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Tradition, innovation and change in contemporary
Nigerian theatre
Duro Oni, Professor of Theatre Arts and Dean, Faculty of Arts, University of Lagos, Nigeria Abstract Contemporary Nigerian Drama and Theatre has undergone various changes in recent times from its traditional mode of the Alarinjo Theatre (Adedeji, 1969) to Western style performances which started in the late 19th Century with the concerts, cantatas and native air operas (Echeruo, 1977). From these early beginnings, the theatre developed with the emergence of Hubert Ogunde on the theatre scene in 1945 (Clark, 1979). From that period until the early 1990s the theatre survived with performances mainly among the major ethnic groups, particularly the Yoruba Travelling Theatres (Jeyifo, 1984). Other organizations and establishments including universities in Nigeria, cultural centres of Art Councils and private production organizations followed in the involvement in theatrical productions (Oni, 1985, 2002). The paper notes that theatrical performances and the theatre started to merge with the production of celluloid films when Wole Soyinka produced Kongi’s Harvest in 1970. This was followed with the works of such theatre producers as Ade Afolayan and Moses Olaiya and others. It was however the foray of Hubert Ogunde, regarded as the father of modern Nigerian Theatre, into film that gave that medium a truly new dimension. This paper investigates the transition from the traditional/modern live theatre to film/video formats in the Nigerian theatre scene (Haynes, 1997) culminating in the UNESCO ranking of the Nigerian film industry as the second largest in the world. The paper examines the various trends that have occasioned these changes and the innovations that it has brought to the Nigerian theatrical scene. ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– Introduction This paper investigates the transition from the traditional/modern live theatre to film/video formats in the Nigerian theatre scene. The paper also looks at the various trends that have occasioned these changes and the innovations that they have brought to the Nigerian theatrical scene from the root of the Alarinjo Theatre to the current Nollywood Industry. The transition from the Alarinjo theatre to the theatre in the colonial era to the Popular traditional theatre (championed by Ogunde) and finally to the English/University theatre and their contribution to the film industry is the focus of the paper. At the heart of any society is the very human desire to share stories as a way of making sense of experience. Constructing narratives is a universal, uniquely human, behaviour. All over the world and throughout time people have told each other stories, so much so that Walter Fisher (1984, 1987) suggests ‘we should conceptualize ourselves as Homo narrens’ (Barbatsis, 2005: 331). ANZCA Conference 2012, Adelaide, South Australia
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Origins of Nigerian Theatre It is generally believed that every society must have had their own kind and form of theatre apart from the origin ascribed to the Greek theatre and Thespis. According to Yemi Ogunbiyi (1981, p.3); “…Nigerian theatre and drama originated with the Nigerian himself, embodying his first preoccupations, his first struggles, successes, setbacks and all…”. This is connected to the fact that man in his quest to survive mimicked animals in his hunting expedition and created dance movements, a form of theatre. The ritual enactments of these dances for prey became the foundation for African and consequently Nigerian theatre and drama. Just like many of the theatrical performances of the early Greek period were not written down until Aeschylus, Sophocles, Aristophanes, etc, African traditional festivals were also celebrated without written documentation before colonialism. In Nigeria, this can be seen in the Alarinjo theatre which was predominant in the Western part of the country with the Apidan Theatre and its nature. African/Nigerian theatre originated and developed from African/Nigerian festivals which were the major forms of entertainment and education of the African people during this period. Different groups performed for their audiences during these festivals and from these, Nigerian theatre grew. As many scholars have posited, Kacke Gotrick (1984, p.35) also points out that the Apidan Theatre developed from the male religious Egungun Society. He goes further to examine different myths that surrounded the evolution of the Alarinjo (Apidan) theatre which is believed to be the origin of indigenous professional theatre in Nigeria. He recounts that; “several scholars have expressed themselves on the origin of this religious society. The Egungun Society was created as a result of the influence from the Nupe culture at about the time Alaafin Ofinran was moving back to Oyo ile from Baribaland...”. He further recounts Adedeji’s explanations on the different myths surrounding the origin and development of the Egungun Society and the actual creation of the Apidan Theatre. This Adedeji refers to as the beginning of professionalism in masque-­‐dramaturgy. Gotrick (1984, p.37) further explains that: At the beginning of the 19th century, Yoruba land suffered internal disintegration and invasion from the north, forcing the population to flee to the south, taking the Apidan theatre along. A new centre was established around new Oyo and Ibadan. The courts, however, had little time for entertainments and little interest either, so the theatre troupes had to find a new audience, probably also because of the changes in social structure. Thanks to the Egungun Society, the yearly Egungun festivals supplied an audience, glad to be entertained throughout the year as well. When, during the second half of the 19th century, Ibadan became a state of its own, the Apidan troupes were welcomed by the public as well as by the ruling class. In 1893, the military chief commander in Ibadan invited Ayelabola troupe to be the first troupe to settle permanently in the town. This marked the eventual development of professionalism in theatre practice in Nigeria and even when the Apidan theatre lost part of its audience because of the advent of Christianity, Islam and Western education, professionalism had been rooted in the Nigerian theatre. J.A Adedeji (1978, p.8) on his part avers that, “the history and development of the theatre in Yoruba shows that it has borne many kinds of names but this shows the extent of its dynamism both as a pastime and as a professional concern”. He talks about the “native drama” whose content and form were inspired by Yoruba folklore and performance styles which was very much rudimentary in the hands of the natives with intent on self-­‐assertion. The performances, according to him, in many cases were based on stories that were simple and familiar, usually drawn from folktales, myths ANZCA Conference 2012, Adelaide, South Australia
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and legend. This can also be seen in the position of Ogunba (1978, p.3) when he states that, “in many communities in Africa…traditional festivals are staged from time to time. In a town of modest size, say twenty thousand inhabitants, there may be as many as ten to fifteen festivals in a year’s cycle of ceremonies...” This according to him is symptomatic of West African communities where local gods, goddesses and spirits have continued to thrive even till these modern times. The Alarinjo theatre, which inculcated the African traditional festival, was that which was communal with the embellishment of dance, music, drums, chants, proverbs, and oral traditional performance (storytelling). Other distinguishing features of the Alarinjo theatre were the high reliance on improvisation and the very active involvement of the audience in its performance. This is because the audience in the African traditional theatre is always largely involved vocally, enthusiastically and responsively in the performances because of the communal nature of African festivals and theatre. They respond to choruses, chants, proverbs, punctuate stories with exclamations and they generally give life to the performance in the theatre. Also, issues raised in African theatre are common to their societies with the involvement of rituals, history, myth, legends, employment of satire to expose anti-­‐social behaviours in their society and also the use of the language peculiar to their society. One cannot begin to appreciate the rituals and dramas, which form the dynamics of a traditional African festival, until he has reached a total understanding of the world-­‐view and belief systems which index the festival as an organic part of the religious and secular life of traditional Africa. This according to Stanley Amah (1982, p.1) makes traditional African festival “…more than just a festival; it is a symbolic renewal of a people’s past in their present, a way of recalling their origins (whether mystical or historical). It is an occasion for assertion of cultural identity and self-­‐awareness, which is more involving”. Theatre in the colonial era in Nigeria The 19th century theatre in Nigeria is believed to have been the turning point in the kind of theatrical performances that the Nigerian stage witnessed. This is because of the advent of the Western form of theatre introduced by the colonial masters to the country. In an earlier work, Oni (2004) gives a vivid account of how the theatre of this period engaged in a technological development in all areas of the theatre especially in the area of design for performances. Having traced the evolution of Nigerian theatre from ritual, festival and the Alarinjo theatre, he says that: The emergence of the other forms of entertainment in the late 19th century resulted in a shift from this traditional form of entertainment to the more European-­‐inspired one of concerts, especially among the educated urban city-­‐
dwellers... The late 19th century, beginning from 1880, are the earliest recorded attempts at dramatic entertainments and concerts, mainly in Lagos, Ibadan and Abeokuta. The performances were organized mainly by the Catholic and Anglican Church groups and were held mostly in school halls and in churches. (Oni 2004 86). The effects of these theatrical performances were not only on the performance area but also on the script, as Western form of plays were the earliest performed during this period. Many of these concerts and performances were done during Christian festive periods and the contents were mainly intended for the European society and the few educated Africans who returned ANZCA Conference 2012, Adelaide, South Australia
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from Freetown in Sierra Leone. Leonard (1967, p.30) examines the effect of these concerts on the audience as he posits that most of the concerts were meant strictly for the educated and rich. He says that it was; “more expensive to attend an entertainment in Lagos than in London.” As the performances became more secular, coupled with the resistance from the church in using their structures for such performances, there was the need to get separate venues for the performances. This led to the construction of the Glover Memorial Hall, built between 1887 and 1893. The effect of this according to Oni (2010, p.89) was the development of stage lighting and erection of other halls for performance. Theatre in the pre-­‐independence era in Nigeria Early theatre practitioners in Africa and Nigeria used their theatre to showcase the rich culture embedded in their traditional festivals, society and to portray their heroes, legend, myths, gods, and virtues and vices in the society, for public consumption. These proponents such as Hubert Ogunde (who started his theatre in 1945), Duro Ladipo (founded the Mbari-­‐Mbayo in 1962) and Kola Ogunmola (who founded his theatre in 1947 was at his peak in the 1950s and 1960s) were true to making theatre the meeting point of their culture and society. Commenting on the works of these practitioners mentioned above, Adedeji (1978, p.47) says that, “The singular efforts of these practitioners in developing an artistic style which is dynamic, in evolving a pattern or system of theatrical operations which is self-­‐sustaining and self-­‐propagating, are noteworthy examples for future generations of theatre artists”. The Ogunde factor in the development of Nigerian theatre in post-­‐colonial Nigeria Several scholars give the honour for the development and growth of modern Nigerian theatre to Hubert Ogunde because of his universally known and acclaimed creation and works. Suffice to say that Ogunde’s theatre participated in the cultural renaissance in the 1940s in Nigeria and this lends credence to his theatre being regarded as a pioneering one. Ebun Clark (1979, p.ix) examines the basis of Ogunde being the originator of professionalism in modern Nigerian theatre when she comparatively explains various scholars’ position on the matter: One of Ogunde’s major contributions to the history of professional theatre in Nigeria is that he withdrew the theatre from the direct patronage of court and church and gave it to the people. He did not, however, originate professionalism. Some would say that he did not originate the modern theatre either, insisting that before Ogunde became involved with theatre in 1944, there were other artists such as A. B. David, Dawodu, A. A. Layeni, and G. Onimole, all of whom were already established composers of Yoruba music, each producing Services of Songs for the various churches that commissioned them. However, there were major differences between what these earlier artists did. Ogunde’s productions contained dramatic actions, movements, blockings, and scenarios as against that of the others. Clark (1979, p.x) asserts that: But these early Services of Songs, or Native Air Operas as they were called, were from all accounts devoid of dramatic action and realism. Their European equivalent would be the Oratorio or Cantata. In contrast, when Ogunde produced his first Native Air Opera, The Garden of Eden and the Throne of God, he included ANZCA Conference 2012, Adelaide, South Australia
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dramatic action and realism. By so doing he directed attention away from a pure musical form to the more composite character of the theatre. This risky but bold move laid the foundation for the kind of theatre that was prevalent during this period and some of the earlier artists eventually turned full professional breaking away from the norms. In the bid to create a new form of theatre that will transcend the sphere of time as Ogunde eventually did, there were various things he did and some influences that also made him the kind of artiste he was. Clark (1979, p.4) further says of Ogunde that: He may not have given Nigeria her first professional theatre; his theatre differed from that of the masked players in many ways. In the Alarinjo Theatre, the professional actor is masked; in the theatre of Ogunde the professional actor threw away his mask and showed his person for the first time to his audience. We can therefore say that Ogunde began the first professional theatre without masks in Yoruba. It was also Ogunde who withdrew the theatre from the traditional patronage of the court and religious organizations to rely solely on the patronage of the public. Ogunde thereby gave birth to the first Yoruba commercial theatre. Many scholars over the years have showered accolades and praises on Ogunde for his trailblazing role in the development of modern theatre in Nigeria with his various contributions. Clark’s account of his contributions is summarized as follows: •
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He withdrew the theatre from the direct patronage of court and church and gave it to the people. He included dramatic action and realism to his kind of Native Air Opera. By the mid-­‐fifties, he had moved Yoruba theatre away from an ‘opera’ form to a ‘play’ form. Ogunde began the first professional theatre without masks in Yoruba. Ogunde withdrew the theatre from the traditional patronage of the court and religious organizations to rely solely on the patronage of the public. He also took theatre indoors from the traditional open-­‐air theatre. He changed the form of publicity from oral to written by making use of posters and adverts in newspapers to publicize his plays. He changed the face of performance from the theatre in the round to the proscenium arch theatre. He was the first to use modern theatre equipment especially in the area of design in performance. Ogunde was the first to use female actors as star artistes in his plays. He also broke away from the apprenticeship nature of training upcoming actors by paying his actors no matter their status in the troupe. Ogunde also introduced realism and dialogue into the Yoruba theatre. Clark (1979, p.5) concludes that; “The greatness of Ogunde’s achievement, therefore, is that he changed the direction of Yoruba theatre and gave it new impetus and dimension. Almost single-­‐
handed, he established what is now loosely termed ‘Contemporary Yoruba Theatre’ of which there are many exponents but of which Ogunde remains the supreme artist and father-­‐figure”. Ogunde is also partly credited with the development of celluloid film production in modern Nigeria because of his trailblazing role in the early days of film/cinema in the country. The traditional Alarinjo Theatre of old had a lot of influence on the post-­‐colonial theatres of people ANZCA Conference 2012, Adelaide, South Australia
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like Hubert Ogunde, Duro Ladipo, Kola Ogunmola and others. This also explains for example why someone like Ogunde had music and dance before during and after his performances. This was divided into the opening glee (Ijuba), play proper and the closing glee. To examine the origin of this nature of theatrical composition, Olu Obafemi quotes Adedeji as pointing ... out as further evidence of the dominance of oral tradition in Yoruba theatre, the use of the presentation formula of most traditional verbal arts, especially the Ijuba (Supplication or Pledge) as “Opening Glee or Entrance-­‐Song”. He posits that; “this theatrical device was initiated into the Yoruba theatre by Esa Ogbin, the primordial masque-­‐dramaturge, in homage to the Ologbin of Ogbin, the father of traditional theatre. Most practitioners of this theatre employ this introductory formula, in different ways, in their work (Obafemi 2001, p.15). Duro Ladipo however did not use the opening glee the way Ogunde did because he built it into the body of his plays as a part of the structure and meaning rather than treating it as a conventional ornament. According to Obafemi (2001, p.15); “in fact, Ladipo’s reliance on tradition for theatrical expression is the most profound of all the theatre practitioners using this mode”. However, Ebun Clark asserts that Ladipo’s reduced popularity among Yoruba audiences could be attributed to the fact that he did not follow strictly the way the people were used to towing the Esa Ogbin structure. The cinema culture was pioneered in the 1960s and 1970s by people such as Chief Hubert Ogunde, Moses Olaiya and Ade Afolayan. Nigerian film producers around the late ’80s and early ’90s started a revolution. As a result of the theatre background of its primary practitioners, the Nigerian cinema in the ’60s and ’70s was characterized by the elements of the African Total Theatre experience. Onookome Okome (1993, p.33) reports that: The Nigerian folkloric cinema scene is no doubt an extension of contemporary Yoruba ethnic theatre expression. It boasts of a number of theatre directors who for one reason or another have moved into filmmaking. Prominent among these are Hubert Ogunde, Moses Olaiya (Baba Sala) and Ade Afolayan. These theatre directors turned filmmakers have consistently made their films within the folkloric mode. These are the true folkloric filmmakers. These filmmakers have consistently expressed the cinematic equivalent of their ethnic theatre expression. These early proponents of Nigerian theatre ran independent travelling troupes that were operated as family businesses with wives and children playing the roles. They performed in Yoruba (the native tongue of western Nigerians) and their performance style employed the use of folklore. Their performances were replete with song, dance, ritual, chants and many more cultural colourations. The arrival of television to western Nigeria helped provide them with a wider reach. Western Nigerian Television Ibadan (WNTV); established on 31st October 1959, afforded Ogunde and Olaiya the opportunity to showcase their craft to a ready audience, right in the comfort of their homes. Okome (37) quotes Moses Olaiya saying: The (NTV) Ibadan did much to promote my theatre. I owe more than 50% of my present success to them. For about two to three years from 1965, we concentrated mainly on our television appearances. We became very popular with our Yoruba speaking audience. Our audience was ready made. The television had done it. The theatre practitioners turned filmmakers had succeeded in plying their trade by transmitting the values, history, pantheon, and general way of life of the Yoruba people through their folkloric ANZCA Conference 2012, Adelaide, South Australia
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mode of performance that had morphed from the live theatre form to motion picture (television and cinematic drama). English university theatre in Nigeria The development of university theatre has also been traced to the University College, Ibadan, which apart from being the first university in Nigeria was also the first university to have a theatre department. Before the coming of Geoffrey Axworthy, the pioneer Director of the School of Drama to Nigeria in 1956, the Student Dramatic Society had been established in 1948, the same year the university college was founded. According to Ahmed Yerima (2005, p.36) while quoting Geoffrey Axworthy: There is no doubt that it started with students of Classics and English Literature… The plays they presented were mostly old English classic plays and American plays which had no relevance to the university audience. They almost became plays through which the colonial masters fulfilled their nostalgia for home. Axworthy was to change the course of these productions at Ibadan. He recalls that: What I call a rebirth of a true University College Ibadan Dramatic Society started with my bringing back from England in October 1958 Wole Soyinka’s plays, and the performance in February 1959 of both plays; I mean the Swamp Dwellers and The Lion and the Jewel. The plays were challenging to the students and to students who had been Soyinka’s mates at Ibadan. It evoked in the students a sense of personal ambition to write more plays on such themes. I remember it was a trigger to what I would like to call a literary boom. The drive of the students to write their own plays must have had profound effect on the kind of plays and theatrical performances that followed this step. In addition, the formation of Soyinka’s 1960 masks for the production of A Dance of the Forests must have increased the thirst for more African-­‐oriented plays in Ibadan. These events laid the foundation for the establishment of other university theatres in Nigeria. The Soyinka Factor A prominent personality in the development of drama in the English language in Nigerian theatre and also the development of the film industry that cannot be overlooked is Wole Soyinka. His contributions according to different scholars go beyond the stage into the world of film and cinema. Austine Akpuda (2008, p.13) says of his milestone contribution that: When towards the end of 2003 centenary of the film in Nigeria, the organizers of the Nigerian film festival requested Wole Soyinka to make a presentation at their forum, they were without knowing it celebrating Soyinka’s fortieth year as a key player in the film industry. Thus, long before the production of Kongi’s Harvest in 1970... Soyinka had been involved in the industry in the production of the film, ‘Culture in Transition’... Similarly, at a complementary and for us more definitive level is Soyinka’s incursion into film criticism in the same year. That Soyinka would make these contributions in a year that marked the era of the first postcolonial cinematographic art is very significant. ANZCA Conference 2012, Adelaide, South Australia
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The efforts of Soyinka cannot be undermined in the eventual transformation of the theatre stage to film and home video in the Nigerian theatre industry. Development, Transition and Innovation in Film in Nigeria In examining the development of film in Nigeria, Ekwuazi (2007, p.132) asserts that: The fontal stirrings of what has become today the Nigerian Film industry must be traced to the frenetic documentary activities of the British Colonial Film Unit, which at its demise had succeeded in bequeathing to the Federal and Regional Film Unit a strong tradition of the narrative documentary. The sixties did not see the production of feature length Nigerian movies, but witnessed the television productions of Segun Olusola, like The Palmwine Drinkard as adapted from Kola Ogunmola’s stage play and J.P Clark’s Song of a Goat (1964). There were also a set of short films like Edward Horatio’s Aguela and Two Men and a Goat. However, the true birth of the Nigerian industry as reported by Balogun (1987) came with the creation of Calpenny Nigeria Ltd, headed by Bayo Imbovbere and Edward Horatio. The next decade (1970-­‐1980) signified a bountiful harvest for the Nigerian film industry. There were only a handful of films produced (in local languages) within this time but the technical quality stood its ground on international fronts. Films like Son of Africa and the movie adaptation of Wole Soyinka’s stage play Kongi’s Harvest are examples to note. It was not until September 14, 1979 that Decree No. 61 established the Nigerian Film Corporation (NFC). This new institution embodied the vision of the government of the time for the Nigerian film industry. Balogun (1987, p.24) asserts that the NFC was created to function in the following capacities: To produce films for domestic use and export. To establish and maintain facilities for film production to encourage the production of films and the development of cinema houses by way of financial and other forms of assistance. • To acquire and distribute films. • To establish National film archives. • To train technicians and other professionals of the film industry and improve their skills. • To conduct research on film industry. The vision of this new body was a laudable one. The primary aim was to replicate the “Hollywood” prototype in the city of Jos, with plans to build huge film complexes on 300 hectares of land. The efforts of this new regulatory body however were stifled by an unfortunate turn of events. Within its first two years of operation (1982-­‐1983) the Nigerian Film Corporation was not allocated the desired budget to bring the vision for the industry to fruition. Early theatre practitioners like Hubert Ogunde, Moses Olaiya, and Ola Balogun among a few others all made movies that were shown in the few theatres that existed during the 1970s and 1980s. Their films included Jaiyesimi, Aiye, Orun Mooru and Taxi-­‐Driver, all done in Yoruba (the language of the South Western States). The movies produced in English prior to Nollywood included Bisi Daughter of the River and Wole Soyinka's Blues for a Prodigal, Kongi’s Harvest amongst a few others. This development, along with the incredibly high cost of film stock and the lack of skilled manpower; slowly crippled efforts of aspiring Nigerian film makers, film rushes had to be taken abroad to be processed and the Nigerian economy as a whole had began a downward spiral. The film practitioners began to look towards video tapes, which were easier to post produce. The •
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affordability of video technology was not the only factor that strengthened the prominence of the home video, but also the question of convenience. Augusta Okon in her article posted on ezinearticles.com corroborates this view: Home Videos were produced which served as an alternative to the cinemas, and the name naturally stems from the fact that you could seat within the comfort of your home and watch the movies produced in the VHS format via your VCR. Film Makers capitalized on the gains of the Home Video concept offered, and began producing movies using the Yoruba language as the means of communication. Evolution of the Video Film This trend was finally imprinted into the annals of Nigerian film history in 1992 with the release of Kenneth Nnebue’s Living in Bondage. Adenugba Olushola (2007) on blogspot.com comments that Nnebue’s work released from the stables of Nek Video Link marked a point of no return for the industry. Subsequent years saw the rise of a new crop of movie (home video) directors and producers who had hitherto, either worked behind the scene or acted in television productions like; Amaka Igwe (Rattle Snake I & II, Violated), Tade Ogidan (Hostages, Diamond Ring, Owo Blow), Zeb Ejiro (Immortal Inheritance). The stage was set; the Nollywood phenomenon was born. Today, the Nigerian movie industry has grown to be worth over US$500 million, with an output of about 1,200 films per year. (Oni 2010). The industry is therefore known for the quantity of films that is released to the market and without much consideration about the quality of the films. The industry is therefore rated the second for the largest film industry by UNESCO. However in a previous work (Oni 41) I observe: The ranking of the Nigerian Video film industry notwithstanding, the sector still has problems to contend with. First is the quality of many video films that are released into the market on a daily basis. The issue of the thematic pre-­‐occupation of the films is also of concern as most of them still border on love, politics, marriage and infidelity, stories of the occult and the ever present blood rituals. The collapse of the cinema industry that preceded film/video is another pertinent issue in the transition and challenges the industry has faced over the years. Oke Olufemi (2001, pp.13–16) and Barclays Ayakoroma (2008, pp.11–18) examine the many challenges the industry faces in contemporary times and list as follows: Technical Ability/Functions, Repetitive Storyline and Actors, Short Time Frame of Production Process, Artiste Remuneration/Welfare, Lack of Institutional Support, Dearth of Sound and Efficient Professionals, Piracy, and Poor Editing. Conclusion This paper has attempted to examine the tradition, innovations and changes in contemporary Nigerian theatre tracking the various high points from the traditional perspective to the contemporary theatre. The benefits of this transition and the inherent challenges have also been examined. There is therefore no doubt that contemporary Nigerian drama and theatre has undergone various changes in recent times from its traditional mode of the Alarinjo Theatre to the Western form of performances that started in the late 19th Century with the concerts, cantatas and native air operas. From these early beginnings, the theatre developed with the emergence of Hubert Ogunde and his contemporaries and then started to merge with the ANZCA Conference 2012, Adelaide, South Australia
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production of celluloid films as also seen in the works of Soyinka. While the traditional-­‐modern live theatre continues to wane, the video film formats continue to grow to the extent that the UNESCO now ranks the Nigerian film industry as the second largest in the world. The transitions, innovations and the challenges continue to be constantly evolving. References: Adedeji, Joel 1969. The Alarinjo Theatre: The Study of a Yoruba Theatrical Art Form from its Earliest Beginnings to the Present Time”, Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, University of Ibadan. Adedeji, Joel 1978. “Alarinjo: Traditional Yoruba Travelling Theatre”. Theatre in Africa. Ed. Oyin Ogunba & Abiola Irele. Ibadan: Ibadan UP Amah, Stanley 1982. Okere Juju: Itsekiri Religious Ritual Festival. Nigeria Magazine. Lagos Akpuda, Austine 2008. “Wole Soyinka: Film Critic and Intellectual Midwife of the Nigerian Video Film”. Film Nigeria: An International Journal of the Nigerian Film. Ed. Ezechi Onyerionwu. Aba: Leadership and Literary Achievers Series. Vol. 1 No. 1. Ayakoroma, Barclays Foubiri 2008. “Trends in the Development of Contemporary Nigerian Video Film Industry”. Trends in the Theory and Practice of Theatre in Nigeria. Eds. Duro Oni and Ahmed Yerima. Lagos: Society of Nigerian Theatre Artistes (SONTA) Balogun, Francoise 1987. The Cinema in Nigeria. Delta Publications (Nigeria) Limited Barbatsis, G. 2005. “Narrative Theory” in Handbook of Visual Communication, Kenneth Louis Smith, Sandra Moriarty, Gretchen Barbatsis, Keith Kenney. LEA, Mahwah Clark, Ebun 1979. Hubert Ogunde: The Making of Nigerian Theatre. Ibadan: University Press Plc Echeruo, Michael 1977. Victorian Lagos: Aspects of Nineteenth Century Lagos Life. London and Basingstoke: Macmillan Education Limited Ekwuazi, Hyginus 2007. “Nigeria Literature and the Development of the Nigerian Film Industry”, Ibadan Journal of Theatre Arts. Vol. 1, No. 1 Fisher, Walter. 1984. “Narration as a Human Communication Paradigm: The Case of Public Moral Arguments”. Communication Monographs. Vol 51, pp 1-­‐22 Fisher, Walter. 1987. Human Communication as Narration: Toward a Philosophy of Reason, Value and Action. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press. Gotrick, Kacke 1984. Apidan Theatre and Modern Drama. Goteborg: Graphic Systems AB Haynes, Jonathan 1997. (Ed.) Nigerian Video Films. Jos. Nigerian Film Corporation Jeyifo, Biodun 1984. The Yoruba Travelling Theatre of Nigeria. Lagos. Nigeria Magazine Leonard, Lynn 1967. “The Growth of Entertainment of Non-­‐African Origin in Lagos from 1866-­‐
1920 with Special Emphasis on Concert, Drama, and the Cinema.” Unpublished M.A Thesis, University of Ibadan.. Obafemi, Olu 2001. Contemporary Nigerian Theatre: Cultural Heritage and Social Vision. Lagos, Nigeria. Centre for Black and African Arts and Civilization (CBAAC) Ogunba, Oyin 1978. Theatre in Africa. Ibadan: Ibadan University Press Ogunbiyi, Yemi 1981. Nigerian Theatre and Drama: A Critical Profile. London: Pitman Press Oke, Olufemi. “Nollywood: A Commercial Haven or Corrective Mechanism”. Reading and Producing Nollywood: An International Symposium. Faculty of Arts, University of Lagos and National Film & Video Censors Board. March 23rd-­‐25th, 2011. ANZCA Conference 2012, Adelaide, South Australia
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Okon, Augusta. ezinearticles.com Olushola, Adenugba. http.Blogspot.com Oni, Duro 1985. “Plays and Presentation Modes in Nigeria: A Technical Outlook”, Nigerian Theatre Journal Vol. 2 No. 1 & 2. pp. 198 -­‐ 205. Oni, Duro. 2002. “Theatre and Aesthetics: The Example of Hubert Ogunde”. Humanity, Jos Journal of General Studies. Vol. 4, No. 1. pp. 154-­‐161 Oni, Duro 2004. Stage Lighting Design: The Nigerian Perspective. Lagos: Concept Publications Limited. Oni, Duro 2010. Lighting: Beyond Illumination. Lagos: University of Lagos Press Onookome, Okome et al. 1993. Studies in Film and Television. Ibadan: Abi Print and Pack Ltd Wilson, Edwin and Goldfarb, Alvin 1991. Theatre: The Lively Art. U.S.A. Trump Waldman Graphics Inc Yerima, Ahmed 2005. Modern Nigerian Theatre: The Geoffrey Axworthy Years, 1956-­‐1967. Ibadan: Krafts Book Ltd ANZCA Conference 2012, Adelaide, South Australia
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