillaries into body cells and carbon dioxide
[] Respiratory Muscles
from body cells into capillaries.
and Volume Changes
In this exercise we examine pulmonary ventilation
and the role of carbon dioxide in controlling pulmonary
ventilation.
1 Label the respiratory muscles in Figure 26.10. Refer to
Exercise 12: Muscles, your textbook, or an atlas.
2 Identify the respiratory muscles on a model or anatom
ical chart.
A. Pulmonary Ventilation
During pulmonary ventilation, air moves from an area of
higher pressure to an area of lower air pressure. Changes
in air pressure in the lung (alveolar or intrapulmonic pres
sure) occur when lung volume changes. The relationship
between pressure and volume is described by Boyle's Law,
which states that the pressure of a gas in a closed container
3 Pronounce the muscle names as you point to them.
4 Complete Table26.2 and circle the correctchoice in the
column "Effect on Thoracic Dimensions."
5 Examine the radiographs in Figure 26.11. Decide
whether a radiograph was taken after inhalation or ex
halation, and put your answer in the appropriate blank.
548
Exercise 26
Respiratory System Structure and Function
''A
Linea alba
(a) Anterior superficial view
(b) Anterior deep view
external intercostal
iniemai-obliqiig,.
peotoraiic minor (pek-tor-A-lis)
-<e£iLis-«bduiii!iiis -—
0.
^
3rCef{:fg.4k
scalenes (SKAY-leens)
atornodoidomaotQid-
_
(ster-no-kli-doh-MAS-toid)
transverse abdominis
FIGURE 26.10
k
, .,
4
,
5i
Respiratory muscles.
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.'A k' ^'Ct
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Exercise 26
TABLE 26.2
Respiratorv Svstem Structure and Function
Respiratory Muscle Functions
EFFECT ON THORACIC DIMENSIONS
MUSCLE
FUNCTION
{circle correct choice)
External intercostals
Elevate nbs
Increase or decrease diameter
Internal intercostals
Depress ribs
Increase or decrease diameter
Sternocleidomastoids
Elevate the sternum
Increase or decrease diameter
Scalenes
Elevate first and second ribs
Increase or decrease diameter
Pectoralis minors
Elevate third, fourth, and fifth ribs
increase or decrease diameter
Diaphragm
Flattens when contracted
Increase or decrease
Abdominal muscles
Compress abdominal contents, increase abdominal
pressure, and force diaphragm superiorly
Increase or decrease
FIGURE 26.11
Radiographs of thorax taken either after inhalation or exhalation.
length
length
552
14
Exercise 2B Respiratery System Streetore aad Funclien
B. Lung Volumes and Capacities
y/
Preparatioiis for Activity 10
Lung volumes and capacities are defined in Table 26.4.
Preparing dry, handheld spirometer:
• Wipe the nozzle of the spirometer with 70%
These values vary according to gender, age, height, and
physical condition.
alcohol.
• Place a clean, disposable mouthpiece on the nozzle.
•
a noseclip or your fingers to close your nos
trils to prevent air leaking out of your nose.
• When blowing into the spirometer, hold it in a hor
izontal position with the face of the dial superior.
1, Measuring TV, ERV, and VC
A spiroineter is an instrument used to measure lung vol
umes and capacities. Thei^ are different types of spirom-
• With use, water will condense inside the dial. Fol
eters depending on how they measure air volumes and
low instructioDS included with your spirometer for
capacities. Somespirometers measure onlyexpiratory vol
umes and capacities while others measure both inspiratory
and expiratoryvolumes and capacities.In this activity, you
will be using a dry,handheldspirometer. Exhale only into
this type of spirometer. It does not measure inspiratory
volumes.Spirometers that measureinspiratory air volumes
must be cleaned or supplied with new filters when used by
a different person to prevent spread of infection.
Your instructor will supply you with instructions if you
are using a different type of spirometer than the dry, hand
removing the condensation.
ACTIVITY 10 Measuring Lung Volumes
held spirometer.
and Capacities
Measure tidal volume (TV)
• Reset the dial on the spirometer to 0. If the dial is
not calibrated between 0 to lOCK), then set the dial
to 1000 (do this for TV measurement only). Make
sure you subtract 1000 from your measurement be
fore recording the value.
• Take two or three normal breaths then inhale nor
mally, place the spirometer to your lips and exhale
normally into the spirometer. Record value in
Table 26.5. Repeat this process two more limes, re
setting the dial before each measurement. Calculate
and record Uie average TV.
Lung Volumes and Capacities
VOLUME OR
AVERAGE VALUES
CAPACITY
ABBREVIATION
DEFINITION
FOR HEALTHY ADULT
Tidal volume
TV
Amount of air moved into lungs during
inhalation or out of lungs during exhalation
500 ml
inspiratory reserve
IRV
Maximum anounl of air that can be
inhaled after a normal inhalation
3100 ml
ERV
Maximum amount of air that can be
exhaled after a normal exhalation
1200 ml
RV
Amount of air that remains in the
1200 ml
volume
Expiratory reserve
volume
Residual volume
lungs after a maximal exhalation
InspiratorycapacHy
IC
IC = TV + IRV
3600 ml
Functional residual
PRC
FRO = RV + ERV
2400 ml
capacity
Vital capacity
VC
VC = IRV + TV + ERV
4800 ml
Totallung capacity
TLC
UC = IRV + TV + ERV + RV
6000 mi
Exercise 26 Respiratory System Stractare and Function
553
Measured Lung Volumes and Capacities
iyiEASUREMENT
'V
0
0
5oA
TV
14o<3
ERV
^0o
1^
15^
^\oc>
37(53
VC
AVERAGE VALUE
VALUE 3
VALUE 2
VALUE 1
2. Calculating IRV, 10, RV, FRO, and TLC
Measure expiratory reserve volume (ERV)
• Reset the dial to 0.
• Take two or three normal breaths, then inhale
normally and forcefiilly exhale. Place the spirometer to your lips and exhale as much air as you can.
Dry hand-held spirometers cannot be used to measure inspiratory volumes and capacities. However, IRV and IC
Measure vital capacity (VC)
can be calculated using values for TV, ERV, and VC.
Clinically PRC is measured indirectly with special
equipment and RV is calculated using values for PRC and
ERV. In this activity, RV will be calculated with equations
that were developed using measured RV values from many
• Reset the dial to 0.
individuals.
Record value in Table 26.5. Repeat this process two
more times, resetting the dial to 0 before each meas
urement Calculate and record the average ERV.
• Take two or three normal breaths, then inhale as
much air as possible. Then put the spirometer to
your lips and forcefully exhale as much air as you
can as fast as you can. Record the value for VC in
Table 26.5. Repeat this process two more times, re
setting the dial to 0 before each measurement. Cal
culate and record the average VC.
Compare your VC with the predicted VC value.
• Use the appropriate equation in Table 26.6 to calcu
late your predicted VC, based on your gender and
ACTIVITY 11
Calculating Lung Volumes
and Capacities
Calculate IRV and IC.
• Use the equations for VC and IC in Table 26.4 to
calculate IRV and IC. Rearrange the VC equation to
formulate an equation to calculate IRV.
• Calculate the values and record them in Table 26.7.
age.
Calculate RV, PRC, and TLC.
height in cm = height in inches X 2.5
'^7
YourVC
Predicted VC
• Use the appropriate equation in Table 26.8 to calcu
late your RV based on gender and age, and record
RV in Table 26.7.
Your VC as percentage of predicted VC
(your VC/predicted VC X 100)
• Calculate your PRC and TLC using the equations in
Table 26.4 and record the value in Table 26.7.
Equations for Predicting Vital Capacity*
^ii^ER ;
AGE
EOUATION TO PREDICT VC (LITERS)
Female'^v
11-19
Female
20-69
Fiemale
>69
Male
12-24
Male
>24
VC =
VC =
VC =
VC =
VC =
• ~f I
c
(0.0416 X height in cm) —4.4470 + (0.0699
(0.0444 X height in cm) —3.1947 - (0.0169
(0.0313 X height incm) —0.1889 —(0.0296
(0.0590 X height in cm) —6.8865 + (0.0739
(0.0844 X height in cm) —8.7818 —(0.0298
X age in years)
X age in years)
X age in years)
X age in years)
X age in years)
'Knudson RJ, Ixbowitz MD. Holbog CI, Burrows B: Changes in the Normal Maximal Expiratory Flow-volume Curve with Growth
and Aging.Am Rev Rc^r Dis 127:723-734,1983.
554
Exercise 26 Respiratory Systea Strectare aad FoactiBB
TABLE 28.7
Calculated Lung Volumes and Capacities
1
{•
yOLU»E
EQUATION
R; capacity
Ur4r\l-F.k\J
-TC
IRV
RV
FRC
TLC
TABLE 26.8
Equations for Calculating Residual Volume
AGE
EQUATtOM'TQ PRi^OICT RV (LlflBR^)
"
Male or Female'
'
<19
19_99
19_99
Female®
Male®
RV = (0.029 X height in inches) - 0.9192
RV = (0.0813 X height ininches) + (0.009 X age in years) - 3.9
RV = (0.0686 X height in inches) + (0.017 X age inyears) - 3.45
\. Polgar G, Promadhat V: Puimonaiy Funciton Tesitng in Children. Techniques and Standaids. Philadelphia.
WB. Saunders Co., 1971. p. 000
2. Goldman HI, Bfrhlake MR: Respiraioiy Function Tests—Normal ^Atlues at Median Altitudes and the Pmtiction ofNormal Results.
Am Rev Tuberc 79:457-467. 1959.
3. Timed Forced Expiratory Volumes
A timed forced expiratory volume is used to indicate
whether someone has a condition in which air flow is ob
structed or restricted. The subject is asked to inhale as
• Use the values on the y-axis to determine the maxi
mum volume iodicated by the curved line. This is
the FVC.
• Rnd 1 second on the x-axis. Using a ruler, draw a
vertical line that intersects the curve. Using the
ruler, find the corresponding volume on they-axis.
much airaspossible, then forcibly blow asmuch airasfast
aspossible into the spirometer. The volume ofairforcibly
This is the FEV|.
expelled in the first second (forced expiratory volume in
Calculate the FEV|/ FVC ratio and record the value on
1 second or FEVi) and the total volume of forcibly ex
Figure 26.13.
pelled air [forced vital capacity (FVC)] are used to
determine if a person has an obstructed air flow. The
FEVi/FVC ratio is used to indicate if a person hasan ob
structive disease such as chronic obstructive pulmonary
disease (COPD). In COPD the airway is obstructed andit
takes longer to move air out of the lungs, therefore the
FEV| is reduced. During pregnancy, the thoracic volume
8
7
=r6
|5
is restricted so that FVC is reduced, but the ratio of
FEVi/FVC is normal (assumes no obstructive disease).
>3
2
1
ACTIVITY 12
Measuring FEVy and FVC
3
Measure FVC andFEV i in Figure 26.13 andrecord the
value on the figure.
.
FVC
=3
L FEV. ="Z. L
• The graph illustrates the change in volume over
time. The jc-axis indicates time and the y-axis indi
cates volume.
4
Time (sec)
FIGURE 26.13
FEV,/FVC
a
Timed forced expiratory volume.
\
f^^-^natomy & Physiology
Zh. 23: Respiration Plysiologji
Name
fl^Jj
Using your textbook, beginning onpage 829, answer the following questions related to respiratory physiology.
1. Respiration includes which two process? €>tV6rv\Al
and
2. What is internal respiration?
rv+4-bc.-K55(A^3/
3. What is external respiration?
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^PtA5l'' Of\9Ai^ rfSplMha/l]
4. What are the 3 main steps to external respiration?
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i
air Mv hcV^gS.
b.G(!>'^
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^
AWfolor
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tVij* 04bc/" H55cA«-<i.
5. What is pulmonary ventilation?
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,
1 1+^rr (re'jpi'"Ab«fj (i crApiVH) ;• (633.^ CH \tY>ihZ ^
6. Describe howcarbon dioxide is related to pulmonary ventilation?
7. Describe Boyle's Law
How does Boyle's Law relate to breathing?
9. What is atmospheric pressure?
10. How does pressure affect airflow into the lungs?
r
A
i
i\irfb(>j fcavA
11. What role does the diaphragm play in this process?
\)Oi\^j''f^c of h-d IKof/o^iC
Tc.A[/ciY^
12. What happens to cause us to exhale?
.
-rib ra<^e rE-f,.r^5 h W. tApfi5H
w
Rite and
Cardiac
sternum
cnotch
, elevate
I. Diaphragm
contracts
^
Diaphragm
j
^oulside" ^insido
Pressure outside and inside are
equal, so no air movement occurs
W>Iume increases
Volume decreases
^outside^ ^inside
f^ouiside^ ^inside
Pressure inside falls, so air flows In
Pressure inside rises, so air flows cut
Ceprngm 6 ieOi Paancn Educston. Inc..piMcTwiou Bw^rran Cinvnri}*
Mechanics of Breathing (Pages 834+)
List the muscles that are responsible for.,
(75 %) and
a. Normal Inhalation-^
b. Deep Inhalation^
(sternum), m
l/'«^llV/r (ribs 3,4, 5),
(ribs 1 &2) and the Serratus Anterior
\ 0>AC.e'^,
c. Normal Exhalation-^
d. Forced Exhalation^ LA'frr''Cv
Sternomastoids
Muscles of
Scalenes __
Respiration
Inspiratory
Intercostals_
Expiratory
Intercostals
Expiratory
Intercostals
3^-' ij
-iT-ii
Diaphragm
/&«
EKerclse 2B
Respiratory System Stractare and Function
Physiology Review of the Respiratory System
•#
A. Function of Respiratory Muscles
Match the respiraibiy~muscles to the appropriate muscle function.
V-
1. elevates third, fourth, and fifth ribs
a. abdominal muscles
b. diaphragm
0 2. elevates the sternum
^ 3. depresses ribs
^ 4. compresses abdominal contents and increases abdominal pressure
f
'
c. external intercostals
d. internal intercostals
e. pectoralis minor
f.
scalenes
g. stemocleidomastoids
5. elevates first and second ribs
^ 6. elevates ribs
^ 7. main inspiratory muscle
C'fxlA- 8.
two muscles used in forced expiration
B. Volume and PressureXhanges During Pulmonary Ventilation
Indlc^ whether the ^^olumeW pressure increas^'oiN^creases during^nspiraubn and expirati^
lypLUME OR PRESSURE-^ \ , INSPIRATION ^^-tXPIRATI
Thoracic volume
\
1
•Intrapieural cavity volume
I ^
intrapieural pressure
1f
Liing volume
5
\
1
2
^
\
/
''6
c
/
•
i
Alveolar {inl^apulmonic) pressure
C. Lung Volumes and Capacities
Match lung volumes and capacities with the appropriate definition or equation.
tl. equalto TV+IRV +ERV+RV
2. equal to IC —TV
3. equal to PRC - ERV
a.
b.
c.
d.
e. residua! volume
f.
r
^ 4. equal to TV + IRV
5. volume of air remaining in lungs after normal expiration
. maximum amount of air that can be exhaled after a normal expiration
it 7. maximum amount of air that can be exhaled after amaximal inspiration
8, equal to IC - IRV
expiratory reserve volume
functional residual capacity
inspiratory capacity
inspiratory reserve volume
tidal volume
g. total lung volume
h. vital capacity
562
Exercise 26 Respiratory System Stroctore and FonclioQ
/\c n
D. Control of Pulmonary Ventilation: The Role of Carbon Dioxide
True or False. If false circle the word(s) that are incorrect and correct them.
•E—1- If blood carbon dioxide levels increase, then blood hydrogen ion levels will decrease.
T
2. If blood carbon dioxide levels increase, then blood pH will decrease.
— 3. Increasing blood carbon dioxide levels decreases breathing rate.
Ecircc:,
'zqAqx^'^
<r
Oi'le.
I '' '"^Xos-lal
tr
IT
i
R)dGi'\A)
(}y.herroJ
01^
Exercise 26
Respiratory System Structure and Function
Transverse plane
Posterior
(a) Anterior view
FIGURE 26.8
Pleura.
(b) Cross-section through thorax
(inferior view)
^:S
f
iL-'t
..-f"
v^
'••
(I
Vxo
^
^
<o
^
kJ
P^
/ ^
^
;
f
' Pn
^
1
/P
>
\
/•.^//
n
O
,
•
'
'
11//
O-
% \\^
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L
-'J
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Cy <3^
. ! '^
W- ,Q
•^:
-V
• M
S
p 4vO.
•'^-f~T_
.y'
^ ; 'A
^
o
! Q>
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sJU
•p
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i ^
II
<4-
t
M
o
ll
4
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Exercise 26 Respiratory System Structure and Function
Uk
I
J
(a) Antenor nght lung
apex
(b) Anterior left lung
apex
1
base
base
inferior lobe
cardiac notch
middle lobe
superior lobe
3
Wf_
s>
4
\
iiA*-•'?
inferior lobe
superior lobe
\ljV
9
(c) Medial view of right lung
hiius
cardiac notch
11
, I
inferior lobe
middle lobe
(d) Medial view of left lung
•—•—
hilus
12
inferior lobe
superior lobe
superior lobe
13
14
FIGURE 26.7
Lung structures.
,
^
r
18
CO^rdlCyi
543
OVt/
FIGURE 28.8
Pleura
Section
Name
Anatomy Review of the Respiratory System
A. Air Fiow
Trace the air fiow through the respiratory system starting with the external nares. Number the structures 1 through 17.
alveolar duct
M nasopharynx
fCalvpjilar sac
/<
f o alveolus
Ih/
oropharynx
^
bronchiole
_
'IM' respiratory
respiratory bronchiole
bronchiole
external nares
JlL secondary bronchus
internal nares
\^ terminal bronchiole
-n
^I tertiary bronchus
L larynx
^ laryngopharynx
7
^
primary bronchus
trachea
nasal cavity
B. Structural Changes in the Respiratory IVee
Name three structural changes that occur in the bronchi as they branch into bronchioles.
2.
3.3.
gCiA
^
^''r 7c>
if the mouth
C. Explain why food orliquid in the moiui can be expelled from the
the nostrils if
mou is closed when the person
laughs.
560
Exercise 26 Respiratory System Struclure and Function
D. Structure and Function
Match the structure with the correct function.
1. tubular airways that begin the respiratory zone
A 2. connects the laryngopharynx with the trachea
^ 3. tubelike structure that conducts air from the larynx to the bronchi
^ 4. closes over the glottis during swallowing
(f 5. keep the trachea from collapsing
^ 6. division ofthe bronchi that enter bronchopulmonary segments
a. alveolus
b. bronchiole
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
epiglottis
larynx
tracheal cartilages
oropharynx
tertiary bronchus
respiratory bronchiole
i.
terminal bronchiole
j. trachea
7. last division of the conducting zone
£
»
8. conducts air from the nasopharynx to the laryngopharynx
(L 9. small, round sacs where gas exchange occurs
10. small conduction airway that serves a lobule
E. Match the type of epithelium with its location in the respiratory system and its function.
Location:
Ai.
nasal cavity through nasopharynx
^ 2. oropharynx through larynx above vocal cords
^ 3, larynx below vocal cords through primary bronchi
4. secondary bronchi through tertiary bronchi
r
5. bronchioles through beginning of respiratory bronchiole
6. end of respiratory bronchiole through alveoli
Function:
7. secretes Tnucus to trap and remove dust and debris
1
^ 8. diffusion of respiratory gases
protects underlying tissues
Epithelial Tissue:
a. pseudostratified ciliated columnar
b. simple columnar
c. simple cuboidal
d. simple squamous
e. stratified squamous
Anatomy &Physiology
Chapter 20: BloodPressure Lab
\n\ I a
\ \V
Background:
Blood pressure, the pressure exerted by blood against blood vessel walls, is highest in the aorta
^d the larger elastic arteries and decreases as the arteries branch further away from the heart. By
the time blood gets back to the right atrium, blood pressure has dropped to zero. Venous blood
pressure therefore is low, and blood flow back to the heart (against gravity) is difficult. The
difference in blood pressure between the aorta and right atrium causes blood to flow through the
systemic circulation. The pressure difference between the pulmonary trunk and the left atrium
causes the blood toflow through the pulmonary circuit.
With each contraction ofthe ventricles, blood pressure fluctuates in the large arteries. Blood
pressure during contraction (systole) is higher that blood pressure during ventricular relaxation
(diastole).
Ai^nal blood pressure is measured in mmHg and can be determined by using ablood pressure
cuffor sphygmomanometer in any large artery. Clinically, the brachial artery is most often used.
Apump is used to inflate the rubber cuff to apressure greater than the systolic pressure This
puts pressure on the artery, flattens it and stops the blood flow. Pressure is slowly released by
opening a valve.
When blood pressure is greater than the pressure in the cuff, the artery opens and blood flow
resumes. Asound caused by the turbulent flow ofblood can be heard until blood flow returns to
normal. The first sound heard is the systolic pressure (average 120mmHg) and the last faint
sound heard is the diastolic pressure (average 80mmHg). Blood pressure is written as systolic
pressure/diastolic pressure (average 120/80mmHg).
Venous blood pressure can also be determined by inserting apressure transducer directly into a
vein or indirectly as described in this activity. Average venous pressure is 16mmHg.
Procedure: Working in teams oftwo
Part I: Resting Blood Pressure
1
The subject should sit and rest for 5minutes before measuring blood pressure
Obtain astethoscope and sphygmomanometer. Wipe the earpieces ofthe stethoscope
clean with alcohol and completely deflate the blood pressure cuff.
Place the sphygmomanometer cuffaround the arm so that the inflatable portion is over
the anterior surface ofthe arm. The bottom ofthe cuffshould be approximately I inch
above the elbow.
Close the valve on the rubber bulb.
Place the large bell ofthe stethoscope over the brachial artery, insert the earpieces and
listen for the pulse.
Inflate ^e cuffby squeezing the bulb until the pressure gauge reaches 160-180mmHg.
Immediately use the valve on the hand pump to slowly release air to deflate the cuff and
listen for the first sound (systolic pressure).
Watch the pressme gauge and continue to listen. The sound will increase, then muffle and
stop. Thediastolic pressure is the last, famt sound.. _.
Record your measurements in Table 1.
10. Deflate the cuffand have the subject rest for 2minutes before repeating the
measurement. Record the second measurement in Table 1.
Part II: Pulse Pressure and Mean Arterial Pressure
Calculateeach of the following and record in Table 1
I. Pulse Pressure- the larger the pulse pressure, the greater the volume ofblood will be from
the ventricle
Pulse Pressure= systolic - diastolic pressure
11. Mean Arterial Pressure is the average blood pressure over the coarse ofthe cardiac cycle
MAP = diastolic bp + (pulse piressure/3)
Part HI: Venous Pressure
1. Stand against the chalk board or white wall with arms hanging by the side and observe
the blood poolingin the veins on the dorsal hand surface
2. Locate the approximate location ofthe right atrium (at the same level as the nipples). Use
tape or chalk to indicate the location.
3. Abduct one arm and observe the veins become smaller and flatten as the arm israised
•above the level of theright atrium.
4. Mark the location ofthe hand with tape orchalk
5. Measure the vertical distance between the right atrium mark and the point at which the
veins flattened in millimeters.
6. Repeatthis procedure and record results in Table 1
7. Each 12.88 mm elevation ofthe hand above the right atrium represents approximatelv
1mm rise in Hg.
Venous Pressure (mmHg) =
mm measured
12.88 nun elevation/mmHg
Part IV: Regulation of Blood Pressure
Background:
The body maintains blood pressure to ensure adequate blood flow to the body tissues. Ifblood
pressure is too low, tissues may not be provided with enough oxygen or nutrients, and, ifthe
blood pressure is too high, it may cause damage to capillaries and the lining ofblood vessels.
Blood viscosity, total blood vessel length and blood vessel diameter all influence the mean
arteriole pressure. Only blood vessel diameter can be changed to make immediate changes in
blood pressure. Increasing blood vessel diameter (vasodilation) decreases resistance and lowers
blood pressure, while decreasing blood vessel diameter (vasoconstriction) increases resistance
and blood pressure rises
1. Observe the effect ofbody position on blood pressure and heart rate by measuring both in
the supine position. Record in Table 2.
2. Take both measurements again immediately after standing and also after standing for 2
minutes. Record in Table 2.
3. Observe the effect ofexercise on blood pressure by measuring the systolic and diastolic
blood pressure and heart rate while standing atrest.
4: ^-measure bollrWood~pressure and heart rate after exercising for3^iinutes (running in
place, climbing stairs, etc.). Record all values in Table3.
_r-i
Name;
Data:
\
Table 1: Resting Blood Pressure
Subject
Systolic
Pressure
Diastolic
Pressure
1. 164
2.
Pulse
MAP
Venous
Pressure
\.60
2.
Pressure
1. m
1.
2.
2.
Avg.
Avg.
1.
1. 51
2. ]]t
2.
ULUhMmiSH
2.
Av
Av
Table 2: Effect of Body Position on Blood Pressure
Subject
Supine BP and HR
BP and HR after
Standing 2 minutes
Standin
Systolic BP:
BP and HR after
Systolic BP:
Diastolic BP: 4
Diastolic BP:
HR: 7^U\
HR:
Systolic BP:
Systolic BP:
Diastolic BP: 1S
Diastolic BP: 1 h
HR:
HR
Table 3: Effect of Exercise on Blood Pressure
Subject
Resting Blood Pressure
Post Exercise Blood
Pressure
Subject 1
Subject 2
Systolic BP: (6^
Diastolic BP: "1
Systolic BP: (10
Diastolic BP: 1^
Systoli^P^iT^^^^^
Systolic BP:
Diastolic BP:
Diastolic BP:
HR:
HR:
11
I oCy
Analysis Questions:
1. Describe the changes in blood pressure from supine to standing and also after exercise.
Be specific.
\aM^^ d&\A]^
CUrc:3\'^^,
2. Whathappens fo the bloodvessel diameter at the surface of the skin during exercise?
Why does this occur?
208
Chapter 13. RespiratorySystem
Respiratory Physiology
10. Using the key choices, select the terms identified in thefollowing descriptions
(
by insertingthe appropriate term or letter in the answer blanks.
KEY CHOICES:
B. In^a^lmonarypressure
A. Atmosphericp^ssure
C. Intrapleural pressure
1. In healthy lungs, it is always lower than^tmospheric pressure (that
\ is, it is n^ative pressure)
2. \pressure of air outsidethe body
1 air flows into
. the passagewa^s
\ ofthe lungs
3. As\ .it decreases,
4. As It increases overatmospheric pressure, air flows outof^e lungs
n
5. Ifthis, pressure becomes equal to the atmospheric pressure, the
lungs collajjse
/
I
I
/
/
.
'\ '
!
'
6. Rises
well
overatmospheric pressure
during a for^eful.cough
/
11. Many changes occur within the lungs as the diaphragm (and external intercostal
muscles) contractand then relax. These changes lead to the flowof air into and
out of the lungs. The activity of the diaphragm isgivenin the left columnof the
following table. Severalchanges in condition are listed in the column heads to
the right. Complete the table bychecking (/) theappropriate column to
correctly identify the change that would be occurring relative to the
diaphragm's activity in each case.
Activity of
Changes in
diaphragm
(T = increased)
(>L = decreased)
Internal
Internal
Size of
volume
pressure
lungs
of thorax
in thorax
T
>1
T
i
t
Direction of
air flow
i
Into
Out of
lung
lung
Contracted,
X X
moves downward
Relaxed, moves
superiorly
L,
t
X
X
X
Respiratory Physiology
209
12. Use the key choices to respond to the following descriptions. Insert the correct
term or letter in the answer blanks.
(J
KEY CHOICES:
A. External respiration
C. Inspiration
E. Ventilation (breathing)
B. Expiration
D. Internal respiration
1. Period of breathing when air enters the lungs
0
2. Exchange of gases between the systemic capillary blood and body
cells
£
3. Alternate flushing of air into and out of the lungs
0\ ,
4. Exchange ofgases between alveolar air and pulmonary capillary
blood
13. Although normal quiet expiration is largely passive due to lung recoil, when
expiration must be more forceful (or the lungs are diseased), muscles that
increase the abdominal pressure or depress the rib cage are enlisted.
1. Provide two examples of muscles that cause abdominal pressure to rise.
2. Provide two examples of muscles that depress the rib cage. i'AViwi .f
'
e
14. Four nonrespiratory movements are described here. Identify each by inserting
your answers inthe spaces provided. Si'
^
C6tcp ^
fjjiT)
1. Sudden inspiration, resulting from spasms of the diaphragm.
2. Adeep breath is taken, the glottis is closed,and air is forced out of the lungs againstthe glottis;
clears the lower respiratory passageways.
f
3. As just described, but clears the upper respiratory passageways.
4. Increases ventilation of the lungs; may be initiated by a need to increase oxygen levels in the
blood.
f £la1
Anatomy &Physiology: Chapter 23
Gas Exchange Review Wksht
Name
1. Describe the movement ofoxygen from the alveoli to the surrounding capillaries (Be sure
to provide partial pressures ofoxygen in both locations).
of[\\v)eo\or
loS
2. Describe the movement ofcarbon dioxide from capillaries to surrotmding tissues (Be sure
to provide partial pressures ofcarbon dioxide in both locations)
, .
p, - - 1)0
3. Describe the proportion ofoxygen in the plasma to oxygen in red blood cells
vS- a'\o\
00(ji
^
ft.s
4. What is oxyhemoglobin? Howis it formed?
lAb
^ ^hOz
5. What is the relationship between the partial pressure ofoxygen and the percent oxygen
saturation (see Figure 23-21)?
Pf vf ^ 0S</
6. What happens to the percent oxygen saturation ifthe amount ofoxygen in the plasma
decreases?
V
7.
Describe the effect of...
a. pH changeson oxygen-hemoglobin saturation
^ '5&We«liOh ^
b. temperature on oxygen-hemoglobin saturation
j^^ow do carbon dioxide levels effect oxygen saturation?
^ i i\v Oi
9. What are the three fates ofcarbon dioxide after it has been produced by the tissues and
enters the bloodstream
^
[2^%)
c-bi?>5oW^?i CT'Ic)
10. Describe Carbonic Acid Formation. List the equation
^
11. What is Carbaminohemoglobin? List the equation
ce^<y&iA#xVe
ItlTO
nBBBBHIEUEI
m
Ivfc-io.j
Jii^
ipii
Exercise 28
Respiratory System Structure and Function
Terminal
5. Lungs
bronchiole
The twolungs are divided into threelobeson the right side
and two lobes on the left. The three right lobes are the su
perior, middle, and inferior lobes, and the left lobes are
called the superior and inferior lobes. The rounded su
perior part of the lung is the apex and the broader inferior
part is the base that rests on the diaphragm. The left lobe
has a concave surface called the cardiac notch that has
the apex of the heart projecting into it. Each lung has a
hilus, an area surrounded with pleura, where the bronchi,
blood and lymphatic vessels, and nerves enter or exit the
medial side of the lung. The lungs are in the thoracic cav
ity and are separated from each other by the heart and the
mediastinum. Parietal pleura lines the thoracic cavity
wall, and visceral pleura covers the surface of each lung.
The pieural cavity is the space between the two pleura!
Visceral
pleura
layers that contains pleura! fluid.
* alvoolar- duct
• alvevhje
• alveolar sac
• rgspif-ato^-bronehtoie
1 Label the parts of the lung in Figure 26.7(a), (b), (c),
and (d).
2 Identify these structures on a lung model or anatomical
3
chart.
4
FIGURE 26.6
3 Pronounce the terms as you point to them.
4 Label the parts of the pleura in Figure 26.8(a) and (b).
Diagram of portion of lung lobule.