Download Intro to Hinduism

Adult Forum: Grace Episcopal Church
Fall 2010
An Introduction to Hinduism
Hinduism is the predominant and indigenous religious tradition of the Indian subcontinent. The tradition
is known to its followers as Sanatana Dharma (“the eternal law”). This indigenous tradition has evolved
in many forms over centuries, resulting in a wide range of expressions and interpretations.
Hinduism...gave itself no name, because it set itself no sectarian limits; it claimed no universal adhesion,
asserted no sole infallible dogma, set up no single narrow path or gate of salvation; it was less a creed or
cult than a continuously enlarging tradition of the God-ward endeavor of the human spirit. An immense,
many-sided, and many-staged provision for a spiritual self-building and self-finding, it had some right to
speak of itself by the only name it knew, the eternal religion, Sanatana Dharma... Sri Aurobindo
“What we now know as Hinduism – partly because it has no single founder, sacred book, hierarchy, or
creed – has developed into a rich pluralist religious culture with a great variety of customs, forms of
worship, gods and goddesses, theologies, philosophies, stories, art, and music. Many Hindus believe that
its essential teachings remain the same down the centuries. However, diversity within Hinduism has led
some scholars to talk of Hindu religions rather than a single Hindu religion; “Hinduisms” rather than
“Hindu” or to abandon the term altogether. (Partridge, p. 146)
“Hinduism refers to a religious mainstream which evolved organically and spread over a large territory
marked by significant ethnic and cultural diversity. This mainstream evolved both by innovation from
within, and by assimilation of eternal traditions or cults into the Hindu fold. The result is an enormous
variety of religious traditions, ranging from innumerable small, unsophisticated cults to major religious
movements with millions of adherents spread over the entire subcontinent.” (Wikipedia)
Hinduism is actually a medley of religious traditions, all originating in India. It is not a monolithic entity,
but a conglomeration of religions that share certain common traits. Scholarly study of Hinduism divides
this fluid and diverse religious world-view into 4 distinct groups, distinguished by the deity each
considers primary and the practices associated with that particular deity. (Vaishnavism [Vishnu],
Shaivism [Shiva], Shaktism [Shakti], and Smartism [the oneness of five/six deities as personifications of
the Supreme deity].
Demographics
“Hinduism” is the world’s third largest religion (Christianity is the largest, followed by Islam).
Approximately 950 million people, roughly 14% of the world’s population, identify themselves as Hindu.
Approximately 80% of the population of India identify themselves as Hindu; in Nepal the percentage is
86.5% (23 million people). The population of Bangladesh includes 14 million Hindu; in Bali, the Hindu
population is 3.3 million.
In the United States, Hindus comprise approximately 0.5% of the population, roughly 1.2 million people.
Origins and Historical Development
Hinduism is the term commonly used to designate a wide variety of religious phenomena of Indian origin
dating back over 3000 years. Its roots are hidden in the Vedic religion of the Iron Age in India.
The earliest evidence of prehistoric religion in India date to the late Neolithic Era, (5500-2600 BCE).
Millennia later, during the period of 1500-500 BCE, the Vedas, understood as sacred texts, appear. The
Vedas were four canonical collections of hymns, prayers, and liturgical formulas.
As early as 3000 BCE there is evidence of an Aryan culture in the north and northwest region of the
Indian subcontinent. The concepts, language, and pantheon of this culture resembled those of classical
Greek and Rome. Over several centuries Aryan myth and religion developed into the basis of Brahmanic
tradition, and gradually moved south where it blended with Dravidian and other cultures.
The term Hindu or Hinduism was originally a secular term, used to refer to the people of the Indian
subcontinent. By the 13th century the term Hindustan had come to be an alternative term for “India,”
meaning “the land of the Hindus.”
In the 19th century the term “Hindu” became a convenient way of referring to the complex religious,
philosophical, and cultural traditions native to India. Literally translated, the term “Hinduism” means
“Indianism.”
Sacred Writings
Hindu writings include many categories of literature from 1300 BCE to modern times – a large body of
complex and diverse literature.
Ancient seers and sages composed and compiled texts that eventually came to constitute four collections
of material know as Vedas. These ancient texts were considered divinely inspired, messages that were
heard by their authors through the ancient Sanskrit hymns.
More than 1000 hymns (rig) were arranged into 10 books called Rig Veda. These hymns formed the
basic texts of ritual as practiced by priests.
Over the next 200 + years, three other Vedic collections developed (Sama Veda, Yajur, Atharva Veda),
focusing primarily on ritual activities conducted by priests. Over the next 2000 years approximately a
dozen large texts (Brahamanas) were developed, including commentaries and guidelines for ritual
practice. These materials, referred to as remembered texts, were considered secondary to the ancient
heard texts.
Ancient Vedas: a corpus of texts compiled over hundreds of years. The ancient Vedas constitute the
foundation for later developments in Hinduism. Earliest Vedas were mostly liturgical texts used primarily
in ritual sacrifices to such early gods as Agni (fire) and Soma (plant god). Later Vedas (Aranyakas and
Upanishads) taught that gaining spiritual knowledge is a more important pursuit than ritual action. These
later texts teach: 1) Samsara: All beings are reincarnated into the world over and over; 2) Karma: The
results of one’s actions are reaped in future lives; 3) The process of endless re-birth is characterized by
suffering (dukkha); and 4) Moksha: Liberation from suffering can be obtained through gaining spiritual
knowledge.
Gaining spiritual knowledge came to be seen as central. Self-discipline and methods of asceticism for
gaining spiritual knowledge were developed (e.g., yoga and renunciation of the world). Ascetic groups
(strivers) were formed, with the goal of liberation through austerity.
Eventually, a highly sophisticated philosophical system developed, which led to multitudes of
metaphysical positions and traditions of rigorous philosophical debate.
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Many Hindus regard the Vedas as timeless revelation, a repository of all knowledge, and see these texts as
a crucial marker of Hindu identity.
Aranyakas and Upanishads: The spiritual legacy of Vedic ritualism gradually gave way to a focus on
the inner spiritual formation of the individual believer. The earliest “spiritual formation” literature was
the Aranyakas, followed by the more influential and better-known Upanishads (“to sit at the feet of”).
This spiritual literature is typical of the religious literature in many cultures that developed during the socalled Axial Age (800-200 BCE) with its growing awareness of human personality-development and
internal life.
The main theme of these 10-13 works is exploring at a deeper level the nature and cause of existence, the
distinctive features of human nature, and the relationship of humans to the divine. They addressed such
questions as: What is the ultimate reality? What is the self? During this period the idea of an
indestructible soul as the principal connection between human and the divine developed.
The Upanishads, compiled c.900-400 BCE, provided commentaries and reflections on the ancient Vedic
writings and rituals, and eventually came to be regarded as a genre of Vedic literature in their own right.
In the Upanishads we find the first appearance of a developed theory of karma and liberation.
Over the next 1500 years Hindu writers produced a large body of sacred literature that was considered
secondary to the Upanishads and earlier texts. This corpus included four theologically and religiously
important genres: 1) major epic poems such as Mahabharata (“Great India”), a type of national saga; the
Bhagavad-Gita (“Song of the Blessed Lord”) and Ramayana (“Story of Ramayana”). 2) Shastras: legal
and ethical treatises. 3) Sutras: short, pithy statements – a group of systematic doctrinal works
articulating the views of 6 philosophical schools. 4) Puranas (ancient narratives: 18 major; 18 minor).
The Puranas had widespread appeal and have remained popular throughout the centuries.
Although many Hindus have high regard for scripture, the scriptures are secondary to practical application
and personal transformation. Religion is meant to bring practitioners closer to God, to make them better,
happier, and more productive people.
Essential Presuppositions
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Time is cyclical.
There is an essential connection between microcosmic and macrocosmic levels of reality – what
one chooses and does has a necessary, although miniscule, effect on the entire universe
A principle of causality underlies all of life, the known and the unknown.
Underlying Metaphysics
Three “signature” (sine qua non) ideas that are central to Hinduism.
1. the Hindu concept of identity, that one is a soul distinct from one’s body.
Who are we beyond or apart from our changeable, material designation of mind and body? The process
of uncovering one’s true self is the task of every believing Hindu.
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The soul has 3 manifestations: the gross physical body; the subtle body (mind, intelligence, one’s sense
of identity); the Self, the actual person within all the external material coverings.
2. teachings of karma: that every action has an equal and commensurate reaction.
From Sanskrit word meaning “action.” Complex concept that is understood in a variety of ways.
Emphasizes that all actions have built-in consequences. Implies the cyclical nature of action, causality.
Refers to the inevitable result of old choices, old beliefs, old attitudes.
Eventually, most people become conscious of their actions and strive to change them. Karma is not
punishment, but opportunity to correct old patterns and have a more meaningful life. Karma is a teacher
that helps us learn from our mistakes.
3. reincarnation: the soul transmigrates from body to body until it reaches perfection
The soul is a quantum of energy that can neither be created or destroyed, thus it goes on beyond death.
We are born and reborn as humans with varying levels of consciousness. The soul learns its lessons in
life while accruing karma again and again. These embodied lives teach us that distancing ourselves from
God is unwise, and that we are created to recognize and actualize the spiritual core of our lives.
Understanding of Time
Time is vast and cyclical. The universe has no beginning or end. It came forth from Brahman and will
return to Brahman, from whence it will start again. The cycles are connected by karma so that events in
each cycle affect events in subsequent cycles.
Each cycle is characterized by a gradual upward evolution followed by a gradual deterioration until the
world is destroyed by fire and eventually returns to chaos. This destruction is followed by another cycle
of upward evolution and eventual deterioration and destruction.
Each cycle constitutes a “day of Brahman.”
Each “day” lasts 4,320,000 years, and is divided into 14 periods (Manu). Each Manu divides into 4 great
eras, and each great era divides into 4 yugas. We are currently living in a cycle known as the Dhiva-yuga,
which is separated into 4 lesser yugas. In the cosmic scheme, we are currently in the middle of the last
and worst age.
Major Beliefs /Principle concepts
Hinduism is not so much a system of beliefs as it is a way of life, a religious culture, a spiritual and
intellectual quest, and an intense identification with the myriad ways in which the sacred is present in
India. Ask Hindus about their beliefs, and they will respond by talking about ethical teachings: kindness,
truth, hospitality, respect for family (especially their elders).
“What matters most for Hindus is not what people believe and how they express it, but that they believe
in an order greater than the human mind can fathom or spirit can dominate.” Renard, p 7
Hindus may be polytheistic, monotheistic, monist, or atheistic. They may believe in one God (Brahman)
who can appear in many forms, human and non-human. For some, God is the universe and is therefore
present in all sentient beings.
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Hindus have great regard for diversity, particularly the religious diversity of the greater Hindu world,
although there are certainly purists who maintain that their perspective is superior to others.
God and Gods
Hinduism is a diverse system of thought with beliefs spanning monotheism, polytheism, panentheism,
pantheism, monism, atheism, agnosticism, gnosticism, and other views of the divine. Some people refer
to Hinduism as henotheistic (devotion to a single god, while accepting the existence of other gods).
For many Hindus there is a single absolute deity, far too overwhelming for humans to grasp. The deity
presents itself in many forms and roles, leading some people to think there are many gods. The single
absolute deity is often referred to as the Godhead.
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Trimurti: God understood in a 3-fold way as: Brahma (creator); Vishnu (sustainer); and Shiva
(destroyer)
In more recent times the Trimurti has been replaced by a group of 5 gods: Vishnu, Shiva, Devi,
Surya, and Ganes.
Pre-eminent gods are Shiva and Vishnu. Shiva, “the auspicious,” represents the ultimate nature of
reality: the polarities of life and death, creation and destruction, the ascetic and erotic, on whose
interrelationship all of life depends. Vishnu is responsible for preservation of the cosmos – to
make sure the cosmos operates according to its proper order.
Brahma: the creator god, the most powerful and supreme god who is so far beyond human understanding
that he cannot be worshiped directly. Brahma is often portrayed with 4 heads, looking in all directions.
Vishnu: the most widely-worshiped Hindu deity. Wife’s name is Lakshmi. Often referred to as “the
dreamer,” and is portrayed as slumbering with a lotus flower in his navel.
Vishnu is interactive in the realm of humans, and is sympathetic and loving. Intervenes of their behalf,
and his job is to maintain the cosmic balance of good and evil, and to assure protection of the dharma.
When Vishnu incarnates and comes to earth, he comes in the form of an avatar. He has 10 avatars, and
has incarnated as each of the first nine up to now.
Shiva: the reckless and destructive god of nature who is kept in balance by his consort, the goddess
Shakti. Shiva is the god who brings destruction at the end of each cycle which is followed by the
beginning of a new cycle
Individual Hindus or families often have a favorite god, a deity of great personal importance, one whom
they worship and to whom they are devoted. These individual gods are understood to be an expression,
form, or manifestation of the one ultimate reality, Brahman. The pantheon includes both male and
female deities, as well as avatars. Avatars are manifestations of God who periodically intervene to fight
evil and to assure that the universe functions in accordance with dharma.
Manifestations of the Sacred
The sacred is manifest in countless forms: temples, religious images, stones, trees, mountains, rivers.
Rivers have powerful symbolic meaning in India, representing a crossing between the sacred and profane,
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and a crossing between the worlds of the living and the dead. Tradition has it that a single “dip” in the
Ganges, the most sacred of the rivers, will bring untold spiritual merit.
Cows, monkeys, snakes, rats, as well as certain men and women are considered to be holy, and these holy
representations often have sizeable followings or communities. Gurus are male or female spiritual
teachers, considered figures of great importance and the object of worship (darshan). Some attain this
status by means of their charisma. Others are initiated into a long-established lineage
Creation: how the world began
Vishnu, the all-pervasive, lay at rest on Sheshak, the serpent of endless time, floating on the waters of
eternity. From Vishnu’s navel a lotus grows. As the lotus blossom opens, Brahman, the creator god
emerges and creates the world.
Worship
In ancient times almost all worship was centered around a sacrificial fire ritual (yajna) and hymn-singing
(bhajana) in which sacrificial gifts (animal, foodstuff) were given to one of the nature gods. The purpose
of these sacrifices was to please the gods through worship and devotion and to ensure the well-being of
the patron or sponsor of the service.
Puja: In modern times the yajna service of sacrifice is quite rare. The most common means of devotion
is puja, a ritual of devotional worship conducted at temples by Brahman priests or in private homes. Puja
may be addressed to any of the numerous gods in the Hindu pantheon.
Temples are often dedicated to a particular deity, and typically contain sanctified images of the deity.
Puja is addressed to this deity by a priest after ritual purification. The image is also purified by a bath,
and is “fed” symbolically by the offering of food gifts.
Some Hindus see the image of the deity as merely a symbolic representation of the divine being. For
others, the image is actually the divine presence manifesting itself in tangible form.
Some folks see puja as an act of great religious significance, and others see it as an unnecessary outward
display of religious piety, secondary in importance to inward modes of spiritual development.
Services of public worship as well as worship in homes often include adoration or homage to an image of
a deity. Attitudes toward the images vary. Some believers consider the power of the deity (shakti) to
exist in the image (murti). According to this view, when the image is consecrated by a priest the ceremony
transforms the image into an embodiment of God. Viewing the image is believed to bring good fortune,
grace, and spiritual merit. During ritual worship the gods are served and cared for as honored guests,
presented with offerings of food and other gifts.
Public worship is not typically “communal” like many other faith traditions. Although folks gather at the
designated place at the designated time, actions are varied, with different things going on at the same
time. In their turn, individuals or families move toward the image of the deity and ask the help of the
priest in presenting their gifts to the image or the deity.
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Spirituality
In contrast to the predominantly rational approach to spiritually in the West, Eastern spirituality is more
intuitive. Focuses on mystery and recognizes that truth has many forms.
Atman (soul)
The spirit or true self in each person is eternal. For some schools of thought (nondualistic), the Atman is
identical with Brahman, although people do not realize this. The goal of life is to realize that one’s atman
is identical to Brahman, the supreme soul. In the dualistic schools, Brahman is the Supreme Being to be
worshiped and loved.
Samsara (cycles of life)
Life, cosmically and individually, is an endless cycle of birth and rebirth. Striving to bring one’s
perpetual cycle of rebirths to an end is at the core of many Hindu practices. “As a person puts on new
clothes and discards old and torn clothes, similarly an embodied sould enters new material bodies, leaving
the old bodies.” (BG 2:22)
Dharma (principle upholding and guiding life)
Dharma means “to uphold,” “to support,” “to bear.” Dharma exists at the cosmic level as well as in the
life of each individual. At the cosmic level, dharma is the moral and metaphysical foundation of the
universe, the central organizing principle of the cosmos – that which supports and maintains all existence:
the universal principle of law, order, harmony, all in all truth, that sprang first from Brahman. It is the
regulatory moral principle of the universe, but is also more than law or harmomy: it is pure Reality.
Dharma upholds the affairs of this world and others.
Dharma refers to all of reality as it ought to be, from the cosmic level to the minutest responsibilities of an
individual. Even the gods take account of dharma when they act.
“An invariable something at the center of the world’s revolutions, holding it in place – the thing that
regulates the course of change by not participating in change and by remaining constant.”
At the individual level, dharma is the inner reality that makes something what it is. (e.g., “dogness” in
dogs; “rockness” in rocks. Cows make milk because that is what cows do. Bees make honey because that
is what bees do.).
Fulfilling one’s dharmic duties is a necessary step toward liberation.
Moksha (ultimate liberation, the goal of human existence)
The ultimate goal for each person is to attain complete freedom from the cycles of birth and re-birth. The
highest goal of human striving is to experience freedom from the endless round of rebirths.
The ultimate goal of life (moksha, nirvana, samadhi) is understood in several different ways: realization
of one’s union with God; the realization of one’s eternal relationship with God; realization of the unity of
all existence; perfect unselfishness and knowledge of the Self; attainment of perfect mental peace;
detachment from worldly desires. Such realization liberates one from the cycle of perpetual rebirth.
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Karma (“action,” a moral law of cause and effect)
Karma is understood to mean that one’s actions determine one’s condition in this life and one’s rebirth in
the next. Every action has its inevitable fruit/consequence. Good deeds result in good karma, which
produces good fortune in this life and a good birth in the next. Bad deeds bring about bad karma which
may lead to a less desirable birth in the next life as a person of lesser status, as an animal, or as a soul
suffering in one of the many hells.
Ways to override karma: devotion to a deity (the most potent resource), religious rituals, and meritorious
action. According to the Bhagavad-Gita, adherence to one’s duty, combined with internal renunciation of
attachment to the result of one’s action can lead to liberation (moksha) from the cycle of rebirths
(samsara).
Central questions/concerns
According to religion scholar Huston Smith, Hindu people are concerned with the questions of “who are
we?” and “what kind of world do we have?” They answer:
“A multiple world that includes innumerable galaxies horizontally, innumerable tiers vertically,
and innumerable cycles temporally.
“A moral world in which the principle of karma is never suspended.
“A middling world that will never replace paradise as the spirit’s destination.
“A world that is maya, deceptively tricky in passing off its multiplicity, materiality, and dualities
as ultimate when they are actually provisional.
“A training ground in which people can develop their highest capacities.
“A world that is lila, the play of the Divine in its Cosmic Dance – untiring, unending, restless, yet
ultimately beneficent, with a grace born of infinite vitality.”
A Portrayal of the Spiritual Journey
The journey continues through several lives, eventually leading individuals to their ultimate goal: moksha
(liberation from the cycle of rebirth).
People seek 4 things:
1. Pleasure (kama): sex, play, recreation, arts, literature. A legitimate pursuit, to be done with
integrity and regard for others. Pleasure adds to life, but its capacity to fulfill one’s deeper longings is
limited.
2. Worldly success (artha): wealth, fame, power. The drive is insatiable but is unable to bring
one a meaningful life, regardless of how much comfort success provides.
These two avenues are known as the Path of Desire. They are valid, legitimate pursuits that are quite
natural and appeal to everyone. Eventually, some people realize that the Path of Desire is a spiritual deadend. Others, however, never get beyond the illusion that these pursuits are worth living for.
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When one begins to ask questions about meaning and purpose, and begins to wonder if one is part of
something bigger than one’s own ego, the religious life has begun in earnest. These questions lead one to
the Path of Renunciation:
3. Duty: The person’s focus shifts from the “will to get” to “the will to give.” The task becomes
to do one’s best at the task at hand, to fulfill one’s responsibilities, whatever one’s station in life or stage
in life. Duty yields noble rewards, but like pleasure and success, leaves the individual unfulfilled. The
person on the spiritual path shifts his or her energy to living at a deeper level:
4. Longing for release from the limits and restrictions of finitude: the desire to have a future,
to continue; the desire to know/understand; the desire to experience joy, the feeling tone that is the
opposite of futility.
As one continues on this journey he or she eventually discovers that the spiritual nature is already
present within. Underlying the human suffering and animating human life is a reservoir of being that
never dies, is never exhausted, and is unrestricted in consciousness and bliss. This infinite center of life,
this hidden self, is atman: Brahman.
“The eternal is deeply buried in a person, buried under the almost impenetrable mass of
distracting, false assumptions, and self-regarding instincts that comprise our surface self . . . The goal is to
bring the infinite to light in our own life and draw from it increasingly.” (Huston Smith)
Paths for Seeking God and Moving Toward Liberation
Through knowledge, insight, wisdom: Jnanayoga
Spiritual aspirants with a strong reflective bent seek God through knowledge – not factual
knowledge, but intuitive discernment that transforms and turns the knower into what he or she knows.
Such discernment and discrimination allows one to distinguish between the surface self and the self that is
out of sight.
Through love: Bhaktiyoga
One directs toward God the love that is at the base of every heart. Bhaktiyoga includes people
whose spiritual journey is characterized by emotional and/or ecstatic experiences. Intense personal
relationship between the deity and the devotee. Selfless love of God leads to blissful communion with
deity, and the dissolution of past karma.
Through work: Karmayoga
Spiritual aspirants with a strong active bent seek God through work, service to others. This
approach allows ordinary people everywhere to give spiritual meaning to their everyday lives. The aim is
to perform one’s duty selflessly and to act without desire for status or reward. This was Gandhi’s path:
social commitment, struggle, non-violence and peaceful resistance to British rule.
Through psychological exercises: Rajayoga
Spiritual aspirants with a strong scientific bent experiment with a variety of mental exercises and
observe their subjective effects. The goal is to lead the individual to the “beyond that is within.”
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Some believers consider each path as sufficient for liberation; others believe that a synthesis of all 4
approaches is superior to any single one.
Stages of Life
Every life passes through four phases/stages, and this process is impacted by the individual’s personality
type as discussed in the previous section regarding paths to God.
Student: 8-12 , lasting approximately 12 years. The task is to learn skills and develop habits, to equip
oneself for a good and effective life.
Householder: begins with marriage. The task is attachment to family, vocation, and community.
Retirement: The birth of first grandchild frees the individual from numerous responsibilities, giving him
or her opportunities to seek a deeper life.
Sannyasin: “one who neither hates or loves anything” The stage following retirement when one strives to
be a non-entity and to be united with the all.
Castes
Brahmin caste: priests, teachers, spiritual leaders
Kshatriya: warriors and rulers
Vaishya: merchants, artisans
Sudra: laborers
Noncaste: those in dangerous jobs that are unhealthy and unacceptable for Sudras
References
Ludwig, Theodore M. The Sacred Paths of the East. Prentice-Hall, 2001
McDowell, Michael & Nathan Brown. World Religions at Your Fingertip. Alpha Books, 2009.
Partridge, Christopher (ed.). Introduction to World Religions. Fortress Press, 2005.
Renard, John. 101 Questions and Answers on Hinduism. Gramercy Press, 1999.
Rosen, Steven J. Essential Hinduism. Praeger Publishers, 2006.
Smith, Huston. The World’s Religions. Harper Collins, 1991.
“Hinduism,” Wikipedia. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinduism
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