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Cities and Urban Land Use Summary and DBA Development and Characteristics of Cities You should recall that cities are reflections of human-‐-‐-‐environment interaction. Cities grow in places where the needs of humans can be most easily met. A city has site and situation characteristics that help shape how the area is developed. Cities have some basic characteristics, including dense population, secondary and tertiary economic activities, governmental services, and religious and educational facilities. Urban areas contain many different types of cities, including the central city, suburbs, exurbs, and satellite cities. These different parts that make up the urban area often these blend together to create urban sprawl. In this lesson, you also learned that the world is urbanizing at an increasingly rapid rate. Developing continents such as South America and Africa are urbanizing much faster than other parts of the world. As of 2011, the world is about half-‐-‐-‐urbanized, and that number is expected to move up to at least two-‐-‐-‐thirds to three-‐-‐-‐fourths by 2050. This urbanization is the result of migration of people from rural areas to urban areas in search of jobs and a better life. Within the cities themselves, population is increasing as a part of natural increase. Huge metropolitan areas called megalopolises and megacities are now becoming a part of the world’s landscape. Basic sector Businesses that serve interests outside of the local population Central business district (CBD) The part of a city where there is a concentration of businesses and land values are high City An urbanized area with more than 10,000 population Central city The largest urban area and the core of a metropolitan area Conurbation An extended urban area Exurb An urban area beyond the ring of suburbs surrounding a central city but connected to the central city Metropolitan area a geographic area containing a densely populated urban core and less densely populated surrounding areas that are socio-‐-‐-‐economically linked to the urban core, often sharing industry, services, and housing. Metropolitan statistical area (MSA) A core urban area that is composed of the urban core and surrounding counties that are socially or tightly integrated with it Megalopolis A chain of roughly adjoining metropolitan areas Nonbasic sector Businesses that serve the people of the local area Peak land value intersection The location within the central business district where the cost of land is the highest Site The spatial location as it relates to the environment, including geographical features, climate, and landforms Situation The location of a place relative to its surroundings and other places Suburb A smaller outlying urban area connected to a city, often more residential Satellite city Smaller urban areas located near a central city but independent of the larger metropolitan area Town An urbanized area smaller than a city but larger than 1,000 population Urban area A place with a higher density of population and more human features than the surrounding area Urbanization The growth of cities and the surrounding suburbs Urban sprawl The spreading outward of a city and its suburbs to its outskirts to low-‐-‐-‐ density areas and rural land Theories of Urban Development In this lesson, you learned about different ways that geographers categorize cities and urban places around the world. You investigated the ideas behind Christaller’s central place theory and considered how urban places exert influence on the surrounding hinterland. Geographers may also categorize cities into an urban hierarchy using rank-‐-‐-‐size rules, which states that the nth-‐-‐-‐largest city in a country has a population that is 1/n of the largest city’s population in that system. Systems that do not follow this rule instead have primate cities—large cities that dominate a system’s economy and culture. Geographers may also categorize cities as global cities, meaning they exert a great deal of influence in various fields around the world, or as massive megacities. Some well-‐-‐-‐known global cities include New York, Paris, and Tokyo, and some megacities include Tokyo, Mumbai, and Mexico City. Because of their great size, megacities also tend to be primate cities, although this is not always true. Central place theory Theory that seeks to explain the location of urban places as hubs of goods and services Gravity model Social science model that examines the attractive factors between two places and concepts Global city City that exerts economic, cultural, or political influence around the world, regardless of size Hinterland Rural area serviced by a central urban place High-‐-‐-‐order good or service A high-‐-‐-‐cost good or service that is purchased only occasionally Low-‐-‐-‐order good or service A low-‐-‐-‐cost good or service that is purchased frequently Megacity City with a population of at least 10 million people Primate city Country with a population of twice as large as the second-‐-‐-‐largest city that exercises a disproportionately high level of economic, cultural, and political influence due its high population Range Maximum distance that people are willing to travel to acquire a certain good or service Rank-‐-‐-‐size rule Geographic rule stating that the population of the nth-‐-‐-‐largest city in a given urban hierarchy will be 1/n of that of the largest city in a specific country Threshold Minimum number of people needed to support an urban place Models of Urban Development You have learned about several of the major models of urban land use and development. The concentric zone model, the sector model, the multiple nuclei model, and the urban realms model all help illustrate that people are not randomly located around a city. Instead, people organize themselves in specific regions of a city based on their characteristics. For example, Burgess’s concentric zone model assumes that less-‐ expensive land is found nearest to the central business district. This is where immigrants and working-‐-‐-‐class people might live. As the land moves farther from the city center, it becomes more expensive. Based on this model, it is assumed that stable middle-‐-‐-‐class families generally live there in large homes. Many of these families commute to the central business district for work. Borchert's model of urban evolution Model of urban development developed by John Borchert that categorized cities according to the transportation methods prominent at the time of their major growth Concentric zone model Model of urban land use developed by Ernest Burgess that organized cities into a series of circular zones defined by their varying functions Edge city Suburban cities with independently functioning central business districts Multiple-‐-‐-‐nuclei model Model of urban land use developed by Harris and Ullmann that suggested that various regions of a city developed around their own independent center points Sector model Model of urban land use developed by Homer Hoyt that organized cities into a series of zones that resembled irregular slices of a pie Urban realms model Model of urban land use developed in the 1970s that sought to describe the relationships within and among suburban cities around the fringes of a larger urban region Economic Development Models City governments and urban planners work to create a livable environment for the city’s population. City governments generally come in three forms: commission, mayor-‐-‐-‐council, or city manager-‐-‐-‐council. The responsibility of the government is to respond to the needs of the city. One action that city governments take is shaping the city’s land use is zoning. Zoning helps establish where certain activities can take place and tries to ensure a livable environment. When zoning does not exist or is weak, problems might arise. Urban sprawl is one of the problems that lack of zoning laws or enforcement of those laws creates. In some countries, sprawl results in slums at the edges of cities, while in other countries, urban sprawl is the result of suburbanization. Cities may employ urban planners to help improve land use within a city. These planners may try a variety of solutions for a city’s problems, including changing street patterns, greenbelts, or office parks. It is also possible to redesign entire neighborhoods to improve living conditions. At other times, it is possible to design cities from scratch to meet a populations needs. Generally, fully designed new cities are capitals or concept cities. Business park Zone of urban land set aside for corporate offices Commission government A form of city government with an elected board, but generally no mayor; the commission performs most governmental duties Commission government A form of city government with an elected board, but generally no mayor; the commission performs most governmental duties City manager-‐-‐-‐council government A form of city government with an elected council that enacts laws and a hired city manager who administers the laws Eminent domain The power to take private property for public use by a state or city following the payment of just compensation to the owner of that property. Gentrification The process by which older, run-‐-‐-‐ down urban areas are restored by middle-‐-‐-‐class people who move back into a city from the suburbs; this process results in the displacement of lower-‐-‐-‐income residents, an influx of new money, and higher prices for housing and other necessities A boundary around a city for the purpose of limiting urban sprawl; this boundary forces cities to develop internally and rebuild their cores instead of expanding outwardly Greenbelt Mayor-‐-‐-‐council government A form of city government with an elected council that enacts laws and an elected mayor who administers the laws Office park Zone of urban land set aside for corporate offices Privatize The contracting of services formerly done by a public agency to a private one Suburbanization Growth of lower-‐-‐-‐density housing, industry, and commercial zones outside the central business district Urban blight The process by which a city or part of a city fall into disrepair or decaydue to aging, neglect, or lack of money for maintenance Zoning The practice of designating approved land use within an area Urban Planning and Design In this lesson, you learned about social and economic patterns of cities. Geographers study these issues to better understand the spatial patterns of modern urban life and how those patterns shape the lives of urban and suburban residents. Modern cities have developed largely along transportation lines. Older cities grew on the paths laid out by mass-‐-‐-‐transportation systems, and newer U.S. edge cities and suburbs have developed near interstate highways, particularly near highway exits. As these newer communities have grown, population density patterns have shifted outward toward previously undeveloped land. This process of suburbanization left parts of the inner core suffering from uneven development and, in time, ghettoization. Urban renewal and gentrification have led to the redevelopment of some of these areas, although inner cities still suffer from social and economic problems such as crime and unemployment. Urban ghettos, ethnic enclaves, and even gated communities reflect the shifting population patterns of modern cities as groups of similar people cluster together. Blockbusting Historical process of introducing a minority family into an all-‐-‐-‐white neighborhood in order to drive real estate sales and movement Barrio Spanish-‐-‐-‐speaking ethnic enclaves Density gradient model An urban population density model stating that cities follow the following pattern: Population is closely packed at the core, and then gradually becomes less dense until, ultimately, reaching rural undeveloped land Enclave A place populated by one group that is entirely surrounded by other residents of different groups Ethnic enclave A place populated by one ethnic group that is entirely surrounded by other residents of different groups Filtering The division of single-‐-‐-‐family homes into increasingly divided multiple-‐-‐-‐ family units Gated community Fully enclosed neighborhood within an urban area or suburb Homeowners association (HOA) Organization of community residents that vote upon community issues and enforce established covenants Mass transportation System of moving large numbers of people from one place to another such as a subway or elevated rail, often run or supported by government Redlining The refusal of banks to grant home loans to those living in certain neighborhoods Racial steering The often unintentional process of encouraging certain potential buyers to look at homes in areas primarily occupied by others of the same race Restrictive covenants Rules mandating how property owners can use their land or homes Uneven developmentl Situation in which some parts of a city are highly developed and wealthy, but others are impoverished and less developed Urban renewal The process during which local governments actively identify, acquire, clear, and rebuild blighted neighborhoods Case Studies in Global Urbanization The world is becoming more urbanized because more people are migrating to cities hoping to improve their lives. Cities are also expanding because of natural increases in population. The rapid expansion of cities creates overcrowding, shortage of housing, lack of infrastructure, pollution, and human misery. These circumstances are true of many of the cities in Latin America, Africa, and East and South Asia. In the United States, Canada, and Europe, cities may house ghettos of ethnic or culturally similar people. To some extent, the site and situation of a city influences its development. Access to transportation or resources may influence the original location of the city. Geographic features further influence the development of the area. As the city sprawls out, the poorest land becomes the area where slums arise. Among the expanding cities are boomtowns that have experienced rapid growth as the result of economic prosperity. Urban areas may also include satellite or edge cities. Across the world, megacities are emerging as the home of millions of people. The growth of megacities is most rapid in Africa and East and South Asia. Boomtown A city undergoing rapid expansion usually because of an expanding economy Favela A Brazilian shantytown or slum Railhead The refusal of banks to grant home loans to those living in certain neighborhoods AP Exam Prep At the end of this module, you will take the Segment 2 Exam. To be successful on this exam, you will need to study and practice the test-‐-‐-‐taking strategies you have learned. When you practice, it is important to simulate the conditions of the actual AP Human Geography Exam. Try to adhere to specific time limits when answering questions and practice outlining and answering all parts of the free-‐-‐-‐response questions. Doing so will help you establish a routine that will come naturally to you when it is time to take the exam in May. In this lesson, you identified the concepts and ideas with which you need more practice. In the time leading up to the Segment 2 Exam, target your study plan to focus on those troublesome topics. You may also want to revisit the interactive practices included in the Segment 2 lesson content to test your understanding of key concepts and vocabulary. If you are diligent and stick to your study plan, you will have no trouble performing well on the exam. Module 10 DBA Questions 1. Define urbanization and discuss the current trends in urbanization in North America, Africa, and Southeast Asia. 2. Discuss the historical evolution of the city. How have cities changed from ancient times to today? 3. Define hinterland. Discuss the idea of range as it relates to central place theory and use the concept to describe how far people in the hinterland would travel to go to a doctor’s office as compared to a grocery store. 4. Use the concentric zone model to describe the spatial organization of cities. 5. Define megacity. Predict where the majority of megacities were located in 1950. Compare that to the spatial distribution of megacities today. What is the most likely reason for the shift in the spatial distribution of megacities?
